20 CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION

along with a brief introduction to the important manufacturing methods. Issues important
for modeling the transport processes will be highlighted at the micro- and macro-scales.
Chapter 3 will review the basics of fluid mechanics and heat transfer as required for pro-
cessing of polymers and polymer composites. Fundamental principles involved in modeling
and the approach that couples the physical laws and the constitutive laws to describe the
physics with the help of appropriate boundary conditions will be outlined. Thus, it will
introduce the transport equations necessary for modeling along with boundary conditions
and examples. Chapter 4 will delve into details of constitutive laws and relationships based
on phenomenological behavior. Chapter 5 will discuss details on the tools necessary for
modeling these processes. The usefulness of tools such as dimensionless analysis and simple
back-of-the-envelope calculations will be illustrated with the help of examples. As there are
different scales involved in polymer composite manufacturing and as the material behavior
at the microscale can influence the issues at the macroscale, coupling of microscale physics
with the phenomena at the macroscale will be discussed. Different phenomenology involved
in characterization of material parameters required in modeling will be introduced, and
their usefulness, challenges and uncertainties will be unveiled. Chapters 6-8 will apply the
tools and the fundamental principles studied in earlier chapters to model composite manu-
facturing processes. We will illustrate how the modeling principles can be incorporated in
some of the composite manufacturing processes to reveal some of the understanding based
on scientific principles rather than trial and error approaches. Solved examples are pre-
sented in all chapters to enhance the physical understanding of processing these complex
heterogeneous materials. The questions, fill in the blanks and some problems are formu-
lated and solved analytically or with MATLAB to reinforce qualitative understanding of
transport phenomena in various processes and also understanding the key manufacturing
issues in composites manufacturing with seniors and general practitioners of composites in
mind. The analysis and some problems are introduced for graduate and advanced students
who would like to delve further into understanding and modeling of such processes.

1.8 Exercises
1.8.1 Questions
1. What are the advantages of polymer composites over other materials?
2. List a few industries that use polymer composites.
3. When polymer composites were used a few decades ago, did the process engineers
rely on (i) experience and trial and error approaches, or (ii) accurate mathematical
modeling of process physics, in order to improve the manufacturability of a certain
prototype?
4. What are the two major ingredients of a composite material? How do they enhance
the properties of the composite?
5. What are the two types of polymer resins used in composites processing? What are
major differences between them?
6. What are the three different types of materials used to manufacture fibers?
7. Is it easier to inject a thermoplastic or thermoset resin through a tightly knit fiber
preform?
1.8. EXERCISES 21

8. What are the typical viscosities of thermoplastic and thermoset resins relative to the
viscosity of water?
9. Which one of the following has more influence on the mathematical modeling of the
manufacturing process: (a) the fiber material (e.g., glass or carbon) or (b) whether
the fibers are discontinuous or continuous? Why?
10. Although in general the ease of processing decreases as we move from discontinuous
short fibers to continuous fiber preforms that are woven or stitched, why are continuous
fiber preforms preferred in some composite parts instead of discontinuous short fibers?
11. List various manufacturing processes that use continuous fibers.
12. What is the smallest building block in plastics? How many of them are there in a
polymer?
13. What are the different types of reactions that can be used to create all modern poly-
mers?
14. What are the main differences between thermoplastic and thermoset resins in terms
of processing?
15. What are the criteria used to choose an appropriate composite manufacturing method?
16. What is a pellet?
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of short fiber composites?
18. What composites are referred to as advanced composites? Why?
19. What is a prepreg fabric?
20. What are the two scales used to model composite manufacturing processes? Why do
we need to couple them?
21. List the modeling approaches for manufacturing processes on the macroscale. Why
do we need to model them differently?
22. What are fiber sizings and why are they necessary?

