Research On Microgrid Power Control Method Using Improved Virtual Impedance

硕士学位论文
基于改进虚拟阻抗的微网功率控制方法研究
Research on Microgrid Power Control Method Using

Improved Virtual Impedance
NDAYISHIMIYE Vedaste
2019 年 6 月
国内图书分类号：TM76 学校代码：10079
国际图书分类号：621.3 密级：公开
硕士学位论文
基于改进虚拟阻抗的微网功率控制方法研究
硕士研究生： NDAYISHIMIYE Vedaste
导师：张旭
申请学位：工学硕士
专业领域：电力系统及其自动化
培养方式：全日制
所在学院：电气与电子工程学院
答辩日期： 2019 年 6 月
授予学位单位：华北电力大学
Classified Index: TM76

U.D.C: 621.3
Thesis for the Master Degree
Research on Microgrid Power Control Method Using

Improved Virtual Impedance
NDAYISHIMIYE Vedaste
Candidate：
Supervisor：张旭
Academic Degree Applied for： Master of Engineering
Specialty Field: Electric Power System and its Automation
Training Mode： Full Time

School： School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering
Date of Defense： June, 2019
Degree-Conferring-Institution： North China Electric Power University
华北电力大学硕士学位论文原创性声明
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研究》，是本人在导师指导下，在华北电力大学攻读硕士学位期间独立进行研究工作所取
得的成果。据本人所知，论文中除已注明部分外不包含他人已发表或撰写过的研究成果。
对本文的研究工作做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式注明。本声明的法
律结果将完全由本人承担。
作者签名：日期：2019 年 06 日
华北电力大学硕士学位论文使用授权书
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作者签名：日期：2019 年 6 月
导师签名：日期：2019 年 6 月
Master’s Thesis of North China Electric Power University
Original Declaration
I, NDAYISHIMIYE Vedaste, hereby declare that this project entitled “Research on

Microgrid Power Control Method Using Improved Virtual Impedance” is my original
work and has never been presented anywhere for any academic award or publication.
Date: 2019/ 06/10/
Signature: ……………
摘要
由于不依赖于通信要求，传统的下垂方案是目前微电网中最常见的功率调节技术。
目前当发电机功率分配方式变化时，各种类型的负荷如何影响电压和系统稳定性是微网运
行中的中的重要问题。伴随着负荷运行条件的不同，不同的线性负载也影响了微网中的无
功功率的分配。本文针对了非线性阻抗和复杂负载运行条件下的微网功率分配问题展开研
究。提出了交流微网强化虚拟阻抗控制，以改进经典的下垂控制的不足。这种方法通过自
适应虚拟阻抗在并联分布式发电(DG)源之间的不同馈线上实现电压补偿；采用虚拟负阻
抗补偿了线路阻抗的同时会使得电感功率去耦，从而在并联逆变器之间提供了精确的功率
分配。采用基于辅助控制与比例积分谐振(PIR)和自适应虚拟阻抗补偿的二次控制，用于
增强无功功率分配，以实现不同负载条件下的高效功率分配。此外，控制模型中集成有
恢复方案，用于恢复由负载变化导致的电压幅值和频率变化。基于 MATLAB/Simulink 的
仿真验证显示，提出的控制方案实现了有效的功率分配，可以保证有功和无功平衡和稳定；
验证了所提方法的可行性及其相对传统的下垂控制技术的优势。
关键词：交流微电网; 分层控制; 下垂控制; 分布式发电; 虚阻抗; 比例积分共振; 微电网中央

