Alternative methods for heat stress relief

2007:277 CIV
MASTE R’S THESIS
Alternative Methods for

Heat Stress Relief
Stefan Lindqvist
Jonas Holmgren
MASTER OF SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Mechanical Engineering
Luleå University of Technology

Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering
Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering
Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå
2007:277 CIV • ISSN: 1402 - 1617 • ISRN: LTU - EX - - 07/277 - - SE
Alternative methods for heat stress relief
Preface
As a final element in the Masters of Science degree at Luleå University of Technology a
master thesis is conducted by the student. This is usually carried out in cooperation with the
responsible tutor and a company with a connection to the student’s direction of interest. The
master thesis lasts one term and can be performed at the University or on site at the company.
The student attains a degree in chosen direction of interests after passed verbal presentation
and written report both at the company and at the University.
We have chosen to perform our master thesis at Ferruform AB in Luleå at the department for
axle production. The thesis work has been carried out during June to December 2007 and
involved investigations of alternative methods for heat stress relief. The work has been
instructive and interesting and a good basis for future work within the manufacturing industry
has been attained.
We would like to thank all involved personnel that have been helpful during our work. Great
thanks go to our supervisor at Ferruform, Peter Lundkvist, for guidance and advice to our
thoughts during the work period. We also say thanks to our tutor and examiner at Luleå
University of Technology, Hans Engström.
Luleå 14th of December 2007
______________________________
Jonas Holmgren
______________________________
Stefan Lindqvist
Abstract
Ferruform AB in Luleå is a manufacturer of chassi components for Scania’s truck production.
At the department for Axle production sheet metal is processed to produce rear axle housings.
The main processes include shearing, forming, welding and machining. High amount of
residual stresses are built up in the material because of the extensive weld operations.
Residual stresses are reduced with a very time and energy consuming heat treatment method
called heat stress relief.
The purpose with this thesis was to investigate alternative methods for heat stress relief and
then suggest the best solution for Ferruform.
Our main tasks in this thesis has been literature studies, investigation of prior work, market
analysis, contact and visits from suppliers, production tests and weekly meetings with our
supervisor. Finally we have presented the thesis verbally at the company and at Luleå
University of Technology. A written report has also been made.
Two alternative methods for heat stress relief has been found and further investigated. Tests
have been made regarding these two methods for stress relief. One test with a method called
vibratory stress relief and one test with a simulated bend-straightening operation.
Layouts have been created to easier visualize the space required for the different methods.
Seen from the layouts is that both methods requires less space than the heat stress relief oven.
Single piece flow is achieved with bend-straightening and batched flow is achieved with
vibratory stress relief.
Bend-straightening provides single batch flow, low cycle times and is utilized by a
competitor, therefore it is recommended as a primary option to heat stress relief at Ferruform.
However, verification tests have to be made in order to evaluate the effects of the two
different alternative methods. We have suggested that a fatigue test with spectrum loads
should be carried out in order to get a reliable result.
Also a third method is taken into account in this thesis, hot formed banjo halves. This is not
an option for Ferruform but may be an alternative to Scania Sao Paolo in Brazil.
Sammanfattning
Ferruform AB i Luleå tillverkar chassikomponenter till Scanias lastbilsproduktion. Vid
avdelningen för Axelproduktion utförs förädling av plåt till färdig bakaxelbrygga. De
processer som utförs är huvudsakligen klippning, formning, svetsning, bearbetning. På grund
av omfattande svetsoperationer byggs svetsegenspänningar in i materialet som kan orsaka
geometriavvikelser och minskad livslängd. I nuläget utlöses dessa svetsegenspänningar med
en mycket tids och energikrävande metod kallad avspänningsglödgning
Syftet med examensarbetet var att undersöka vilka alternativa metoder till
Avspänningsglödgning som finns idag samt rekommendera den bästa lösningen utifrån
Ferruform’s perspektiv.
Våra huvudsakliga arbetsuppgifter har inneburit en rad olika moment som innefattat
litteraturstudier, undersökning av tidigare arbeten, marknadsundersökningar, kontakt och
besök av leverantörer, tester i produktion samt återkommande veckomöten med handledare.
Slutligen har vi redovisat muntligt på företaget och vid Luleå tekniska universitet samt skrivit
en rapport.
Två potentiella alternativa metoder för avspänningsglödgning har undersökts närmare.

Tester har utförts med dessa två alternativa metoder till avspänningsglödgning. Ett test
utfördes med en metod kallad vibrationsavspänning och ett test med en simulerad
riktningsoperation.
Layouter har tagits fram för att lättare kunna visualisera det utrymme metoderna upptar. Man
kan se från layouterna att båda metoderna upptar mindre utrymme än den nuvarande
avspänningsglödgningen. Enstycksflöde fås med riktningsmetoden medan ett batchflöde fås
med vibrationsavspänning.
På grund av att riktningsmetoden ger enstycksflöde, låg cykeltid samt används av konkurrent
gör det den till den metod som rekommenderas i första hand på Ferruform.
Dock måste ett verifikationstest göras för att kunna utvärdera effekterna av de två alternativa
metoderna. Vi har föreslagit att ett utmattningstest med varierande lastpåkänning bör utföras
för att kunna erhålla ett så tillförlitligt resultat som möjligt.
Även en tredje alternativ metod har undersökts i detta arbete, varmformade banjohalvor. Detta
är inte en metod som lämpar sig för Ferruform men kan vara ett alternativ för Scania Sao
Paolo i Brasilien.
Nomenclature
Relaxation Reduction of residual stresses
Jolting Forging operation
Dislocation A linear crystalline defect around which there is atomic
misalignment
Banjo Part of rear axle housing

Wedge Reinforcement part in rear axle housing
RT Room temperature
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 COMPANY BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 CURRENT SITUATION ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 GOAL ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5 LIMITATIONS................................................................................................................................... 3
2 PLANNING ........................................................................................................................................... 4
3 THEORY ............................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 WELDING ........................................................................................................................................ 5
3.1.1 MIG/MAG- welding, Gas metal arc welding ............................................................................... 5
3.1.2 Resistance welding..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.3 Weld zones................................................................................................................................. 7
3.2 RESIDUAL STRESSES CAUSED BY WELDING ....................................................................................... 8
3.3 FATIGUE ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3.3.1 Causes ..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 FATIGUE STRENGTH....................................................................................................................... 10
3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE ....................................................................................................... 11
3.5.1 Type of load ............................................................................................................................. 11
3.5.2 Range of stress......................................................................................................................... 11
3.5.3 Mean stress.............................................................................................................................. 11
3.5.4 Construction design ................................................................................................................. 11
3.5.5 Environment ............................................................................................................................ 11
3.5.6 Surface treatment ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.6 HOW WELDING AFFECTS THE FATIGUE STRENGTH ........................................................................... 12
3.7 HEAT STRESS RELIEF ..................................................................................................................... 12
3.7.1 Reheat cracking caused by heat stress relief ............................................................................. 13
4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION REAR AXLE HOUSINGS..................................................................... 14
5 METHOD SELECTION PROCESS................................................................................................... 15
6 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE DURING FORMING ................................................................. 16
6.1 HOT FORMING ............................................................................................................................... 16
6.1.1 Benefits.................................................................................................................................... 16
6.1.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 16
6.2 COLD FORMING ............................................................................................................................. 17
6.2.1 Benefits.................................................................................................................................... 17
6.2.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 17
6.2.3 Increase of residual stresses leads to:....................................................................................... 17
6.3 WARM FORMING ........................................................................................................................... 18
Benefits compared to cold forming......................................................................................................... 18
Benefits compared to hot forming........................................................................................................... 18
6.4 SPRINGBACK ................................................................................................................................. 19
6.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN HOT/WARM FORMING AND COLD FORMING OF REAR AXLE HOUSINGS ........... 19
6.5.1 Tension test result .................................................................................................................... 19
7 BEND-STRAIGHTENING ................................................................................................................. 20
7.1 METHOD ....................................................................................................................................... 20
7.2 SUMMARY OF READ REPORTS ......................................................................................................... 20
7.2.1 Relaxation of residual stresses through cyclic load ................................................................... 20
7.3 RESULT ......................................................................................................................................... 23
7.4 EXAMPLE OF A BEND-STRAIGHTENING MACHINE ............................................................................. 24
7.4.1 Automatic straightening of rear axle housings .......................................................................... 25
8 STRESS RELIEF BY VIBRATION ................................................................................................... 26
8.1 HISTORY ....................................................................................................................................... 26
8.2 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 26
8.3 GENERAL INFO .............................................................................................................................. 26
8.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF VIBRATORY STRESS RELIEF............................................................................ 27
8.5 THE MECHANISM BEHIND VIBRATORY STRESS RELIEF ...................................................................... 27
8.6 VIBRATION DURING WELDING ........................................................................................................ 28
8.7 REFLECTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 28
8.8 DIAGRAM AND PICTURES ............................................................................................................... 29
9 TESTS WITH ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR HEAT STRESS RELIEF .................................. 32
9.1 VIBRATORY STRESS RELIEF TEST .................................................................................................... 32
9.1.1 Description .............................................................................................................................. 32
9.1.2 Method .................................................................................................................................... 32
9.2 BEND-STRAIGHTENING TEST .......................................................................................................... 35
9.2.1 Description .............................................................................................................................. 35
9.2.2 Method .................................................................................................................................... 35
9.3 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 37
9.3.1 Vibratory stress relief............................................................................................................... 37
9.3.2 Bend straightening ................................................................................................................... 37
9.3.3 Verification.............................................................................................................................. 37
10 TEST WITH BLASTED BANJO HALVES ....................................................................................... 38
10.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 38
10.2 PERFORMANCE .............................................................................................................................. 38
10.3 RESULT ......................................................................................................................................... 39
10.3.1 After Banjo weld.................................................................................................................. 39
10.3.2 After welding of cover and ring............................................................................................ 39
10.3.3 After finish weld .................................................................................................................. 40
10.3.4 After blasting the half time without lances............................................................................ 40
10.4 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 41
10.5 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................. 41
11 INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTION CHANGE..................................................................................... 42
11.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 42
11.2 BEND-STRAIGHTENING .................................................................................................................. 42
11.2.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 42
11.2.2 Main factors........................................................................................................................ 42
11.3 VIBRATORY STRESS RELIEF ............................................................................................................ 45
11.3.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 45
11.3.2 Main factors........................................................................................................................ 45
11.4 HOT FORMED BANJO PARTS ............................................................................................................ 47
11.4.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 47
12 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION................................................................................................... 51
13 RECOMMENDATION ....................................................................................................................... 52
14 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 53
15 APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Appendix 1. Summary of travel reports
Appendix 2. Prior investigation Heat stress relief
Appendix 3. Specification of requirements on rear axle housings
Appendix 4. Geometry and lifetime requirements
1 Introduction
1.1 Company background
Ferruform AB is a subsidiary to Scania CV AB and is stationed in Luleå. They have been
manufacturing quality products since 1967 and are the second biggest manufacturing
company in Luleå beside SSAB. The number of employee’s year 2007 was around 638 and
the turnover exceeded 1000 million SEK. The proportion white collar was 97 and 33 women.
The plant surface has a total amount of 45 000m2, annual sheet metal consumption is 50 000
tonnes which is 200 tonnes daily. Ferruform AB is certified according to quality management
system ISO 9001 and environmental standard ISO 14001. The production today is mainly
chassi components for buses and trucks and the lead products are rear axle housings, cross-
and side beams and bumpers. The manufacturing processes are technically advanced and
following processes are used:
• Blank manufacturing
- Shearing with power shear machine and laser machine
• Forming
- Automated 2- and 3-press line
• Roll forming
- Automated roll forming of side beams
• Welding
- Manually and robot welding with MIG/MAG
- Laser and friction welding
• Machining
- Machine cutting with multiple purpose machines
• Surface treatment
- Zn/Mn fosfating
- ED- and powder coating
The delivery volumes are divided as follows Scania: 93 %, Volvo 2,8 %, MAN 2,7 % and
VBG 1,5%.
Products made in Luleå are transported to Södertälje Sweden, Angers France and Zwolle
Netherlands where they are assembled. Rear axle housings are transported to the axle plant in
Falun Sweden.
Ferruform AB is currently increasing their production capability to be able to deliver products