1.8.2 Fill in the Blanks

1. The thermoplastic properties are determined by their resulting , which is
strongly influenced by the dynamics.
2. In general, an amorphous polymer is transparent, has mechanical properties
and is resistant to other chemicals than the thermo-
plastics.
3. When a shear force is applied to thermoplastic polymers, the long chain molecules
will start to relative to each other, in response to the applied force. Thus,
most of them exhibit shear behavior, which is an important property to
consider when one develops the process model.
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

4. The high of cross-linking points within a thermoset structure is responsible

for the superior stability and properties.
5. is applied to a thermoplastic and hence initiates a
change from to before or during processing.
6. Thermosets are generally provided by the manufacturer in the phase.
7. After processing, the thermoplastic melt must be cooled down to it, whereas
the thermoset will turn into a after it is chemically and thermally activated
to form the cross-linked network, which is also referred to as .
8. Fiber diameter is usually less than . Fibers are cut or chopped and com-
pounded in an extruder with any to form consisting of
fibers, or could be pultruded consisting of fibers.
9. Fabrics are laminate structures having fibers aligned in the directions. One
large class of fabrics is manufactured by either or together bun-
dles, or “ ”, of fibers. These bundles are generally in cross-section,
and may contain from to single fibers.
10. Random mats are typically in their structural and flow properties, which
is often untrue for woven or stitched fabrics.
11. Fiber tows can be formed into three-dimensional shapes using and weaving
techniques.
12. Use of preimpregnated fabrics (prepregs) enables these two: (i) it eases the
process during placement over a tool surface, (ii) it reduces the chance of fiber
during the resin injection.
13. The existing machines used for polymer processing could be adopted easily for fiber
reinforced polymers. The advantages would be and compo-
nents with low degrees of and . The disadvantage would be no
on the fiber in the component and fiber attrition.
14. Composites with fibers could enhance the mechanical properties by one to
two orders of magnitude as compared to fiber composites. These composites
are referred to as .
15. There are several primary steps that are common in manufacturing of advanced com-
posites. First, all advanced composites require a skeleton structure of that
is tailored for the particular part and the property requirements. Second,
this structure must be by the liquid in some way. Finally, the
part should be supported by a rigid to allow the to solidify or
cross-link, permanently freezing the microstructure created by the fiber network.
16. Aligned fibers allow for creation of very high fiber and hence high
stiffness and strength in directions.
17. Two- and three-dimensional interlocked textile structures can allow the composite to
achieve high stiffness and strength in and directions and poten-
tially allow the designer to tailor the mechanical or physical properties to the desired
application.
1.8. EXERCISES 23

18. The manufacturing process physics and modeling are greatly influenced by the types
of and .
19. The geometry of the part to be manufactured influences the decision if the process is
carried out in an open or closed .
20. The process modeling step in composite manufacturing is generally approached by
researchers on two scales. The scale is usually the order of the smallest
dimension of the composite part being manufactured which is in . The
scale is more on the order of a diameter which is in microns.
21. Broadly, one can divide the manufacturing processes into three different categories on
the scale from the flow viewpoint. (i) Once the solid pellets are heated,
and short or chopped , which are the two ingredients of pellets,
flow together as a . (ii) Long fibers or fibers are preim-
pregnated with viscous resin by applying heat and . (iii) The flow
of low viscosity resins through fibers is modeled as infiltration of
resin into a network of fibers.
22. On the macroscale, a modeler’s goal is to find processing conditions such as ,
and rates of and to manufacture a successful part.
However, as composites are heterogeneous materials on a macroscale, one is forced
to address microlevel isssues such as creation of micro due to or
entrapped in the resin that does not escape from the mold cavity.
23. Interface adhesion between the fibers and resin is decided by the type of ,
which is a chemical that is applied on the surface of the fibers, sometimes
by grafting the molecules on the surface in order to improve the between
the resin and the fiber.
64 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