控制器; 非线性和不平衡负载
Abstract
The conventional droop scheme is the most applicable power regulation technique in
microgrids mainly due to its features of operating with no communication requirements. A
microgrid (MG) of a variety of loads distinguished by their effect in an electric network have
been applied for testing their causes on voltage distortion and system instability when investing
power sharing between parallel operated generators. The difference in line impedance between
various as well as nature of loading condition effects the sharing of reactive. Hence, this study
emphases on the power sharing challenges associated to the above-mentioned situations. This
research describes an enhanced virtual impedance to deal with the weakness of the classic droop
control technique in the AC microgrid. This scheme relays on voltage drop compensation strategy
across different feeders amongst parallel distributed generation (DG) sources by the adaptive
virtual impedance. The virtual negative resistance and inductance in the proposed method
compensates the line resistance as well as create inductive power decoupling which provide the
accurate power distribution amongst parallel inverters. The Secondary control along with
Proportional integral resonance (PIR) and adaptive virtual impedance-based compensation is
proposed enhance reactive power sharing to support effective power sharing in different loading
conditions. Furthermore, a restoration scheme is integrated in the control model for voltage
magnitude and frequency restoration resulted by load variations. The findings show that the
suggested control scheme achieved an efficient sharing of both reactive and real power which is
balanced and stable. This was demonstrated in the MATLAB/Simulink simulation confirming that
the suggested technique is feasible also more effective than the conventional droop control
technique.
Key words: AC Microgrid; Hierarchical control; Droop control; Distributed generation; virtual impedance;
proportional integral resonance; Microgrid Central controller; nonlinear and unbalanced loads
i
Table of Contents
摘要 ..................................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................v
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................. vi
1. General Introduction ............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background and motivation ..........................................................................................1
1.2 Research content ...........................................................................................................3
1.3 Research objectives .......................................................................................................4
1.4 Methodology and scope ................................................................................................4
1.5 Organization of the thesis ..............................................................................................5
2. Microgrid: Structure, Components, and Principles of Operation ...........................................6
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................6
2.2 Structure and components .............................................................................................6
2.3 Working principle of microgrid .....................................................................................7
2.4 Control of microgrid .....................................................................................................7
2.5 Microgrid Supervisory Control......................................................................................8
2.6 Centralized Microgrid Control ......................................................................................9
2.7 Decentralized Microgrid Control ...................................................................................9
3. Overview of power sharing methods in Hierarchical Controlled MGs ................................ 10
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................10
3.2 Problems of the Reactive Power Sharing in the Droop Control ....................................10
3.3 Power sharing with the Conventional Frequency and Voltage Droop Method ..............12
3.4 Selection of the proposed voltage droop scheme parameters ........................................13
3.5 Secondary Control ......................................................................................................14
3.6 Voltage and current control loop of the grid-forming converter ...................................14
3.7 Improved control strategies for the reactive power sharing of islanded microgrid ........16
ii
3.7.1 Active power sharing with inductive feeder impedance ........................................16

3.7.2 Improved P - V/Q - f Droop Control under Resistive Feeder Impedance Condition
16
3.7.3 Active Power Sharing Strategies under Unknown Feeder Impedance Condition ...17
3.7.4 Conventional Reactive Power Sharing Strategies in the Secondary Control ..........18
3.7.5 Reactive power sharing based programming algorithm ........................................19
4. Enhanced Virtual Impedance for Power Sharing Control in the AC Microgrid ................... 20
4.1 Research Methodology................................................................................................20
4.1.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................20
4.1.2 System description ...............................................................................................20
4.1.3 Proposed Control Approach .................................................................................21
4.2 Simulation Results and Discussion ..............................................................................24
4.2.1 Results .................................................................................................................24
4.2.2 Discussion ...........................................................................................................27
5. Secondary Control for Power Sharing in a Standalone Microgrid under Unequal Feeder
Impedance and Complex Loads ................................................................................................. 28
5.1 Research Methodology................................................................................................28
5.1.1 Secondary control ................................................................................................28
5.1.2 Proposed power sharing method ...........................................................................28
5.2 Simulation and Discussion ..........................................................................................30
6. Conclusion and Future Research ........................................................................................ 32
6.1 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................32
6.2 Future Research ..........................................................................................................32
Reference .................................................................................................................................. 33
Publications .............................................................................................................................. 37
iii
List of Figures
Figure 1- 1: Global Renewable power capacity in 2016 (in GW) and Top six nations ..................1
Figure 1- 2: Microgrid physical layout [7] ...................................................................................2
Figure 2- 1: Generalized microgrid structure ...............................................................................7

Figure 2- 3: A microgrid supervisory control architecture ...........................................................8
Figure 2- 4: Schematic diagram of a MAS architecture for a decentralized microgrid ..................9
Figure 3- 1. Equivalent schematic of two parallel-DGs in an islanded MG[34] .......................... 10

Figure 3- 2: Block diagram of the power controller.[40] ........................................................... 12
Figure 3- 3: The DER control block diagram ............................................................................ 15
Figure 3- 4: Droop-control method for LV MG with the Virtual resistor[50] ............................ 17
Figure 3- 5: Primary and secondary control ac Microgrid .......................................................... 18
Figure 4- 1: Detailed equivalent circuit of the controlled network model .................................. 21