for the growing demand of trucks and busses. This represents a significant increase in
production capability compared to year 2004.
Scania CV AB has developed their own production system called SPS, Scania Production
System. Within this system the employees take an active interest in increasing the quality,
productivity and cost effectiveness.
1
1.2 Current situation

The rear axle housings manufactured at Ferruform AB represents a vital component in a truck
chassi.
The drive line is mounted to the rear axle housing as well as brakes and wheel suspension.
The assembly takes place in Falun, Sweden.
The rear axle housings consist of components manufactured at the factory in Luleå, only some
parts are bought. Many operations are necessary to manufacture rear axle housings and high
demands are put on every operation.
The components are cut and formed from sheet metal. These together with a number of
smaller components are welded together. Heat stress relief is used in order to reduce the
residual stresses due to welding.
Afterwards painting and machining operations are performed so that the final geometry and
tolerances that is required for assembly is achieved. The rear axle housings are then washed
and packed before transportation to customer.
1.3 Project description

Ferruform AB is supplier of rear axle housings to Scania CV AB and stands for 90 % of the
European market. A number of different components are welded together and mounted into
the frame of the truck. Residual stresses are built into the material during welding and this
will effect geometry and in some extent life time.
Current method used for relieving stresses is heat stress relief. This method is time consuming
and a lot of space and energy is required for the oven. The capacity of the oven will be
insufficient due to increased volumes the following years.
The housings also need shot blasting after heat treatment. Scania has got a similar factory as
Ferruform stationed in Sao Paolo, Brazil. The plant in Brazil manufactures housings with
similar equipment as Ferruform AB and also uses heat stress relief. They are currently
planning on investing in a new oven and if an alternative method could be used the result of
this project will be important information for Scania Sao Paulo in Brazil.
2
1.4 GOAL
PRIMARY GOAL
• Propose the best alternative method for heat stress relief
SECONDARY GOALS
• Summarize facts from former investigations and experiences

• Investigate manufacturing methods used by competitors
• Define specification of requirements concerning geometry and life span
• Map and investigate alternative methods technically and economically
• Perform test and verification of method
• Propose solution
1.5 Limitations
• Focus is aimed at the technical investigation

• No investigation regarding other heat stress relief ovens
• No investigation in possibilities for optimizing the current heat stress relief oven
3
2 Planning
Before the project started a plan was made for the working period, see below.
Table 1. Plan
Date Week To do Milestones
04-jun 23 Introduction, time and project plan Have a finished time- and project plan
11-jun 24 Theory
18-jun 25 Theory/Flowchart Basic understanding of the projects
Summary of former projects, investigate
25-jun 26
concurrent manufacturers methods
02-jul 27 ‫װ‬ Understanding of former work
09-jul 28 Define specification of requirements Specify requirements
16-jul 29 vacation
23-jul 30 vacation
30-jul 31 vacation
06-aug 32 vacation
13-aug 33 Investigate alternative methods
20-aug 34 ‫װ‬
27-aug 35 ‫װ‬
03-sep 36 ‫װ‬
10-sep 37 ‫װ‬
17-sep 38 ‫װ‬
24-sep 39 ‫װ‬ Find new methods
01-okt 40 Put forward solutions
08-okt 41 ‫װ‬
15-okt 42 ‫װ‬ Summarize new solution
22-okt 43 Ev. presentation FF Ev. presentation of results
29-okt 44 Ev. presentation FF Ev. presentation of results
05-nov 45 Finish report
12-nov 46 ‫װ‬ (20th w)
19-nov 47 Reserve time Finished report for hand in
Reserve time/ Report to tutor Hans
26-nov 48
Engström
03-dec 49 Reserve time/ ev. completing time Finished report for print
10-dec 50 PowerPoint
14-dec 50 Presentation at university
4
3 Theory
3.1 Welding
Welding is a very common method used for joining metals and is widely utilized within the
manufacturing industry. Welding can be done with many different methods but common is
that the joints are heated up and melted together. Filler material in form of wire or powder is
used in order to achieve a more heaped weld joint. The energy required to melt the joints can
come from a gas flame (acetylene and oxygen), an electric arc, electrical resistance electrodes,
laser and friction. The most commonly used weld method when robotic welding is MIG/MAG
and resistance welding.
There are risks for complications during welding. If supplied energy is too low in relation to
thickness of the surrounding material cooling rate is rapid and martensite can be formed. The
material becomes harder and more brittle if martensite forms. Hardness after welding should
not exceed 350 HV [1]. The risk for complications can be determined by calculating the steel
coal equivalence, Ec [2]. See equation 1.
Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni
Ec = C + + + (1)
6 5 15
The term easy welded steel has an Ec< 0,33. Steel with a higher Ec value between 0,33 and
0,41 has a limited weldability, warming of the work piece is possibly needed in order to
decrease the cooling-rate. Steel with Ec> 0,41 is hard to weld and special tricks may be
needed when welding e.g. thick sheets [1,2]. With higher Ec value follows higher risk for
martensite to form in HAZ.
3.1.1 MIG/MAG- welding, Gas metal arc welding

This is an electrical metal arc welding technique with shielding gas that protects the arc
against air, see Figure 1.
Figure 1: MIG/MAG-welding [3]
5
The characteristic of this method is that direct current is used. The negative pole is connected
to the work piece, i.e. the work piece is grounded. The additive is in form of a wire and it is
fed automatically and has also the function of an electrode. When the wire contacts the work
piece an arc is established which melts the wire and the base material together. MIG/MAG-
welding is performed in a shielded atmosphere by the shielding gas that always surrounds the
arc.
Shielding gas is usually carbon dioxide, CO2 or a mixed gas with 80% argon and 20% carbon
dioxide when MAG welding [3]. The argon/carbon dioxide mix is preferred due to a higher
tensile strength and a higher toughness is attained. Also a smoother joint, less weld residue
and a softer arc is attained. But the mix is more expensive compared to pure CO2.
There is a minor difference between MIG and MAG-welding. MIG-welding is mainly used
for welding of alumina, copper, nickel or alloys of these. The shielding gas is argon or a mix
of argon and helium. Materials that are welded with MAG are generally unalloyed and low
alloyed common construction steel.
It is relative easy to automate MIG/MAG-welding. There are few stops needed for change of
electrode when the additive wire is contained in barrels up to around 200 kg each. There is
also no need to remove slag from the joint.
3.1.2 Resistance welding

This weld method is commonly used within the automotive industry and then often in form of
spot welding. The method is mainly used when welding thin metal sheets. Work pieces are
joined with one or more spot welds or seams and the ends overlap each other, see Figure 2.
Figure 2: Resistance welding [3]
Spot welding is performed with two water-cooled stick shaped electrodes that presses the
sheets together. The machine senses when the right pressure is obtained and switches on the
current. After a certain period of time an adequate temperature is reached and the weld occur
between the electrodes. The current is then switched off and the weld cools down after the
pressure is relieved on the sheets. The joint is completed.
6
Resistance welding is normally used for welding of common construction steel with an
overlap joint and up to 3mm thick metal sheets [3]. It is also possible to weld some copper-
alloys, alumina, nickel and zinc plates. Spot welding uses high current combined with short
warming time. Therefore the heat energy is used effectively. Very small amount of the heat is
lost to the surroundings. Because of that there is many advantages compared to other weld
methods.
• Modest deformation of the work piece, heat energy is limited to the spot weld
• Very high production rate
• Easy to automate, high repeatability when mass producing
• Energy effective and environmental friendly
• Fast spot welding
• No additive required
• Low demand of education
• Environmental friendly compared to metal arc welding
Within the automotive industry these electrodes are commonly fit to an industrial robot so that
the welding of e.g. body components is automated. An ordinary car can have up to 5000 spot
welds.
3.1.3 Weld zones