2.6 Exercises
2.6.1 Questions
1. What is the main difference between metal and composite parts in terms of the prop-
erties of finished parts and the raw materials that are used to manufacture them?
2. Why were composite materials used mainly in some selected industries, such as the
aerospace industry, during the early stages of composite material development?
3. What are the two major classes of composite manufacturing processes in terms of
types of molds being used? Give examples.
4. Describe the injection molding process by using all of these words and terms: high-
volume production, thermoplastic resin, solid pellets, short fibers, fillers, feed, hopper,
barrel, screw, melt, mix, functions as a piston, sprues, runners, solidification, and
eject.
5. What is a pellet? What are the ingredients? What is the size of a typical pellet?
6. Why is the length of fibers that solidify in the final part limited in the traditional
injection molding process? What is an alternative approach to overcome this? What
is the advantage of using longer fibers in this new approach?
7. While modeling the transport phenomena in the injection molding process, what
physical conservation laws are used?
8. What is “fountain flow” in injection molding? What process and material parameters
determine its significance? What is the result of this flow?
9. What are “skin” and “core” layers in injection molding?
10. Does the length of the fibers change during the flow of suspension in injection molding?
Explain why.
11. What makes injection molding so popular that nearly 20% of the goods are manufac-
tured by this process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this process?
12. Give some examples of common products that are injection molded.
13. Describe the extrusion process by using all of these words and terms: hopper, polymer
pellets, barrel, screw, die, plasticize, compound, cross-sections, puller, sizer, and cutter
or coiler.
14. How does the screw of an extrusion machine work?
15. What are the similarities and differences between the extrusion and injection molding
processes?
16. Give some examples of common products that are manufactured with the extrusion
process.
17. In the last few years, the extrusion process has been modified to allow extrusion of
polymers containing reinforcement. What is the reason for this modification?
2.6. EXERCISES 65

18. What are the two phenomena that help to soften and then melt the solid polymer
pellet in an extrusion machine before it is pushed by the screw? Which one creates
more heat?
19. When is a cooling system needed in an extrusion machine? If we turn off the heaters,
do we still need a cooling system? Why?
20. What is “plasticating?”
21. What is “die swelling?” What causes it?
22. If you are asked to design an extrusion machine, how would you calculate the power
needed to run the screw and the pumping rate? What types of suspension flow would
you solve in your model?
23. Describe the compression molding process by using these words and terms: composite
material, mold cavity, pressure, and deform.
24. Compare the injection molding and compression molding processes in terms of (i)
ease in material handling, (ii) automation, (iii) amount of material deformation, (iv)
regions of very high stress in material, (v) need for gates in the mold, (vi) damage of
fibers, (vii) using longer fibers, (viii) achieving higher fiber volume fractions, (ix) cycle
time, (x) repeatability, (xi) dimensional tolerances, (xii) amount of initial investment,
(xiii) storage time and conditions for material, (xiv) difficulty of mold design, (xv)
residual stresses in the parts, (xvi) delamination, and (xvii) warpage.
25. What are the most commonly used materials for the compression molding process?
What are the different versions of them?
26. Describe the procedure of forming the sheets of SMC material.
27. What is “initial charge” in the compression molding process? Why is it crucial to
properly place it inside the mold?
28. In compression molding, what are the typical values for temperature and pressure
within the SMC material during heating and compression? What is a typical cycle
time?
29. Although it is small, why is the flow in compression molding critical for determining
the physical and mechanical properties of the composite?
30. Describe “post-cure” in compression molding. Where does it take place? Why is it
needed?
31. Why is the mold design very important, and why is the overall cost of the molds
usually high in compression molding?
32. What are the most commonly used resin systems in SMC materials for the automotive
and aerospace industries?
33. What is “in-mold coating?” Which industry usually uses it?
34. Why are the temperature distribution and rate of cooling important in the compression
molding process?
66 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

35. The tensile strength and elastic modulus of compression molded parts might exhibit
significant variations from one molding to another. What are the two main reasons?

36. What are the three advanced thermoplastic manufacturing methods? What is the
common assumption used to model them?

37. What are the main issues in advanced thermoplastic manufacturing methods?

38. Describe the sheet forming process by using all of these words and terms: thermoplas-
tic matrix, short and long fibers, unidirectional or multi-axial sheet preform, stacked
or preconsolidated, forming temperature, mechanical or hydraulic press, form, curvi-
linear tool surface, and cooling.

39. What is “forming temperature” in the sheet forming process?

40. How is incremental reforming of a composite part performed in the sheet forming
process until the final desired geometry of the part is attained?

41. What are the unique advantages of sheet forming over other thermoplastic processing
methods?

42. What are the three major composite sheet forming processing methods?

43. In the stretch forming process, the major issues are wrinkles and folds in the final parts.
What causes them? What type of mathematical model would help the manufacturer
to overcome this hurdle?

44. Describe the pultrusion process by using these words and terms: drag, fibers, ther-
moset or thermoplastic matrix, supply rack, temperature control, and tool.

