Introduction to Bridge Engineering

Overview
• Bridges vs. Buildings
• Advances in bridge engineering –
learning from failures
• Types of bridges and their attributes
• Discussion of the Walnut St. bridge
 Bridges vs. Buildings
• Bridges typically do not have architects
-Structural Engineer is responsible for aesthetics
-Structural system is always exposed (both good and bad)
 Bridges vs. Buildings
• Bridges are owned by the public
- (+) Can institute changes to bridge engineering
relatively quick (e.g. LRFD)
- (-) Focus is primarily on lowest initial cost,
with aesthetics playing a minor role if any at
all.
- Are minimum cost and aesthetics competing
objectives?
Robert Maillart
Christian Menn
 Bridges vs. Buildings
• Bridges are exposed to the elements
- Expansion and contraction due to temperature
changes is a major concern
- Durability is a major design consideration
- Routine inspection and maintenance (initial
versus life-cycle cost)
 Bridges vs. Buildings
• Bridges are subjected to large moving, repetitive
loads (i.e. Trucks)
- Fatigue is of primary concern (accumulated
damage/cracking due to repeat loading)
 Bridges vs. Buildings
• Bridge failures pose (or were thought to
pose) a smaller threat to human life.
-Earthquake engineering of bridges lags far behind
 Learning from Failures
• Point Pleasant (Silver) Bridge
– Construction was completed in May of 1928
– Spanned the Ohio River between Point
Pleasant, WV and Kanauga, OH
– Known as the “Silver” Bridge because it was
painted with aluminum paint
– Eyebar suspension bridge (approx. 1750ft)
 Description of Structure

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967
http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/silver

Fisher, J. W. (1984) “Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies”. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.
 Eyebar Chain Joint at C13

Fisher, J. W. (1984) “Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies”. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.
 Materials
• The original timber bridge deck was replaced by a
steel grid filled w/ concrete (approx 3in) in 1941.
– The deck replacement resulted in negligible increase in
dead load
• Eyebars were constructed of heat treated rolled
carbon 1060 steel bars with forged heads
– Eyebars were designed to break in the shank at ultimate
loading
 Summary of Collapse
• Collapse occurred without warning on December
15, 1967 at approximately 5:00pm
• All three suspended sections fell within 60 sec
• According to eyewitnesses, the collapse occurred
immediately after loud “cracking” sounds were
heard coming from the Ohio Span
• Temperature at the time of collapse was 30o F
• 46 persons were killed, 9 persons were injured,
and 37 vehicles fell with the bridge.
 Collapse Photos (1)

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967
Collapse Photos (2)

http://www.geocities.com/silver_bridge1967
 What Caused the Collapse ?
• Analysis conducted after the collapse
indicated that the static stresses at the time
of collapse were lower than the allowable
stresses.
• If the stresses were lower than the allowable
stresses, what caused the collapse?
 Cause of Collapse
• Stress corrosion / corrosion fatigue initiated cracks
at the inside of the pin hole of eyebar C13N.
– Fatigue cracks were not visible to inspectors
• Cracks most likely initiated from the forge marks
in the head of the eyebars
• Heat treated steel (lower toughness)
• Temperature at the time of collapse was 30oF,
which also lowered the toughness of the material
 Collapse Overview

Fisher, J. W. (1984) “Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges, Case Studies”. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.
 Advances
• This collapse resulted in
significant amount of attention
in fatigue and fracture
mechanics related to bridges
– This research culminated in the
fatigue specifications with the
AASHTO Bridge Specifications
• Bridges are now inspected
every two years
Other Collapses – Schoharie Br. (1987)
Other Collapses – Tacoma-Narrows (1940)
 Bridge Types - Suspension
•Longest-spanning
bridge type
•Cables are the primary
force resisting elements
•Forces are primarily
transmitted through
tension
•Longest - Akashi-
Kaikyo, 6,527 ft (Japan,
1998)
 Bridge Types – Cable-Stayed
•Cables and (box)
girders are the primary
force resisting elements
•Cables resist forces
through tension and
pre-stress the girders
•Girders resist forces
through bending
•Longest – Tatara,
2,848 ft (Japan, 1999)
 Bridge Types – Steel Arch
•Steel Arches are the
primary force resisting
elements
•Arches resist forces
through compression
•Thrust is a major
consideration
•Longest – Lupu, 1,760
ft (China, 2003)
 Bridge Types – Steel Truss
•Rods are the primary
force resisting
elements
•Forces are resisted
through tension and
compression
•Longest – Pont de
Quebec, 1,757 ft
(Canada, 1917)
 Bridge Types – Concrete Arch
•Concrete Arches are
the primary force
resisting elements
•Arches resist forces
through compression
•Longest – Wanxian,
1,344 ft (China, 1997)
Bridge Types – Prestressed Conc. Girder

•Girders are the

primary force resisting
elements
•Forces are resisted
through bending
•Longest –
Stolmasundet, 963 ft
(Norway, 1998)
 Bridge Types – Steel Girder
•Girders are the
primary force
resisting elements
•Forces are resisted
through bending
•Longest –Ponte
Costa e Silva, 960 ft
(Brazil, 1974)
 Walnut Street Bridge

Steel Girder Spans

V-Pedestals
Prestressed Concrete Girder Spans
Walnut Street Bridge Discussion

• Temperature Expansion

• Splice Connections

• Simple vs. Continuous Spans

Expansion Bearings
Temperature Effects on Bridges
L

L+∆Lt
∆Lt=α L(∆T)
Where,
α=coefficient of thermal expansion (in/in/oF)
αst=6x10-6 in/in/oF
∆T=change in temperature (oF)
 E.g. Temperature Effects on Bridges
Calculate the require expansion joint capacity
(displacement) for a ∆T =70 oF
300 ft

∆2
L1=150 ft
∆1 L2=300 ft

∆1 =αst L1(∆T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70)

∆1 =0.76 in

∆2 =αst L2(∆T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(300ft)(12in/1ft)(70)

∆2 =1.52 in
 E.g. Temperature Effects on Bridges
Calculate the require expansion joint capacity
(displacement) for a ∆T =70 oF
300 ft

L1=150 ft L2=150 ft
∆1 ∆2

∆1 =αst L1(∆T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70)

∆1 =0.76 in

∆2 =αst L2(∆T)= (6x10-6 in/in/oF)(150ft)(12in/1ft)(70)

∆2 =0.76 in
Splice Connections

Af-sp>Af

Aw-sp>Aw
 Splice Connection Locations
Locate splices in
zero moment
regions

Dead Load Moment Diagram

 Simple vs. Continuous Spans

wL2/8

L L
L

SIMPLE SPAN
Dead Load Moment Diagram
 Simple vs. Continuous Spans
Providing resistance to negative
moment reduces positive
moment
wL2/8

wL2/8

L L
L

CONTINUOUS SPAN
Dead Load Moment Diagram
QUESTIONS?
Questions?