When welding a material extensive heat causes the material to form different zones with
different properties, see Figure 3.
Figure 3: Weld zones [3]
The heat affected zone, HAZ has a range from the melt boundary to the boundary for material
unaffected by the heat. This heat affected zone has due to extensive heating followed by quick
cooling experienced a structural change which causes a more brittle material. This is why
cracks usually occur right next to the weld joint, i.e. in the HAZ [4].
The weld joint properties are mainly determined by additive, base material and weld method.
The properties of the heat affected zone are primarily determined by the composition of the
base material and supplied energy during welding. The supplied energy can be calculated with
equation 2 [1, 2].
7
U ×I
q= ×µ (KJ/mm) (2)
v × 1000
U = Voltage in volt (V)

I = Current in ampere (A)
v = Weld speed in mm/sec
µ = Efficiency (approx. 90 % for MIG/MAG)
Due to the fact that supplied energy is of the out most importance for the toughness in HAZ
the supplied energy should not exceed 2,0 kJ/mm if toughness down to a temperature of -60ºC
is required [2].
3.2 Residual stresses caused by welding

Residual stresses occur in the material when metal materials are machined or affected
thermally. Especially welding causes these tensile and compression strengths within the
material and this are due to large temperature gradients. The residual stresses can locally
reach the yield stress, σs of the material which arise due to differences in expansion and
shrinkage during welding. Tensile residual stresses arise along the weld joint and compressive
residual stresses occur across the weld joint. Tensile stresses arise as a result of a will for the
weld joint to shrink rapidly in longitudinal direction but the surrounding material does not
allow this shrinking to happen. The laws of mechanics state that the sum of all stresses in a
cross-section should be zero when no outer force affects a work piece. This is why
compression stresses arise in transversal direction, see Figure 4.
Figure 4: Residual stresses [2]
There are different types of residual stresses in a material and they are usually divided in
classes depending on how big influence they have on the strength of a material. There are
three classes:
• Macro stresses that reaches over several grains

• Micro stresses that reaches over few grains
• Micro stresses within one grain
Macro stresses have the biggest influence on the fatigue strength while micro stresses are
important for the stability of macro-stresses [2].
8
Not only temperature gradients cause residual stresses, three other factors are also important:
• Joint geometry
• Degree of restraint
• Weld order when welding multiple strings
The joint geometry has a great influence in how much residual stresses that are built up since
the residual stresses in the material varies with depth. The degree of restraint has also a large
influence on how much residual stresses that are formed. No thermal movements are allowed
if the material is restrained very hard which leads to a higher amount of residual stresses in
the material.
The second string will anneal the first if weld strings are laid on top of each other. This will
reduce the amount of residual stresses. Although in most cases in our days automated
workshops only one string is laid when welding. This results in high energy input which leads
to a large HAZ. The risk for brittle fracture increases.
3.3 Fatigue
Fatigue is a fault that occurs in a material that is exposed for cyclic loading such as bridges,
aircrafts, trucks and cars. Figure 5(a) illustrates a reversed load cycle where the stresses vary
from maximum tension (+) to maximum compression (-). The magnitude is equal. Figure
5(b) shows a repeated load cycle where the tension and the compression stresses are
asymmetrical relative to the zero level. Figure 5(c) illustrates a random load cycle where the
stresses are randomly varied over time.
Figure 5: Dynamic loading [5]
Rupture can occur after a certain period of time despite of smaller changing loads than the
rupture or the yield stress for a static load.
Fatigue is a phenomenon that will happen to all metal materials after a long period of time. As
much as 90% of all faults in constructions come up as a result of fatigue [5]. Rupture caused
by fatigue is sly and can cause disasters as they arise hasty and without warning. Thus
9
material can rupture like a brittle fracture if it has been exposed for cyclic loading over a long
time despite that it is ductile. A material exposed for loads smaller than the fatigue limit is
fatigue resistant. The fatigue limit for most steels is between 35% and 60% of the rupture
strength [5]. Maintenance of every part of the construction is of the out most importance as
most constructions are exposed to fatigue sooner or later. It must be specified when a part has
to be replaced before fatigue rupture occurs. This is of course very expensive and cost a
fortune all over the world every year.
3.3.1 Causes
The causes for fatigue rupture can be divided in three very clear steps:
1. Crack initiation
2. Propagation
3. Rupture
The crack initiation starts in areas with defects or in areas with locally high stress
concentration. These cracks usually occur at scratches, threads, sharp edges and dents. The
crack grows during propagation and advances towards the interior with every load cycle. The
final rupture takes place as soon as the propagation has reached the critical limit. The rupture
happens quickly and does always come up perpendicular to the main-stress/elongation
direction. It is easy to see if the rupture is caused by fatigue, see Figure 6. The initiation phase
is clearly shown at A. Later the crack propagates at B with stripes clearly visible, called beach
marks. These prolong until a point C where the material finally ruptures. [2]
A
B C
Figure 6: Fatigue rupture [6]
3.4 Fatigue strength

Fatigue strength implies the largest stress a material can be exposed to without breaking
during a certain number of load cycles. Common steel material has got a fatigue limit at about
2*106 load cycles [2]. If the construction is exposed for smaller loads then the fatigue limit it
will resist material fatigue.
10
3.5 Factors affecting fatigue1

3.5.1 Type of load
How large the supplied force is, direction of the load, at what frequency does the load affect
the material, how many load cycles and what stress concentration the material is exposed to.
3.5.2 Range of stress

The range of the stress, σR is the factor that is dimensional. Fatigue strength can be expressed
in σR as this factor gives a value of how exposed the construction is for fatigue.
3.5.3 Mean stress

The mean stress, σm affect the fatigue strength. The time before fatigue rupture will decrease
if the mean stress on a material increases.
3.5.4 Construction design

Design has a big influence on the fatigue life. Every geometrical deviation can lead to high
stress concentrations when applying loads. Deviations can take shape in forms of holes,
threads, melt ditches and bad geometry transitions. Sharper deviations lead to higher stresses
at these areas. When designing a construction it is important to avoid small radius on fillets,
diameter changes and other big deviations from the base geometry, see Figure 7.
Figure 7. Larger radius increase fatigue life [5]
3.5.5 Environment
Corrosive environment affect fatigue strength because it is easier for crack initiation to occur
and therefore fatigue life will decrease.
3.5.6 Surface treatment

Small scratches can occur during machining which will affect the fatigue life. It has been
observed that polishing surfaces after machining will increase fatigue life considerably. It has
also been found that the most effective method for increased fatigue life is to induce
compression stresses at the material surface. These induced stresses reduce external tensile
stresses when some of them are neutralized by the induced compression stresses. One method
for inducing compression stresses is shot peening. Small hard particles, often steel balls with a
diameter of between 0,1-1mm with high velocity are shot against the material surface. The
resulting deformation has the effect that compression stresses are built in the surface with a
depth of approximately half of the diameter of the steel balls, see Figure 8.
1
Reference for above text can be found at [2] and [5].
11
Figure 8. Shot peening increase fatigue life [5]
3.6 How welding affects the fatigue strength

Welding will have a negative effect on the fatigue strength because of the residual stresses
that are induced in the material. There are always a lot of residual stresses in a weld joint. The
induced residual stresses affect the crack initiation and the propagation of fatigue cracks. High
amount of tensile stresses induced into the material will decrease fatigue life. Tensile stresses
have a negative effect on the initiation and the propagation of cracks. Fatigue cracks grow
faster through an area with tensile residual stresses than in an area with compression stresses.
This is because of compression residual stresses can close cracks which slow down the crack
propagation. Crack closure can occur if the applied load only consists of compression stresses
and only small tensile stresses affect the area nearby the crack. Tensile residual stresses in the
weld joint have to be relaxed properly if a better fatigue life is desired. The relaxation is
generally performed with heat stress relief or bend-straightening.
3.7 Heat stress relief

As the name indicates this is a method for decreasing the built in stresses in a material by
exposing it to heat. These stresses arise in every metal exposed to following operations:
• Plastic deformation by machining as turning, milling, drilling, grinding etc.