45. What are the main differences between thermoset and thermoplastic pultrusion?

46. The die assembly for the pultrusion process has two distinct sections: (i) the heated
and tapered entry region, and (ii) the “land” region. What are the functions of these
sections?

47. Where and how does a fiber nest occur in the pultrusion process?

48. Describe the thermoplastic tape lay-up process by using these words and terms: ther-
moplastic tape, continuous fibers, tow placement head, substrate, preheating, rollers,
consolidation, conform, and local or global melting.

49. What are the major issues in the thermoplastic tape lay-up process?

50. Can one single mathematical model be applicable for both thermoplastic and ther-
moset advanced composite manufacturing methods? From the modeling viewpoint,
what are the major differences between these two methods?

51. Describe the autoclave process.

52. What are the typical temperatures and pressures in the autoclave process to consol-
idate and solidify the material? Why is it important to have a proper processing
window of temperatures and pressures for thermoset materials?
2.6. EXERCISES 67

53. In the autoclave process, what are the functions of peel plies, release fabric, bleeder
material, breather material, and vacuum bag?

54. During the curing step in the autoclave process, how is the final quality of the com-
posite part affected by the magnitude and duration of the temperatures and pressures
to which the composite is subjected? Explain in terms of the process parameters and
variables used in the mathematical models.

55. What are the advantages and disadvantages of autoclave processing compared to other
methods?

56. Describe the liquid composite molding process by using these words and terms: bed
of fibrous network (preform), resin, impregnation, cure, and demolding.

57. What do RTM, VARTM, S-RIM, and CIRTM stand for?

58. What are the advantages and disadvantages of VARTM over RTM?

59. What are the critical issues in the liquid composite molding process?

60. Describe the filament winding process.

61. What are the two types of filament winding processes? What is the difference between
them?

62. What are the major issues for filament winding?

63. What is the major difference between VARTM and RTM processes in terms of mold
and injection system used?

64. You have been chosen to select a composite manufacturing process due to your fa-
miliarity with the processes as a result of the course you took at the University of
Delaware. Your company is looking at making the following six components and would
like you to recommend which process should be considered with a single sentence ex-
planation as to why you selected that process. 1.) Short fiber reinforced dashboards
for the new Acura car. 2.) Telephone poles for the city of Newark. 3.) I-beams for
Ford Passenger Vans. 4.) Axi-symmetric casing for the rocket motor. 5.) Recycleable
door panels for the Mercedes Benz. 6.) A composite spring for a helicopter.

65. Which of the cross-sections in Figure 2.36 cannot be filament wound?

Figure 2.36: Cross-sections for filament winding [89].

68 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

2.6.2 Fill in the Blanks

1. In order for composites to be widely used, especially by consumer goods industries
such as automotive and sporting goods, two major goals had to be achieved: (i) the
of raw materials had to be reduced, and (ii) manufacturing methods had
to be developed to achieve high production by reducing the manufacturing
time.
2. As composites are heterogeneous materials, there is simultaneous transfer of ,
and at , and scales, often along
with reaction, in a multi-phase system with time dependent material prop-
erties and boundary conditions.
3. Composites manufacturing processes can be broadly grouped into three categories.
(i) short fiber manufacturing methods: involve the transport of
or fibers and as a into a or through a
. (ii) flow or advanced thermoplastic composites manufacturing
methods: involve deformation of or long aligned fibers preimpreg-
nated with resin under applied stress. (iii) media or advanced
thermoset composite manufacturing methods: involve impregnating and
nearly stationary fiber networks with resin.
4. As the making of metal molds can be very expensive, one can justify the use only for
high-volume production parts. Recently, researchers are exploring the use of
molds reinforced with powder for small-volume production or for prototype
development.
5. The molding time in injection molding is usually of the order of a few .
6. In the injection molding process, the important process parameters that can be con-
trolled on the injection units are the temperature, and
speeds, pressure, and in some instances the temperature.
7. In the injection molding process, the material and geometric parameters that will influ-
ence the manufacturing process and the final properties of the part are the
rheology, the type and content, mold cavity and , the
locations of and on the mold.
8. In the injection molding process, the filled thermoplastic pellets usually contain a
second, discontinuous, usually more rigid phase blended into the polymer. When the
aspect ratio (ratio of largest to smallest dimension) of the second component is around
one, it is referred to as a . If the aspect ratio is one to two orders of
magnitude larger, then it is called .
9. In the injection molding process, the most commonly used reinforcements are ,
and short usually less than in length.
10. In the injection molding process, the parts usually have a fiber volume fraction be-
tween and %. Filled or reinforced materials provide much dif-
ferent properties than the base resin. For example, reinforced polypropylene provides
higher and lower characteristics than neat polypropylene. In
practice, fibrous reinforcements used with glass fibers dominate the market although
the and fibers provide higher stiffness and strength but are sel-
dom used due to the high of raw materials.
2.6. EXERCISES 69