Figure 4- 2: proposed adaptive power-sharing strategy with Virtual Impedance PI controller. .. 23
Figure 4- 3: Active power sharing and frequency with conventional droop control ................... 25
Figure 4- 4: Active power sharing and frequency with the proposed control technique ............ 25
Figure 4- 5: Reactive power sharing and output voltage with conventional droop control ........ 25
Figure 4- 6: Reactive power sharing and output voltage with the proposed control technique ... 26
Figure 4- 7: Conventional method: (a)Active power, (b) reactive power, (c) Output Voltage ..... 27
Figure 4- 8: Proposed method: (a)Active power, (b) reactive power, (c) Output Voltage .......... 27
Figure 5- 1: A MG power control structure with the virtual impedance scheme ..................... 28
Figure 5- 2: Voltage-Current control based PI-multi-resonant controller ................................... 29
Figure 5- 3: Voltage output with classic droop method............................................................... 30
Figure 5- 4: Reactive power output with classic droop method ................................................. 30
Figure 5- 5: Voltage output with the proposed approach ........................................................... 30
Figure 5- 6: Reactive power with the designed control scheme ................................................ 30
Figure 5- 7: Active power out considering unbalance and nonlinear loads ................................ 30
Figure 5- 8: System frequency with the suggested method ........................................................ 30
Figure 5- 9: Restored system frequency .................................................................................... 31
Figure 5- 10: Restored output voltage ....................................................................................... 31
iv
List of Tables
Table 1- 1 Simulation Parameters ...................................................................................................................... 21
v
List of Abbreviations
DER distributed energy resources
DER distributed energy resources
DG Distributed Generation
DNA Distribution Network operator
LC Local Controller
LPF Low Pass Filter
DVC Distributed Voltage Control
MAS Multiagent System
MG Microgrid
MGCC Microgrid Central Controller
MO Microgrid Operator
MPPT Maximum power point
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PI Proportional Integral Controller
PIR Proportional Integral Control
PSO Particle Swam Optimization
RES Renewable Energy Sources
VSC Voltage Source conv
vi
1. General Introduction
1.1 Background and motivation
The rapid growth of electricity demand, the scarcity of fossil fuels, environmental pollution
and economic problems have become the challenges of traditional power grids. Traditional
centralized networks are no longer able to provide sustainable economic distribution for
dynamically balancing loads and production, thereby protecting environmentally friendly energy
production. In recent decades, traditional power systems have been relayed on a few large
centralized power plants to generate large amounts of energy. Small autonomous networks have
existed in isolated communities for decade, and for technical and financial reasons these
communities are unable to interconnect with main grids. For instance, the current rapid growth in
global energy consumption has led to a gradual decline in fossil fuels and other non-renewable
resources[1] [2] .
Figure 1- 1: Global Renewable power capacity in 2016 (in GW) and Top six nations
In order to modernize the system and reduce overall energy demand, new shifts in the
efficient production, distribution and use of energy, production capacity and energy are needed,
while minimizing environmental impacts [3] . Renewable Distributed Generation (DG), including
photovoltaic and wind power systems, offers several advantages, including sustainability, zero
1
emissions, and the benefits of major energy sources that are almost ubiquitous[4] .
The main advantages of the DG system include providing electricity locally, reducing
electricity network investment, operating costs and transmission line losses, and reducing
environmental pollution to address power shortages and global climate change issues[3].
Technically, power plants can reduce load levels, improve voltage curves for feeders, branch and
substation transformers, reduce losses, avoid energy production costs, and improve distribution
and transmission capabilities [5][2].
Figure 1- 2: Microgrid physical layout [7]
The integration of unregulated renewable energy that is difficult to control in a power

distribution system can result in power system outages and system instability. Therefore, MG is a
solution that provides efficient and reliable integration of distributed generation in a distributed
network while reducing disruption. However, the high permeability of renewable resources and
their electronic power interfaces remains a challenge for reliable operation and mains grid stability
because of their intermittent nature, which also requires changes in the structure of the power
system.
Through a cluster of multiple distributed generators, power storage, loads, power electronics
interfaces and controllers, the MG can be used as an Autonomous power entity and manage local
components to reduce the negative effects of External power network[2]. To ensure power
continuity and minimize the difference between energy supply and demand, smart grid paradigms
must be introduced, including demand response, energy efficiency and energy efficiency solutions.
2
Integration of renewable energy[6].