• Inhomogeneous cooling after high supply of heat such as welding or casting.
The inner stresses can cause the material to twist so desired geometry can not be obtained.
Heat stress relief relaxes the material by reheating it to a temperature between 550ºC- 650ºC
for steel [7]. The material is held in the heat a certain period of time and is later cooled down
in a controlled manner. The temperature and the time are dependent on the steel quality. The
selected temperature is a compromise between relaxation of stresses and preserving the yield
stress of the material at room temperature. Residual stresses exceed the yield stress of the base
material when the material is heated. This causes a plastic deformation so the dislocations can
return to its origin and a relaxed material is attained.
12
This heat treatment is often recommended after welding to reduce the negative effects on
fatigue life caused by residual stresses. Heat stress relief is performed after rough machining
but before the final finish machining like polishing and shot peening.
Although there is some negative aspects with heat stress relief. The method is very energy and
time consuming and the oven requires a lot of space. Another disadvantage is that the
toughness and strength in HAZ can drop. That is why heat stress relief should not be done
unless it is necessary and there are requirements on performing it. The method is usually used
when there are tight tolerances and when risks for brittle fractures exist.
A construction can rarely be completely relaxed with heat stress relief. A constructions
tendency to relax is dependent on the complexity of the geometry. Other main factors are
degree of restraint and stiffness of the material. Noteworthy is that it is not possible to relax a
construction if the geometry is complex. It would take too long time in the heat to reduce the
residual stresses which would soften the base material.
Not all steel qualities are suitable for heat treatment. Special consideration has to be taken to
type of material, applied heat energy and the complexity of the construction when deciding
heating speed, temperature, time in the heat and cooling rate.
3.7.1 Reheat cracking caused by heat stress relief

In order to reduce residual stresses the material has to be reheated. This reheating can cause so
called reheat cracking. The origin of these reheat cracks is material dependent and they arise
mainly in thick low alloyed steels or in hot strength steel. Crack initiation is usually in the
area right beside a weld joint in the so called melt zone. Later the crack propagates parallel to
the weld joint. The tendency for reheat cracking in a material can be calculated with the
equation 3 [2,4].
G = Cr % + 3.3Mo% + 8.1V % − 2 (3)
The G-value should be below zero to minimize risks for reheat cracking.
13
4 Process description rear axle housings

Most parts in rear axle housings are manufactured from sheet metal. The process begins at the
sheet metal intake were the sheet is transported to the shearing machine. After shearing the
sheet is formed to desired geometry in a forming machine. The formed part is called banjo
half and is washed after forming. Washed banjo parts are later transported to the weld
department. After the welding the rear axle housings are transported to the machining
department from complete machining. See figure 9 for an easy overview of the production
steps.
1. Tack welding &

Welding
2. Machining
3. Heat stress relief
4. Surface treatment
5. Complete machining
Figure 9. Production steps
14
5 Method selection process

After finished theory studies and process description alternative solutions for heat stress relief
was investigated. This was made primary through information search from the Internet and
the University library but also from personnel interviews. Scania Sao Paolo has been involved
during this process and they have also contributed to some ideas that were investigated. Based
from these sources three alternative methods was found and further investigated, see Table 2.
Table 2. Methods for stress relief
Bend-
Type: Heat stress relief Vibratory stress relief
straightening
Method Tested method, simple Not tested in Sweden Used by competitor
Not certain, approx. 20-40min
Cycle time High (multiple objects possible 140-180 sec.
simultaneously)
Automation High grade High potential High grade
Space Big Small Average
Mobility Not mobile Mobile equipment Not mobile
Purchase High Medium High
Operation 100 000SEK/year (10%

High approx. 1 000 000SEK/year 100 000 SEK/year (10% of oven cost)
cost of oven cost)
Maintenance
Environment
High Low Low
effects
Tests are required before
Other Possible to change material properties Tests are required before purchase,
purchase
No need of existing
Possible to log data.
straightening machine?
Good references e.g. NASA, US Air Possible to simulate at
force, GM mm FF
Less blasting required Less blasting required
No method, Hot formed
Type: No method
banjo
Method - Used by competitor
Cycle time - -
Automation - -
Space - -
Mobility - -
Purchase - -
Operation
- -
cost
Maintenance - -
Environment
- -
effects
Requires hot formed banjos, not an
Other Reduces lifetime with X%
good alternative for Ferruform
Which is equivalent to a X% reduction Could be an option for Scania Sao
of fatigue strength Paulo
Axle ends were not parallel after
testing (acc. to tests year 2002)
15
6 Temperature dependence during forming

Scania Sao Paolo mentioned that a supplier of banjo halves claimed that there is no need for
heat stress relief if the banjo halves are hot formed. This statement was then in the scope of
further investigation to verify its authenticity.
6.1 Hot forming

The definition of hot forming can be explained as the plastic deformation of a metal above its
recrystallization temperature. All metals have different recrystallization temperature, because
of that the method is not necessary to take place at high temperatures. An example is tin that
can be hot formed at 25ºC which is its recrystallization temperature. Generally the
temperature has to reach beyond 0,6 times the melting temperature.
Hot forming result in deformation of FCC austenite which is a rather weak structure
compared to BCC ferrite which exists at lower temperatures.
When a material is to be hot formed it has to be heated just as much as when the press tool
makes contact the final temperature of the material becomes equal to the recrystallization
temperature. If the temperature is higher extensive grain growth takes place which causes
strength reduction. Smaller grain size in the material leads to increased mechanical properties.
The final temperature of the material is just below the recrystallization temperature. Because
of that no deformation hardening is achieved which is beneficial leading to increased
dimension tolerances and better surface finish.
6.1.1 Benefits
• No deformation hardening results in no increase of yield strength and no decrease in
ductility and hardness
• Increased formability without risk of fracture
• Smaller equipment and press force is needed
• More homogenous material is achieved , impurities brakes down and are distributed
equally over the entire surface
6.1.2 Disadvantages
• Poorer tolerances as a result of thermal contractions and eventual inhomogeneous
cooling
• Inhomogeneous cooling can cause cracking and internal stresses
• Energy demanding process
• Causes scaling at high temperatures
• The press tool should be heated which leads to more wear of the tool
• Poorer working environment
16
6.2 Cold Forming

The use of cold forming is based on the strain property of the material and the strain property
depends on the metal structure. There are two primary factors which are important when cold
forming a metal. The magnitude of the yield strength decides how large press force needed to
cause plastic deformation and how much strain allowed before rupture.
Cold forming takes place at temperatures below 0,3 times the melting temperature. When a
metal is cold formed it generally has to be deformed beyond the desired geometry because of
the springback phenomena which always occur. How much the metal has to be deformed
beyond the desired geometry is dependent on Young’s modulus which varies with different
material. In order to get desired product geometry press tools have to be designed with
springback in consideration. Cold forming is generally preferred for smaller components.
6.2.1 Benefits
• No heating needed before forming
• Higher surface finish
• Superior dimension control is achieved which decrease the need of post machining
operations
• Flexible equipment and better form repeatability
• Strength, fatigue and wear properties enhanced
• Better working environment
6.2.2 Disadvantages
• Higher press force needed
• Heavier and more powerful equipment needed
• Decreased material ductility
• Metal surfaces must be free from scale
• Deformation hardening occurs that might need heat treatment afterwards
• Harmful direction dependent properties can arise
• Unwanted residual stresses arises
6.2.3 Increase of residual stresses leads to:

• Higher strength
• Reduced ductility
• A certain increase of density
• Decrease of electric conductivity
• Increase of thermal expansion coefficient [4]
• Decreased corrosion resistance, particularly stress corrosion resistance
The amount of residual stresses that occur during welding is most likely to be much larger in
cold formed materials compared to materials that have not been cold formed. Because of that
welded constructions that have been cold formed are more likely to diverge from the desired
geometry.
The increased residual stresses may be dependent on the increased thermal expansion
coefficient due to cold forming. This contributes to an increased expansion of the material
when it is exposed to high temperatures. So when welding a cold formed material higher
residual stresses are built up inside.
17
Equation for how stress depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion. See equation 4.
σ = αE∆T (4)
σ = Stress [MPa]
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion [ (°C ) −1 ]
E = Modulus of elasticity [GPa]
∆T = Temperature change [ °C ]
Typical value for coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is 12 × 10 −6 °C −1 . Because of the

temperature dependence the magnitude of the coefficient increases with rising temperature.
Figure 10. The coefficient of thermal expansion influence on geometry [6]
6.3 Warm forming

Warm forming is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures between hot and cold
forming.
Benefits compared to cold forming

• Less stress on tools and equipment
• Increased material ductility
• Less deformation hardening reduces the need for post stress treatment
• Easier to form complex geometries and possibilities to use other materials
• When forming high carbon steels soft annealing is not necessary prior to forming.
Benefits compared to hot forming

• Less energy consumption
• Little or no scaling forms
• Increased dimensional stability and surface finish
• Less scrap
• Less wear of tools although 25-60% higher force is demanded to form material. This
is due to less thermal fatigue when tool is in contact with the heated specimen.
18
Warm forming is still undergoing research and development and there are some obstacles still
to overcome. The material behavior is less characterized at these temperatures. Lubricants
have not been fully developed at these pressures and temperatures. Construction of tools has
not been established specifically for warm forming.
6.4 Springback
An investigation [3] was conducted concerning springback of high strength steel after hot and
warm forming. A series of tests were carried out and the effect of working temperature on
springback was evaluated. The result showed that springback reduces considerably when
temperature rises over 750K. It is the critical temperature when recrystallization of ferrite
grains begins. This experiment was verified with measurements of microstructure before and
after forming and also with Finite Element Analysis.
6.5 Comparison between hot/warm forming and cold forming of

rear axle housings
Report [5] shows that the material which is used in manufacturing of rear axle housings
theoretically could be heated to 620°C without loss of material properties. For precaution
reasons the supplier recommended that the sheet metal should not be heated higher than
550°C. At this temperature no scaling is formed, yield strength is reduced by 50% and percent
elongation is increased considerably. The material can be sustained at this temperature for
five hours without loss of material properties.
Hot forming at 900°C further increases the formability. Although more energy is needed and
descaling is necessary afterwards. Furthermore, the material can not be used at this
temperature.
6.5.1 Tension test result

Tension test at 550°C and at room temperature was performed at Rautaruukki [5] and
following results was presented:
• Percent elongation increased from 23% at RT to 60% at 550°C

• Less force is needed to deform material, 560MPa at RT and 300MPa at 550°C
• Smaller radius can be achieved, from 18mm to 6mm. (50% of sheet thickness)
Microstructure and forming velocity is two factors that are important for the material
formability. If the forming velocity is low the material is able to recrystallize which makes the
material more formable. But when working temperature is set to 550°C the influence of
microstructural change is insignificant. This conveys that the forming velocity could be the
same as earlier and would not affect the formability.
These tension tests have been conducted on a material without silica. Furthermore, some
problems regarding calibration of test equipment prior to testing arose. Taking this into
consideration test values should even though give a good indication of the formability of the
material depending on the temperature. This report could also work as a source for further
investigation.
19
7 Bend-straightening
7.1 Method
Bend-straightening is a method where the work piece is measured and two anvils are placed at
each end, see Figure 11. The amount of bend in the work piece is detected during measuring
and the bend should point towards the press direction. During straightening the work piece is
bent over the yield strength of the material until desired plastic deformation is achieved. By
pressing the work piece to a certain degree of plastic deformation the residual stresses are
reduced. This has been confirmed empirically. There is a machine available on the market
which is used by a competitor to Ferruform.
Figure 11. Bend-straightening
7.2 Summary of read reports