11. The traditional injection molding process limits the length of fibers that solidify in the
final part since the high rates in the barrel and the passage of fibers through
narrow gates and openings in the mold cause significant fiber . Usually, the
fiber diameter is of the order of few , and the final length distribution,
irrespective of the starting fiber length, is of the order of to µm.
The starting length of these fibers in the log-like pellets is usually of the order of
to mm. As a result, new methods to produce pellets containing
longer fibers were developed in which the fibers were pultruded and stayed bundled
together and were not dispersed in the pellet by the action of compounding. These
pellets produced final parts that retained a higher percentage of longer fibers and
consequently showed a significant increase in and toughness.
12. In the injection molding process, the material selected also plays
a role in the final physical and optical properties.
13. The issues that relate to transport phenomena in the injection molding process are the
of fiber suspensions as they occupy the closed mold, the of the
fibers during the flow, fiber distribution, fiber , and the
transfer that changes the microstructure of the resin.
14. One can account for the mass balance of the suspension in the injection molding
process which can be treated as a material, at least for the short fiber
materials.
15. The conservation of the fiber orientation field in the injection molding process sim-
ply states that if the orientation of the fibers disappears in one direction, it should
in some direction.
16. One can account for the momentum balance of the suspension in the injection molding
process to describe the and the fields during the flow process.
This requires one to describe the constitutive equation between the applied
and the rate experienced by the material. As the thermoplastic melts are
thinning, the viscosity is known to with rate. Addition
of fibers can change the stress strain rate behavior and even make it .
17. The energy conservation model in the injection molding process allows one to describe
the history of the melt in the channel between the screw and the barrel,
where it gets its input from the on the barrel and due to viscous
caused by the of the suspension. It also allows one to keep track
of the history in the closed mold as the suspension enters into it, which
plays a crucial role in the resulting .
18. In the injection molding process, there are some microscale phenomena occurring
simultaneously: molecular and spherulitic of polymers during
solidification and fiber due to shearing action in the screw that results in
a distribution. For long fiber suspensions, the constitutive equation may
change, and issues such as fiber may also need to be addressed.
19. The coupling between the transports of and creates a
flow mechanism in injection molding. As the walls are than the core, the
suspension viscosity is near the walls as compared to the core. Hence, under
the same pressure, the suspension in the core moves of the suspension near
the walls, spreading from the like a .
70 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

20. In the injection molding process, the shear flow near the mold walls aligns the fibers
in the direction of the and is called the . Below this layer, the
suspension continues to experience shear and fibers orient along the shear lines; this
layer is known as the layer. Finally, the core has fibers that are influenced
by the bulk deformation of the flow in the mold which usually has an elongated com-
ponent, causing the material to in and out of the paper direction aligning
the fibers.

21. Lack of control of fiber and causes variation in part properties

from one injection to another in injection molding.

22. The screw of an extrusion machine is usually machined from a solid steel rod and fits
within the barrel with less than a clearance. To pump a suspension through
a die, the screw is designed to generate over to atmospheres of
pressure in the suspension.

23. For a simple and crude explanation of an extrusion machine, one may think of a bolt
as the , the nut as the , and the wrench as the . If one
turns the bolt and holds the wrench in place, the nut will move forward.

24. (SMC), the most commonly used material for

process, may involve either (i) compounding a resin, combining it with and
, or (ii) prepregs (impregnating a fiber with a resin).

25. SMC material is prepared as follows: is placed on a nonporous nylon sheet.

are added to it. A cover sheet is applied onto the fibers. This sheet,
enclosed between the nylon sheet and the cover sheet, is then passed through several
compaction . These mix the resin and fibers together, and also
the sheets. The resin cures slowly, and it takes approximately for the SMC
sheet to be ready to be used in the compression molding process.