There are several issues that affect the efficient operation of the MG. They can be classified
according to the operating mode of the MG. The load sharing strategy is a key requirement of the
isolation mode MG between different distribution generating units. This active and reactive power
should be properly distributed among all UGDs. The performance of the MG connected to the
network is determined by the host network, which makes the control and reaction of the active
energy flow an important task to control the output power of the MG [7],[8],[9] .
Droop control method is preferred primarily because of its operational characteristics and without
the need for communication. However, it has disadvantages, especially due to the difference in
line impedance when operating under non-linear loads, resulting in inaccurate reactive power
sharing [10] . For a MG consisting of parallel distributed generations (DG) of different feeder
impedance, the DG whose smaller feeder impedance responds more quickly when the system load
changes take more shared power. This is due to its lower inertia making its time response shorter
than other higher impedance DGs[11].
The role of secondary control in traditional hierarchical control the to re-establish the voltage
and frequency a their nominal values [12] and this allows an identical distribution of the reactive
power. Auxiliary control loops have been proposed in central controllers and low bandwidth
communication links for accurately sharing reactive power between inverters with different line
impedances.
1.2 Research content
The realization of a reliable grid regulation with considering sharing of power demand in parallel
Distributed Generations (DG) of islanded MG has become significant technical challenge.
[13].The economical operational and stability of MG relays on reliable power distribution between
its DGs units. The mismatch of impedance of DG’s feeders and inequality of DGs power rating
are the source of reactive power when classic droop scheme applied. The problem become
complex when line impedance discrepancy and either nonlinear or unbalanced loads involved.
Distributed generation requires the distribution of load power requirements at their respective
rated powers to avoid low DG unit overload. Due to the distributed function of the MG, the parallel
DG unit can use different amounts of unbalanced power. DG units near unbalanced loads will
absorb most of the unbalanced power, which can overload some DG units and increase power loss.
Therefore, the MG control method should also allow for equitable sharing of unbalanced power
[14], [15]
The poor reactive power can result in voltage instability and collapse and the frequency
disturbance is caused by imbalance between system load and production. Insufficient reactive
power due to line interruptions, imbalances between power generation and load are major triggers
3
for large-scale power outages around the world.
1.3 Research objectives
To solve the aforementioned problems the designed control method in this study should meet
the following objectives:
The purpose of this research is to design a control strategy which provide a balance power
sharing between three parallel connected inverters with difference in output feeder impedance and
taking into account different variety of loads. To do this a voltage drop compensation scheme is
investigated to recompense and balance the unbalance of voltage drop across line impedance. The
Microgrid Central controller is employed to provide the reactive power error which is then
broadcasted to each DG local controller to determine the rated reactive power. Hence the auto-
tuned virtual impedance scheme is designed based on the reactive power error and controlled by
the Proportional integral controller. Finally, the multi-resonant proportion integral is applied in the
voltage control loop to allow an efficient supply and distribution of reactive power when
nonlinear loads are connected.
1.4 Methodology and scope
The MG studied in this work is an islanded MG. Therefore, its operation is not affected by the
main grid. In standalone mode, the system frequency and voltage amplitude are only controlled by
the DG unit connected via the VSI interface. As a result, power shares difficult tasks between
several DG units in an isolated MG. In addition, when operating with a non-linear load, there is
inaccurate reactive power sharing due to line impedance differences [11]. For MGs consisting of
different parallel distributed generation (DG) with different starting impedances, a smaller starting
impedance response with a faster DG requires more shared power when the system load changes.
This is due to its lower inertia making its time response shorter than other higher impedance
DGs[11]
In this study, the MG has all inverters of the same rating and the same gain for accurate
analysis of balanced power distribution. The literature [17] reported the choice of droop gain. To
obtain the proper resonant frequency, the filter inductor is connected to the filter capacitor. In
addition, in order to perform accurate voltage regulation on the common bus, a large coupled
inductor is used to provide an acceptable coupling impedance between the connection bus and the
drive output.
In the design of the V-I loop, the standard PI gain is applied to ensure the accurate output
voltage and current. To obtain proper low output impedance and improved interference rejection,
the direct acting gain has been utilized for current control loop of the inverter system [16]. Table
1 shows the detailed parameters for controlling and configuring the MG.
4
1.5 Organization of the thesis