A well known fact is that fatigue strength and life on welded constructions are affected
considerably by residual stresses around the weld joint. When external forces are applied on a
work piece with residual stresses unexpected deformations takes place and a higher risk of
rupture is attained.
The residual stresses are not uniform but they will relax or redistribute when the construction
is in use. The relaxation of the residual stresses will take place when the sum of external and
residual stresses reaches beyond the yield strength of the base material. Noteworthy is when a
welded construction is exposed to a cyclic load the residual stresses are considerably reduced
after the first cycle and gradually decreasing until 105 cycles. Nevertheless the relaxation
curve is not as steep as during the first load cycle.
7.2.1 Relaxation of residual stresses through cyclic load

In the reports [3, 4] monotone and cyclic load has been used to evaluate the relaxation effect
of residual stresses. The purpose has been to construct a model to predict the amount of
relaxed residual stresses.
When the sum of residual stresses and the externally applied stress reached beyond the yield
strength of the material, dislocation movement occurs. This is accompanied by local plastic
deformations. Some of the elastic strains related to the residual stresses are converted to
plastic deformations. Consequently all of the above mentioned leads to a decrease of residual
stresses. The primary factors that affects relaxation is the sum of stresses and the number of
load cycles. A high load imposed to the material leads to a large relaxation even after a few
cycles. Higher load equals larger amount of relaxation. See Figure 12.
20
Figure 12. Relaxation of longitudinal and transverse residual stresses in a material with repeated loads [3]
The specimens used for this experiment is viewed in Figure 13. Holes have been drilled in the
middle of the weld joint to control the fatigue initiation sequence. The specimens are exposed
to tensile stress but the effect of bend-straightening of rear axle housings is similar. The weld
at the downside of rear axle housings is also exposed for tensile stress as it is bended
downwards. This is why the theory found in the reports can be associated with a bend-
straightening operation.
Figure 13. Specimen of material SM490A [4]
There are a number of different types of cycle loads and each one affects the amount of
relaxation, repeated cycle load is most suitable for relaxation, see Figure 14 and Figure 15 on
next page.
21
Figure 14. Reversed load, R= σmin/σmax= -1
Figure 15. Repeated load, R= σmin/σmax= 0
A model has been developed for predicting relaxation of welding residual stresses, see
equation 5. [4]
[(σ )
res ini + σ app ]≥1 (5)
σy
(σ res )ini = Initial residual stresses

σ app = Applied stress
σ y = Yield strength of base material
Relaxation can not take place unless the ratio of the above equation exceeds 1. If not, the
relaxation of residual stresses will not initiate. When the ratio reaches 1.6 full relaxation is
achieved, above this ratio compressive stresses are built into the material.
It has been found that residual stresses decreases considerably after one load cycle. The
relaxation continues with increased number of cycles, but not in the same extent.
22
7.3 Result
”Residual stress relaxation by reversed loading”
• With reversed loading (R=-1) the residual stresses decrease considerably after one
cycle and a gradually decreases with increased load cycles. The longitudinal residual
stresses are reduced with 39 % after one cycle with an applied load of 78 % of the
base material yield strength. After 104 cycles with the same applied load, residual
stresses are decreased additionally to 54 %.
”Relaxation of welding residual stresses by reversed and repeated loadings”
• Both reversed and repeated cyclic load reduces residual stresses considerably after one
load cycle. Higher load equals larger amount of relaxation
• The amount of relaxed residual stresses by repeated loading is larger than relaxation
by reversed loading
• At repeated load cycles and an applied load of 300 MPa (72 % of yield strength) the
longitudinal residual stresses are reduced from 227 MPa to -69 MPa thus compressive
stresses are introduced. The corresponding reduction in transversal stresses is from 57
MPa to -7 MPa thus an introduction of compressive stresses. These relaxations
occurred after one cycle load.
• At reversed cycle loads and an applied load of 200 MPa (78 % of yield strength) the
longitudinal residual stresses are reduced with 39 % after one cycle load.
Corresponding reduction in transverse stresses are 59 %
• In the base material a certain amount of compressive stress relaxation occurs after one
cycle load. At repeated cycle loads from -109 to -37 MPa thus a reduction with 34 %.
The applied load in this case was 300 MPa (72 % of yield strength)
”Residual stress relaxation of welded steel components under cyclic load”
• Residual stresses are relaxed if the sum of the applied stress and the residual stress
exceeds the yield strength of the material. The degree of excess determines the amount
of relaxed stresses.
• The residual stresses are reduced considerably after one cycle load. Following number
of cycle loads decreases stresses further but not in the same extent as after one cycle.
23
7.4 Example of a bend-straightening machine

Because of sensitive information pictures can not be published.
24
7.4.1 Automatic straightening of rear axle housings

The bend-straightening procedure can not be published because of sensitive information.
25
8 Stress relief by vibration2

8.1 History
As early as in 1943 during Second World War advantages with vibrations was discovered.
Welded constructions which were transported from the weld shop to the machine shop by
railway or by truck showed less distortion when machined. As the war progressed the
Germans introduced “transport after welding” on large precision components. Plant managers
and engineers did not know why this phenomenon occurred, but they thought it was a result
of movements in the work piece. They started to experiment and developed methods to
generate movements in a more controlled manner.
At the same time in the USA the number of manufacturing industries increased in the war
sector, both in number and size. The demands also increased on precision metal components.
The Americans also discovered that through induced vibrations in the material the
constructions gained in precision.
8.2 Background
Welding is an efficient and reliable process that is widely used within the industries for
attaching metals. But during welding residual stresses are induced in the work piece due to
extensive heating and quick cooling. The residual stresses affect the construction negatively,
because of a reduction in fatigue, increased distortions and higher risk of welding cracks. It is
important to control and decrease the residual stresses caused by welding and there is a
number of methods that can be used to accomplish this. Heat stress relieving is a widely used
method that works very well but requires a large oven and is time and energy consuming.
Another method that is available is vibratory stress relief of constructions and it is described
below.
8.3 General info

A work piece with residual stresses caused by heating can be compared to an instrument out
of tune. It means that during a control of the harmonic frequency it will be out of its natural
position. The harmonic frequency of the work piece has changed due to residual stresses; this
change can be used to verify stress relief.
During heat treatment of a work piece the heat reduces the yield strength so that the residual
stresses exceed the yield strength. This brings local plastic deformation which reduces the
intensity of the residual stresses. Also a reduction in hardness is a result of the heating.
The atomic structure in the work piece that is affected by residual stresses feels no difference
in energy induced by heat or energy induced by vibrations. The supplied energy rearranges
the crystal structure, i.e. the atoms changes position. Thus residual stresses are reduced
without any distortions.
2
References to this chapter can be found at [1,2,3,4,5,6]
26
8.4 Implementation of vibratory stress relief

Vibratory stress relief is a relatively simple method that induces harmonic or sub-harmonic
vibrations with high amplitude in the material. Regular equipment for vibratory stress relief
consists of an electric source with a control unit, an electric motor that rotates eccentric
weights (force inducer) and an accelerometer (transducer) that registers the frequency flow
through the work piece. See Figure 17 and Figure 18 for an overview of typical arrangements.
The vibrations are induced in the work piece in two ways. If the work piece is big enough the
vibrator can be attached directly on it. The work piece has to be isolated from the floor with
rubber pads, these prevent the vibrations from spreading to the surroundings. Another way is
to attach the vibrator to a table where the work piece is attached, see Figure 19. The table is
also isolated by rubber pads which makes stress relief possible for many work pieces
simultaneously. Small parts can not be stress relieved without the table because the harmonic
frequency is out of range for the vibrator. The frequency of the vibrations depends on the
material, size and shape of the work piece. Usually the vibration frequency is in the range of
0-100Hz. The time for vibration treatment is often less than 30 minutes.
Currently there are two types of vibratory stress relief methods available. During the first
method the work piece is vibrated and scanned slowly from zero frequency to maximum
frequency, e.g. 0-100Hz for 8 minutes. The response is analyzed and its harmonic frequency
is registered. Usually two or three of those frequencies are registered. The vibrator is adjusted
and changes speed to one that is equal to the first harmonic frequency. The vibration
continues a given time, usually 10 minutes. After this the speed of the vibrator is increased to
one that is equal to the next upper harmonic frequency and the process repeats. The other
vibratory stress relief method, called sub-resonant has an initiation procedure that is the same
where the harmonic frequencies are registered. The frequency for the vibrations is then held
slightly below the harmonic, usually 4Hz below. When the first harmonic frequency is
decreased and stabilized the work piece has been relaxed from residual stresses. The time for
this to happen is approximately 20-30 minutes depending on the size of the work piece. See
Figure 16 for a description of the sub-resonant method.
8.5 The mechanism behind vibratory stress relief

When forced vibrations with variable frequencies affects a work piece both the harmonic
frequency and the induced frequency will act on it. When the induced frequencies coincide
with the harmonic frequency, these energies become additive. This results in an increase of
vibration magnitude and the frequency at this point is called the resonance frequency.
All metals have a harmonic frequency. The metal will vibrate at this frequency when it is
exposed to a sudden impact for e.g. when hammering on a beam. After the blow the metal
vibrates until that all of the energy is dissipated through internal friction.
Vibratory stress relief affects the material similar as with the hammer blow. The difference
lies within the source of vibration; vibratory stress relief uses an electrical motor that causes
constant supply of vibrations.
When a work piece is vibrated heat builds up and causes an infinitesimal increase of
temperature inside the material. Energy from vibrations has the same effect as heat stress
relieving when looking at the general stress relief of the lattice structure. The supplied
27
vibrations induce enough energy for the dislocations to reposition and return to a level of less
stress. In this way the residual stresses are reduced in the material.
8.6 Vibration during welding