26. Several types of SMC are currently used in industry: SMC-R (reinforced with fibers
oriented ), SMC-C (reinforced with unidirectional fibers), SMC-
C/R (reinforced with both oriented and unidirectional fibers),
SMC-D (reinforced with but discontinuous fibers).

27. It is possible to use both thermoplastics and thermosets in SMC, but the majority of
SMC is done using .

28. The final properties of composite parts are influenced by the and
of the initial charge in the mold.

29. In the compression molding process, after SMC material is placed and the mold is
closed, the heated top and bottom platens containing the two halves of the mold
cavity are brought together. This generates and to initiate the
of material.

30. In , after the part is partially cured inside the mold, the mold is
opened slightly and a is injected in the mold. Subsequently, the mold is
again, causing the resin to coat the outside of the part filling any
on it. This greatly improves the on the part and can save several
stages in the painting process.
2.6. EXERCISES 71

31. Due to their high viscosity, it is extremely difficult to process thermoplastic resins if
they have to be forced to occupy the empty spaces between fibers to form an advanced
thermoplastic composite. To circumvent this problem, the resin is into the
fiber bundles, or is sprayed as commingled or resin fibers are with
the reinforcing fibers so that the resin does not have to travel far when and
are applied to occupy the empty spaces between the fibers.

32. In sheet forming of nonreinforced thermoplastic sheets, the sheets are usually held in
place along the edges over a tool surface and brought up to their material softening
temperature. The most common forming methods are where the
sheet is between matching dies, and in which a vacuum is pulled
through small holes in the tool face, pulling and spreading the sheet down over the
surface.

33. In composite sheet stamping or matched-die press forming, the composite blank is
heated to the temperature and then stamped against tool surfaces. A
variation on this is tool stamping wherein one or both sides of the die are
made compliant. This helps maintain an even consolidation across the part
in case of any tool .

34. In diaphragm forming, the blank is held between two disposable, plastically de-
formable diaphragms of either or . During the forming cycle, the
diaphragm edges are clamped, heated along with the blank and deformed through the
use of pressure to the tool surface. The diaphragms serve to hold the blank
in tension and prevent fiber that can occur under compressive stresses.
When forming parts containing continuous fiber reinforcement, the diaphragms are
clamped but the blank cannot be. This is due to the of the fiber reinforce-
ment.

35. Hydroforming is a process similar to diaphragm forming. However,

is used instead of to provide the pressure behind a permanent rubber di-
aphragm.

36. Pultrusion is one of the oldest composite manufacturing processes as it has been
around since the late 1940s. It was originally designed to manufacture .

37. For thermoset pultrusion, one can use bare fiber rovings to go through a liquid ther-
moset before entering the for curing and cross-linking. On the
other hand, thermoplastic resins are preimpregnated with fibers in the form
of a tape or the fibers pass through a station of polymer bed, where the
thermoplastic powder attaches itself to the charged fiber surface. Therefore, thermo-
plastic pultrusion requires a area.

38. There are two important aspects to modeling the pultrusion process. The first is
to determine the required to run the operation at a reasonable
speed to produce parts that are free of and contain the desired fiber vol-
ume fraction. The second is to achieve the desired level of in the matrix
with minimal concentration. Hence, the viscous flow physics and the heat
transfer during the process will play an important role in the determination of these
key parameters such as the pressure for the die, temperatures,
temperatures, etc.
72 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

39. The key issues for modeling the thermoplastic tape lay-up process are: (i) tow-
placement head , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) during melt-
ing of the resin in the incoming tape and the substrate interface without
the matrix. A good bonding between the substrate and the incoming tape requires
the interface temperature to be than the temperature of the
thermoplastic. The temperature gradient through the thickness is responsible for
development in the composite.
40. The winding process variables that can be selected and controlled independently are
the (i) winding , (ii) fiber , and (iii) either external
or rates. Hence, the process model should provide information regarding
the temperatures of and , degree of , , fiber
, and , , and winding and curing .
The transport of the resin here through a moving fiber bed and also the cure kinetics
reaction that changes the viscosity of the resin requires one to couple the equations
of , and .