This manuscript is arranged in 6 chapters. This chapter presents background of the study,
motivation of the research as well as the research objective.
In Chapter 2, microgrid structure is discussed. In this chapter a diversity of microgrid

components and their function in functioning of islanded or connected MGs are detailed in
additional to the brief explanation of MG working principle. A summary of the operation of MG
is provided together with an introduction of various microgrids control approaches.
Chapter 3 compares different techniques used in power sharing among parallel connected
inverters. It begins with an overview of reactive power sharing problem considering the
discrepancy of line impedance and load complexity. Conventional droop control modifications are
compared with other enhanced method as well as programming-based approach.
Chapter 4 discussed a proposed method referring to the previous published paper in [17]
improved virtual impedance method for controlling power sharing to overcome the weaknesses of
conventional methods in an AC microgrid. Section 3 is envisioned to ensure a balanced distribution
of reactive and active power between several DGs with different feeder impedances in the
stationary and transient states. The method is based on a strategy for different feeders between
parallel inverters in a distributed power source (DG), by adaptive virtual impedance. This chapter
discusses the development of improved virtual impedance to ensure balanced distribution of
reactive and active power between several DGs with different feeder impedances in the stationary
and transient states. The proposed virtual negative resistance and inductance compensate for the
line resistance and create a separation of the inductive power supply, thereby improving the sharing
of reactive power in the microgrid.
Chapter 5 discussed the power sharing considering load linearity and unbalanced conditions.
This is an improvement of the previous chapter where only the method was tested taking into
account line impedance, linear loads and local loads. Thus, this chapter introduce the harmonic
compensation scheme in the voltage control loop to remove harmonics caused by nonlinear loads
which are generally dc loads. Finally, the voltage and frequency deviation are recovered through
the secondary control level.
In Chapter 6 the conclusion is discussed giving the overview of the whole work also the
suggested future work is given.
5
2. Microgrid: Structure, Components, and Principles of

Operation
2.1 Introduction
The MG is typically at the low voltage level of the electrical system, often having the total
installed capacity below the MW range[18][19]. MG prioritize the local power source of the
adjacent local load. A small portion of the intermediate voltage (MV) network may exist in the
MG for interconnect functionality. In order to achieve stable island operations, the MG must meet
the high storage capacity and rated capacity requirements of the DG unit to provide a constant
supply of all loads or to rely on the flexibility of the primary requirements.
The MG can operate in connected mode during emergency conditions, thus improving
customer reliability, also it can operate in connected mode on the distribution network. Small
island systems are usually determined by coordinated control of their resources. Therefore, they
may also be referred to as MGs depending on their size and their degree of penetration and control.
The working principle of the MG relays on three main factors that affect its operation
features. At the beginning, there are connection types of distributed energy (DER). In addition, the
operation of the MG depends on the type of DC/AC converter that connects the DER to the
network or load. These power electronic converters greatly affect the performance of the MG due
to its low inertia and the generation of high harmonic levels in the system. Finally, the control loop
used in the MG inverter determines its performance and efficiency [7][12].
2.2 Structure and components

Figure 2-1 shows a conventional MG structure consisting of two types of electrical loads:
fixed and flexible or adjustable loads, DER with plug-and-play capability, main controller,
intelligent switches, and protection in islanded and connected mode of operation, control and
automation systems
DERs comprises decentralized generation sources and battery storages that are available in
electricity generation or at consumer end. Their DGs can be classified as dispatchable DG when
they are controlled by the MG's main controller. They also depend on technical constraints related
to the production unit, such as size and ramp limits, least OFF and ON limits, fuel limits and
emission limits. On the other hand, non- dispatchable units that are a renewable source of energy,
for example solar or wind, are not controlled by the main controller MG, because their source of
entry is uncontrollable. No dispatchable unit mainly corresponds to intermittent output power [4].
6
Distributed Generation (DG) Unit