There is also a vibration method that is used during welding (vibratory welding conditioning,
VWC). With the vibrator attached and activated on the work piece during welding better
distortion control is achieved. Also welding cracks are minimized and fatigue life is increased.
This is due to that welding additive is better drawn into the joint and cooling rate is more
uniform. Because of this less residual stress is built up and less current is needed during
welding. In a metallurgical point of view the vibrations during welding gives a more uniform
grain size.
8.7 Reflections
Currently there are a number of suppliers of this equipment which uses two different methods,
stress relief by harmonic frequencies and sub-harmonic frequencies. It is difficult to determine
the best method just reading about them because both methods are advocated by the suppliers,
and they both states that their method is the most advantageous. Scientific research has been
conducted but the results are not consistent. The effect and time needed for vibratory stress
relief depends on size, shape, strength, elastic modulus and weight of the work piece. These
factors decide the ability for residual stresses to relocate and balance up in the work piece.
The only way to really find out the effect of the different methods is to test it on the specific
product and compare it to the current method for stress relief.
28
8.8 Diagram and pictures
Figure 16. Operation procedure for sub-resonant Vibratory stress relief
29
Figure 17. Vibratory stress relief of multiple work pieces
Figure 18. Vibratory stress relief of one work piece
30
Figure 19. Vibratory stress relief of multiple pieces attached to a table
31
9 Tests with alternative methods for heat stress relief

9.1 Vibratory stress relief test
9.1.1 Description
In order to decrease residual stresses caused by extensive welding operations vibration stress
relief can be used. This test was made with equipment from Meta-Lax which is a supplier of a
sub-resonant vibratory stress relief technology. Six rear axle housings were vibrated one at a
time.
9.1.2 Method
Before the test a fixture had to be made were the rear axle housing could be mounted. The
fixture was first constructed in a CAD program called Unigraphics NX5. See Figure 20
below.
Figure 20. CAD image of vibration fixture
The rear axle housing is firmly attached between two v-blocks to ensure metal-metal contact.
This is done by nuts and bolts. Metal contact is important to get good distribution of the
vibrations. Also the force inducer has to be firmly attached to the fixture and this as done by
clamps. A control unit is used for tuning in the force inducer e.g. finding the resonant
frequency. See Figure 21 and Figure 22 for an overview of the arrangement.
32
1.
2.
Figure 21. Picture of the arrangement; 1. Force inducer, 2. Transducer
Figure 22. Control unit
33
The stress relief method is performed with a number of steps, see below.
1. First scan
o The operator gradually increases the frequency of the force inducer from the
control unit until the resonant frequency for the rear axle housing is found.
2. Dwell time
o The frequency of the vibration is held at around 4Hz below the resonant frequency
and maintained for a certain time depending on the object, in our case about 20
minutes.
3. Second scan
o The resonant frequency is located again and then compared to the first scan. If the
resonant frequency is altered from the first scan stress relief has taken place.
4. Verification dwell time

o To ensure that the stress relief is finished a second dwell time of about 5 minutes
with a frequency of 4 Hz below the new resonant frequency is needed.
5. Third scan
o If the third scan coincide with the second scan one can know that the stress relief is
finished.
Figure 23. Example of a run with vibratory stress relief 3
3
Picture can be found at www.bonal.com
34
9.2 Bend-straightening test
9.2.1 Description
In order to decrease residual stresses caused by extensive welding operations bend-
straightening can be used. The test was made in order to simulate a bend-straightening
machine that is available on the market today.
9.2.2 Method
Six rear axle housings were bent in four directions, two bends in the horizontal plane and two
bends in the vertical plane. This was made with a 40 tonne hydraulic press and a fixture
constructed in a CAD program called Unigraphics NX5, see figure 24.
Figure 24. CAD-picture of the bend straightening fixture
The ends of the rear axle housing were supported by fixtures in order to bend the housing at
its centre. The idea was to get a bend of 10mm in its centre in all four directions. A measuring
device was placed at the top center of the rear axle housing to detect the amount of bending,
see table 2 on next page for test results.
35
Table 3. Results of the bend straightening test

Bending [mm] Remaining deformation [mm]
Nr Direction 1 Direction 2 Direction 3 Direction 4 Direction 1 Direction 2 Direction 3 Direction 4
1 10 10 5 4 1 1,9 0 0,18
2 10 10 4 4 1,22 1,5 0,18 0,68
3 10 10 4 4 1 1,7 0,08 0,6
4 10 10 4 4 1,27 1,55 0,14 0,21
5 10 10 4 4 1 1,5 0,32 0,2
6 10 10 4 4 1,5 1,55 0,55 0,33
Average 10 10 4,17 4 1,17 1,62 0,21 0,37
When remaining deformation was detected this was taken into account when bending in the
opposite direction. For example nr 2 had a remaining deformation of 1,22mm and then the
opposite bend was 10 plus 1,22 mm equals 11,22mm.
The pictures below show the different bending directions.
Figure 25. Direction 1 Figure 26. Direction 2
Figure 27. Direction 3 Figure 28. Direction 4
36
9.3 Conclusions
9.3.1 Vibratory stress relief
The test showed that a total dwell time of about 20-25minutes was needed for the vibratory
stress relief. Before the test there were some questions regarding noise levels and the vibration
effect on the surroundings. We could establish that the noise level was very low in general but
with some peaks in the scans when locating the resonant frequency. The important thing was
that during dwell time noise level was not a problem. The effects on the surroundings were
not a problem; the vibrations were stopped by the rubber pads beneath the fixture.
9.3.2 Bend straightening

During the first attempt there was a problem with the hydraulic cylinder, it did not produce
enough force to bend the rear axle housings 10 millimeters in the vertical plane. The
maximum bend possible was about 5 millimeters e.g. half of the planned bending. Therefore
it was decided that the vertical bend limit was set to 4 millimeters instead of 10. This was due
to no optional equipment, short time limit and also a high risk for deformation of the press
area. Deformation occurred on one rear axle housing in the press area when pressing just 5
millimeters in the vertical plane. Although this problem may have been due to a small contact
area between the hydraulic cylinder and the vertical plane. After deformation occurred the
stamp was changed to one with a larger area and the vertical plane was bent 4mm, then no
deformation occurred at the contact area. The horizontal bending of 10millimeters was not a
problem at all.
9.3.3 Verification
To ensure the effect of these methods a verification test is needed. This can be done with a
number of different tests such as fatigue strength test or residual stress analysis. The idea of
the verification test is to compare the heat stress relieved rear axle housings with the rear axle
housings that are stress relieved with vibrations and bend-straightening.
37
10 Test with blasted banjo halves

10.1 Background
On account of a possible introduction of a new method for relaxation of rear axle housings the
effects of disposing heat stress relief has to be investigated. It is a well-known fact that heat
stress relief is soiling the rear axle housings with soot and a certain amount of scaling take
place. A new method will not give these problems which of course is beneficial.
The purpose with this test was to investigate how rear axle housings would look like post
welding if the rear axle housing halves were blasted before any welding operation. Maybe
additional blasting becomes unnecessary or a reduced cycle time could be obtained.
10.2 Performance
1. Banjo weld of blasted rear axle housing halves

o The blasted halves are welded together in the Banjo weld station
2. Welding of cover and ring

o Cover and ring are welded on the Banjo part
3. Finish weld
o Finish welding of rear axle housing
4. Blasting
o Two rear axle housings were blasted with today’s cycle time and two were blasted
half the time without internal lances.
Between each step pictures were taken to document possible differences during the course of
events. See the following pictures.
38
10.3 Result
10.3.1 After Banjo weld
Figure 29. Blasted rear axle halves after Banjo weld
Oil residue is clearly showing in this early stage. This oil residue probably has its origin from
the Valmet mill at the joint preparation station. An indication of possible weld improvement
could be seen because the weld pool had floated out more.
10.3.2 After welding of cover and ring
Figure 30. Rear axle housings after welding of cover and ring
Additional oil residue is showing. This residue probably comes from contour and end milling
or plane milling which is done before welding.
39
10.3.3 After finish weld
Figure 31. Finish welded rear axle housing
Moderate levels of residue caused by welding are showing around spring brackets and
reinforcement plates. The weld joints around these do not look poorer than in normal
production. Yet blasting of the rear axle housings will still be necessary to detect defects at
the following repair weld station. Blasting is also necessary to obtain a clean surface before
primer painting. No remaining oil residue could be seen.
10.3.4 After blasting the half time without lances
Figure 32. Side view of rear axle housing Figure 33. Inside of rear axle housing
Figure 34. Label glue residue
40
10.4 Conclusions
It can be established that blasting half the time without internal lances gives a good result. No
oil residue or weld residue remains. The inside has a satisfying result despite of no internal
blasting was done. However when looking at Figure 34 it can be seen that some of the label
glue remains and this can cause adhesion problem for the primer paint. Noteworthy is that two
of the rear axle housings that were blasted full time also had some label glue left, yet slightly
less.
10.5 Discussion
High occurrence of oil residue could be seen in the beginning of the production. The oil
residue had vanished after blasting which is good. Though invisible oil encapsulement in the
surface may occur and this can cause adhesion problem for the primer paint. There is also a
higher risk for blasting media to lump up in the blasting machine.
It is generally known that welding of blasted metal gives less weld deviation and thus an
increase of welding speed is possible.
When introducing an alternative method for heat stress relief there is a potential for reducing
the cycle time for the blasting operation after finish weld. Although consideration has to be
taken to the fact that the halves were blasted before the welding operations and this is not
done today. The blasted halves contributed to the clean inside of the rear axle housings.
Important to point out are the label glue remains after blasting. These are eliminated today in
the heat stress relief oven due to the extensive heat. Therefore a new method for marking the
rear axle housings has to be considered if the heat stress relief oven is exchanged with a new
method for relaxation.
Before the test was performed there was a discussion whether blasting the halves would
increase the risk for oxidation of the surface. This because of that the protecting scale is
removed after blasting. It was established that there was not a problem with this. The surface
seemed to be unaffected during the test despite that is lasted from v36 to v41, thus 5 weeks.
But this is season dependent with different air humidity in the plant. Also the placement of the
rear axle housings when stored can affect the amount of oxidation.
41
11 Influence of production change

11.1 Background
One important part in this project was to investigate the influence of manufacturing process
due to an introduction of a new method for stress relieving rear axle housings. When
introducing a new method consideration has to be taken to a number of important factors that
will affect the current situation.
A summary of the different method suggested are listed below. Also the positive and negative
aspects are taken into account and explained.
11.2 Bend-straightening
11.2.1 Summary
If the oven used for heat stress relief is exchanged with a bend-straightener the production
process is going to be significantly altered. The main thing when introducing this equipment
is that the production flow will not be controlled in batches by six as today. Also the space
required for the equipment is reduced significantly, see Figure 36. There is currently one
competitor manufacturing rear axle housings that uses a bend-straightening machine. The
machine has been proven successful and at least 3 machines have been delivered to their
plant. Although consideration has to be made regarding implementing this machine at
Ferruform. The competitor is using hot formed banjo parts for their rear axle housings,
Ferruform are using cold formed banjo parts.
11.2.2 Main factors
1. Possible dispose of current straightening operation

2. Layout at the workspace
3. Production control
4. Blasting
5. Primer painting
1. Possible dispose of current straightening operation

Currently the rear axle housings are straightened after cover and ring welding operation. This
is due to improve dimension stability during finish welding and machining operations.
+ Time saving
o When introducing a bend-straightener for stress relief of rear axle housings it is
possible to do both relief and straightening in the same machine. This leads to that
the current straightening machine becomes an excess and can be disposed. The
time savings due to dispose will result in about one minute per rear axle housing
42
+ Resource saving
o The current straightening operation requires an operator in order to secure the
production flow. The machine is controlled manually. A dispose of the current
straightening machine would result in a reduction of manpower.
- Joint following
o It is uncertain if the weld gun can manage to follow the joint during finish welding
of the rear axle housings if the current straightening machine is disposed.
Although finish welding without prior straightening have not been tested and may
very well work. A test is needed to clear this thing out.
+ Less space required

o Space required for the bend-straightening machine is significantly less than the
oven used today. Approximately 50% of the current space is needed. For more
detailed information see layout at Figure 36.
- Robotic handling
o In order to manage rear axle housings in the production line an automated robot
cell is required for loading and unloading the bend-straightening machine. This is
negative due to costly equipment
Heat stress relief oven uses batches of rear axle housings to meet a cycle time of X minutes.
The heat stress relief oven is divided into 8 sections, pre-heat, dwell and cooling. One section
is always occupied by one batch and the cycle time for one batch to travel from inlet to outlet
is X hours. This means that every X minute one batch exits the oven and when every batch
contains X rear axle housings the pace is X minutes.
+ Batching
o The bend-straightening machine handles one rear axle housing at a time. Because
of the low cycle time of this machine no batching is needed to meet the required
pace time.
+ Flow
o Because of the single handling of rear axle housings the flow is evenly distributed
through the production line. This makes handling easier and also improves internal
logistics.
43
4. Blasting
When heat stress relief is used scaling and soot occurs on the rear axle housings. This is
removed by the blasting operation. Blasting is also necessary to remove weld residue caused
by prior welding operations. A third important factor is to bring fourth eventual weld defects
that are hard to detect prior to blasting. Theses eventual defects are then detected during repair
welding after the blasting operation. Yet a positive effect of heat stress relief is that potential
oil residue from earlier operations is eliminated by the heating process.
+ Possible cycle time reduction

o As a result of removing the oven no scaling or soot occurs. This means that the
blasting operation cycle time could be reduced.
- Oil encapsulation
o When introducing bend-straightening no oil removal effect is attained and
potential oil residue remains on the surface of the rear axle housings. During
blasting this potential oil residue can be forced into the material and cause trouble
in the following primer paint process.
- Polluted blast medium

o When oil residue is left on the rear axle housings during blasting the blasting
medium absorbs some of the oil. This can cause the medium to lump together and
eventually the blasting machine will not work properly
5. Primer painting
- Oil encapsulation reduces surface adhesion and causes primer paint to flake off.
44
11.3 Vibratory stress relief

11.3.1 Summary
If the oven used for heat stress relief is exchanged with vibratory stress relief some alteration
in the production process is to be expected. First of all the oven is replaced by 4 stations with
vibratory equipment and each station can manage X rear axle housings simultaneously, see
Figure 37. This configuration is based on calculations of a cycle time of X minutes as the
main factor. Another important thing is that the vibratory method does not alter the
mechanical properties of the material.
11.3.2 Main factors

3. Blasting
4. Primer painting
5. Environmental effect
- Robotic handling
o In order to manage rear axle housings in the production line an automated robot on
railway is required for loading and unloading the vibration stations. This is
negative due to costly equipment
± Uncertain if less space is required

o Due to the fact that X vibration stations is needed to manage the pace it is
uncertain if the space required is any less than the current space used. Although
there is no problem to fit the stations within the space available.
± Batch size
o X rear axle housings are put into each station so the batch size is reduced from X
to X.
3. Blasting
When heat stress relief is used scaling and soot occurs on the rear axle housings. This is
removed by the blasting operation. Blasting is also necessary to remove weld residue caused
by prior welding operations. A third important factor is to bring fourth eventual weld defects
that are hard to detect prior to blasting. Theses eventual defects are then detected during repair
welding after the blasting operation. Yet a positive effect of heat stress relief is that potential
oil residue from earlier operations is eliminated by the heating process.
+ Possible cycle time reduction

o As a result of removing the oven no scaling or soot occurs. This means that the
blasting operation cycle time could be reduced.
45
- Oil encapsulation
o When introducing vibration no or minimal oil removal effect is attained and
potential oil residue remains on the surface of the rear axle housings. During
blasting this potential oil residue can be forced into the material and cause trouble
in the following primer paint process.
- Polluted blast medium

o When oil residue is left on the rear axle housings during blasting the blasting
medium absorbs some of the oil. This can cause the medium to lump together and
eventually the blasting machine will not work properly
4. Primer painting
- Oil encapsulation reduces surface adhesion and causes primer paint to flake off.
5. Environmental effect
- Low frequent vibrations may have a negative effect on surrounding environment.

Operators that are working nearby for a long period of time could take damage from
these vibrations.
46
11.4 Hot formed banjo parts

11.4.1 Summary
Hot formed banjo parts are an alternative forming method compared to cold forming. As can
be seen in chapter 6 residual stresses are reduced and heat stress relief may be unnecessary.
Scania Sao Paolo is in an expansive stage were they are considering options for their heat
stress relief oven. Except for the methods described above hot formed banjo parts is also an
alternative. This is because they are able to buy pre-fabricated hot formed banjo parts instead
of the cold formed bought today. This is not an option for Ferruform because of the extensive
reconstruction of current equipment which leads to high costs, see below for pros and cons.
Ferruform
- Bad work environment

- Requires new equipment or extensive reconstruction
- Higher operation cost
- More expensive tools
- High demands on fire safety regulations
- Blasting have to be done because of scaling occurs
Scania Sao Paulo
+ Possible to buy hot formed banjo parts from sub-supplier

+ Heat stress relief unnecessary
+ Bend-straightening a potential, same procedure as competitor
Before a new method is implemented the result has to be tested and compared with the result
of the method currently used. The test method commonly used is fatigue tests.
47
Figure 35. Layout of available space
48
Figure 36. Layout Bend-straightening
49
Figure 37. Layout vibratory stress relief
50
12 Conclusion
It is established from prior work that stress relief of rear axle housings is necessary for fatigue
strength dimension stability. However, rear axle housings without stress relief can be
machined after welding without diverging from the specified tolerances.
The tests that have been made prove that current blasting cycle time can be reduced by
implementing a non heat stress relief method. This is due to that no scaling occurs from
heating the rear axle housings.
Tests made with bend-straightening and vibratory stress relief have to be verified in order to
evaluate the stress relief effects from the different methods. Hot formed banjo halves are also
an interesting alternative seen from Scania Sao Paolo’s point of view.
These three methods have been theoretically analyzed and show a good potential for stress
relief of welded components.
From the different methods bend-straightening would be the best solution from Ferruform’s
point of view. This is based on the fact that bend-straightening handles one piece at a time
with short cycle times and is also used by a competitive manufacturer. There is also a
possibility for disposal of the current straightening operation that is performed today. This
operation can be combined with the stress relief straightening operation.
Noteworthy is that the test with bend-straightening was only a simulation of the real operation
Important to point out is that the vibratory stress relief method has a potential of stress
relieving components during welding. This decreases the need for stress relief after welding.
Energy consumption and space are reduced regardless of which alternative method chosen.
13 Discussion and recommendation

A verification test has to be performed on the stress relieved rear axle housings. A fatigue
strength test with random loads is a method which gives reliable results. This will be a basis
for evaluating the effects from the alternative methods.
Consideration has to be taken to the verification result of the simulated bend straightening
test. The result does not have to be 100% correct because of the fact that it was only a
simulated test. The real bend-straightening machine performs the stress relief in a more
controlled manner but the verification result will still give an estimation of the potential stress
relief.
14 References
References chapter 2
1. Klas Weman (2002), Karlebo Svetshandbok

2. P Ahlberg, J Hedegård (1988), Avspänningsglödgning av svetsade konstruktioner
3. www.svets.se
4. Arne Anderdahl, Per Sjölin (1977), Behov av avspänningsglödgning efter svetsning av
varmhållfast stål typ 1Cr0.5No
5. William D. Callister, Jr (2003), Materials Science and engineering an introduction,
sixth edition
6. www.hghouston.com/x/17.html
7. www.bodycote.se
1. E.Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, Ronald A. Kohser (1988), Materials and Processes
in Manufacturing, Seventh edition
2. William D. Callister, Jr (2003) Material science and engineering an introduction,
Sixth edition
3. Cirp Annals 2005 Manufacturing Technology vol. 54/1 p.213, Springback of high-
strength steel after hot and warm sheet formings
4. http://www.mechanicalengineering.cc/mechanical-engineering-archives/205-Welding-
of-aluminium.html, Cold forming or strain hardening
5. Project report at Luleå University of Technology (2003), Jämförelse mellan varm-
och kallformning av bakaxelbryggor
6. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thexp.html
1. www.mae-goetzen.de
2. www.roymech.co.uk/.../Fatigue/Stress_levels.html
3. K.Lida, S.Yamamoto and M.Takanashi (Japan), Residual stress relaxation by reversed
loading
4. Seungho Han, Takkee Lee and Byungchun Shin, Residual stress relaxation of welded
components under cyclic load
5. Kunihiro Iida, Masahiro Takanashi ,Relaxation of welding residual stresses by
reversed and repeated loading
1. S. Shankar (1982), Vibratory stress relief of mild steel weldments
2. Thomas E. Hebel (2001), Sub-harmonic Stress Relief Imroves Mold Quality
3. Giovanni S. Crisi, Danila Pedrogan Mendonca (2006),

Stress relief of welds by heat treatment and vibration: A comparison between the two
methods
4. Jijin Xu, Ligong Chen, Chunzhen Ni (2006), Effect of vibratory weld conditioning on
the residual stresses and distortion in multipass girth-butt welded pipes
5. R.D Skinner, Structures Manufacturing Engineer, Lockheed Missiles and Aerospace

(1987), An investigation into the theory behind sub-resonance stress relieve
6. Suppliers of vibratory stress relief equipment

www.bonal.com
www.airmatic.com
www.stressreliefengr.com
www.rrstress.com
Appendix 1: Travel reports
Page 1 of 12
15 Appendices
Appendix 1: Summary of travel reports
These reports can not be published because they contain sensitive information.
Page 2 of 12
Manufacturing of rear axle housings at Ferruform
This page is blanked because it contains sensitive information.
Page 3 of 12
Page 4 of 12
Travel report Maxion/Scania Sao Paulo
Manufacturing of banjo halves at Maxion.
Manufacturing of rear axle housings at Scania Sao Paulo in Brazil.
This report is blanked because it contains sensitive information.

Page 5 of 12
Page 6 of 12
Appendix 2: Prior investigations
Page7 of 12
Page8 of 12
Travel report Dana
Visit at the axle factory Dana/Eaton in Pamplona, Spain

Page9 of 12
Travel report Arvin Meritor Lindesberg
Visit at the axle factory Arvin Meritor in Lindesberg, Sweden

Page10 of 12
Page11 of 12
Travel report EGE Endustri Turkey

Visit at the axle factory Arvin Meritor in Lindesberg, Sweden

Page12 of 12
Travel report Arvin Meritor Osasco
Visit at the axle factory Arvin Meritor Osasco, Sao Paulo Brazil

Page1 of 6
Appendix 2: Prior investigation heat stress relief
This is a summary of the report “Fatigue strength compare of rear axle housings with and
without heat stress relief””.

Page 2 of 7
Page 3 of 7
Page 4 of 7
Page 5 of 7
Page 6 of 7
Page 7 of 7
Appendix 3: Specification of requirements
Page 1 of 3
Appendix 3: Specification of requirements on rear axle housings
General
Today Ferruform is using the method heat stress relief after finish welding of the rear axle
housings in order to reduce the residual stresses built in during extensive welding. An
electrical heated oven is used for this purpose and loading and unloading are done
automatically except for the manual loading on the inlet conveyer. The rear axle housings are
then picked up by a portable robot which is putting the heat stress relieved housings on the
inlet conveyor of the blast machine.
Purpose
Heat stress relief is a very time consuming operation and that is why an alternative method for
reducing the residual stresses would be an advantage. Also in an energy consuming point of
view an alternative method would be desirable.
Goal
By implementing a new method reducing the cycle time and costs for relaxation of the rear
axle housings.
Extent
All rear axle housings that are heat stress relieved today shall be stress relieved with the new
alternative method. The equipment has to give a similar or better result and automatize have
to be possible to a high extent.
Operation description
The equipment shall together with a robot handle the rear axle housings from inlet- to outlet
conveyor. It must be able to manage a cycle time of X minutes for the relaxation. The result
with the new method has to be similar or better then the heat stress relief.
Transport and loading

Transport and loading shall be done manual to the inlet conveyor.
Existing data on rear axle housings
• Length 1600mm
• Maximum rotation diameter 800 mm
• Sheet steel thickness 12 mm
• Weight ca 140kg
See Figure 38 and Figure 39 for an overview of rear axle housing.
Technical specification
It must be specified by the supplier in the concept proposal if there are special needs
concerning the building.
Appendix 3: Specifikation of requirements
Page 2 of 3
Dimension description
The supplier gives a description on the space demand for the equipment. The interesting
dimensions are the physical size of the equipment and its working range. CAD-drawings are
gladly accepted.
Working environment
The requirements by law have to be fulfilled and machines must be CE-marked. Also Scania
TFP04 and the local addition, DL2005 have to be fulfilled.
Environment
Law requirements must be fulfilled and the equipment has to be CE-marked. Local
regulations (municipality and county administration board), Scania TFP04 and the addition
DL2005.
Quality
Capability, see TFP04 K4.2.
Ergonomics
Possible assist equipment have to be available.
Maintenance
The supplier states the interval for maintenance of the construction. It has to be mentioned if
the maintenance can not be performed by the personnel at Ferruform. The supplier has to
provide special tools if there is a need for them to perform maintenance. Finally estimation on
time and money needed for annual maintenance shall be submitted.
Availability
Specified by supplier.
Education of personnel
The supplier specifies the requirements needed for operating the equipment.
Technical requirements for production equipment (TFP04)

TFP04 and the local addition, DL2005 shall be seen as a requirement for the equipment.
TFP04 is referring to the personnel safety department. Possible departures are done in
consultation with Ferruform AB.
Concept proposal
Information about conceivable equipment for the purpose has to be included. This can be
information regarding education of staff, budget quotation and delivery time.
Contacts
Jonas Holmgren, Manufacturing engineering division, Ferruform AB
Stefan Lindqvist, Manufacturing engineering division, Ferruform AB
Appendix 3: Specifikation of requirements
Page 3 of 3
Overview of rear axle housings
Figure 38. Finish welded rear axle housing ready for heat stress relief.
Figure 39. Finished rear axle housing

Appendix 4: Geometry and lifetime requirements
Page 1 of 1
Appendix 4: Geometry and lifetime requirements


Alternative methods for heat stress relief

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2007:277 CIV

MASTE R’S THESIS

Alternative Methods for

MASTER OF SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Luleå University of Technology

Luleå 14th of December 2007

Två potentiella alternativa metoder för avspänningsglödgning har undersökts närmare.

Banjo Part of rear axle housing

Ferruform AB is currently increasing their production capability to be able to deliver products

1.2 Current situation

1.3 Project description

• Propose the best alternative method for heat stress relief

• Summarize facts from former investigations and experiences

• Focus is aimed at the technical investigation

3.1.1 MIG/MAG- welding, Gas metal arc welding

Figure 1: MIG/MAG-welding [3]

3.1.2 Resistance welding

Figure 2: Resistance welding [3]

3.1.3 Weld zones

Figure 3: Weld zones [3]

U = Voltage in volt (V)

3.2 Residual stresses caused by welding

Figure 4: Residual stresses [2]

• Macro stresses that reaches over several grains

Figure 5: Dynamic loading [5]

Figure 6: Fatigue rupture [6]

3.4 Fatigue strength

3.5 Factors affecting fatigue1

3.5.2 Range of stress

3.5.3 Mean stress

3.5.4 Construction design

Figure 7. Larger radius increase fatigue life [5]

3.5.6 Surface treatment

Figure 8. Shot peening increase fatigue life [5]

3.6 How welding affects the fatigue strength

3.7 Heat stress relief

• Plastic deformation by machining as turning, milling, drilling, grinding etc.

3.7.1 Reheat cracking caused by heat stress relief

G = Cr % + 3.3Mo% + 8.1V % − 2 (3)

4 Process description rear axle housings

1. Tack welding &

3. Heat stress relief

Figure 9. Production steps

5 Method selection process

Purchase High Medium High

Operation 100 000SEK/year (10%

6 Temperature dependence during forming

6.1 Hot forming

6.2 Cold Forming

6.2.3 Increase of residual stresses leads to:

Typical value for coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is 12 × 10 −6 °C −1 . Because of the

Figure 10. The coefficient of thermal expansion influence on geometry [6]

6.3 Warm forming

Benefits compared to cold forming

Benefits compared to hot forming

6.5 Comparison between hot/warm forming and cold forming of

6.5.1 Tension test result

• Percent elongation increased from 23% at RT to 60% at 550°C

Figure 11. Bend-straightening

7.2 Summary of read reports

7.2.1 Relaxation of residual stresses through cyclic load

Figure 13. Specimen of material SM490A [4]

Figure 14. Reversed load, R= σmin/σmax= -1