DC/AC AC/DC
DC/DC AC/DC
DC/AC AC/DC
PCC DC/AC AC/DC
Isolating
Device DC/DC AC/DC
To Grid
DC/DC Energy Storage Unit
Central Controller
DC/AC Local Load
Figure 2- 1: Generalized microgrid structure
PCC and the circuit breaker, in accordance with the regulations on standard interfaces,
connect the MG to the main distribution network. The circuit breaker links the entire MG to the
distribution system referring to the selected operating mode [20]. Sources on distribution outlets
allow a complete exploration of situations where DG units are located far from the common power
bus to avoid line losses [21].
2.3 Working principle of microgrid
MGs exchange power with the main power grid wen operating in grid connected mode. On
the other hand, in the islanded mode, the MG supplies its local loads and ensure an efficient
management power output of generations units. Both voltage and frequency are controlled by the
local control unit. This islanding situation can be scheduled or unexpected [1][22]. When the
main grid fails at the distribution level, DG unit and the corresponding loads can be disconnected
from the MG by the load that disconnects the network independently to prevent damage to the
equipment transportation network.[23][24][25]
2.4 Control of microgrid
As a modular and controllable unit, the MG must provide power to customers and perform
these functions. Therefore, effective management and control within the MG is necessary[26].The
key variables used to manage MG operations are voltage, frequency, active and reactive power.
Therefore, the key role of the MG in this case is to consider the active and reactive power generated
7
by the DER unit, as well as the load requirements. When the MG operates as a standalone, it faces
more challenges than running in grid connected mode. An accurate load sharing mechanism is
needed to balance the sudden mismatch of active power. The distribution network no longer
supports the voltage and frequency of the MG[26].
2.5 Microgrid Supervisory Control
The MG must perform all functions through its control system, such as power and/or thermal
energy supply, participate in the energy market, pre-defined service levels for critical loads, black
start after failure, provide ancillary services, etc. In order to achieve these goals, application
centralized or decentralized supervision Control, within hierarchical control [3]
DNO MO
Microgrid A Microgrid X
Microgrid B
MGCC
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC ...
Figure 2- 2: A microgrid supervisory control architecture
A distributed network operator (DNO) is used for an area with multiple MGs. Market
operators (MOs) are responsible for the market functions of each particular region. DNO and MO
are not available at the MG level, but are provided by the distribution network [33]. The interface
between the MC and DNO and MO is the central controller MG (MCC). By communicating with
the DNO / MO controller and the local C controller, the MCC is the links MG and the utility grid
[3]
8
2.6 Centralized Microgrid Control
In order to ensure reliable system security, effective market price and optimal local
production, in addition to the shading of output power amongst mobile gateway and the
distribution system, a centralized algorithm is applied. This is done by defining a control reference
on the DER unit where the controllable load belongs to the MG. A two-way data exchange between
the central controller MG (MCC) and the local controller (LC) is shown in FIG. 2. DER LCs
provide MCC with a quote for its production level based on market price and unit capacity.
Similarly, the charging company, in consideration of market policies, considers its service priority
and submits a bid for its power demands. Taking into account market policies, MCC manages
DER and load quotes, market prices, network security limits, renewable production and production
forecasts, production set point DER units, and activates the next optimization period of the LC
bidding process[3]
2.7 Decentralized Microgrid Control
Figure 2- 3: Schematic diagram of a MAS architecture for a decentralized microgrid
This method is intended to offer complete autonomous operation to the MGs and its
components. Therefor it establishes a communication between components which results in
intelligent operation of the microgrid.
In theory, MAS is an advanced form of traditional distributed control systems that control
large, complex entities. The difference between MAS and traditional distributed control
technology is that the software of the corresponding agent can be installed in local intelligence.
Each agent uses its own intelligence to know the next behavior and influence its surrounding
autonomously[3].
9
3. Overview of power sharing methods in Hierarchical

Controlled MGs
3.1 Introduction
Controlling the power of non-radial distribution systems of complexes of various renewable

energy sources where several of them include plug-and-play functionality is a more difficult task.
In this configuration, the new installation of the DG does not change the existing control structure
of the MG. The usual method for achieving this "plug and play" is characterized by the operational
characteristics mimicked in a parallel normal synchronous generator, which is the initially
recommended for uninterrupted power Supply (UPS) [38].
3.2 Problems of the Reactive Power Sharing in the Droop Control
Generally, for an inductive system, the active power frequency (p-) and reactive power
voltage (Q − V) droop control is used as indicated in (1). Two parallel DG units where Z1 and
Z2 are feeder impedance of line 1 and line 2 respectively are shown in Figure 3- 1. Droop control
is the most conventional and applicable control method for power sharing in MGs by adjustment
of frequency and output voltage amplitude. This control method is preferred mainly due to its
features of operating with no communication requirements.
Figure 3- 1. Equivalent schematic of two parallel-DGs in an islanded MG [34]
However, it has some downsides which include inaccurate reactive power sharing caused
by the discrepancy in line impedance when operating with nonlinear loads[10]. For a MG
consisting of parallel distributed generations (DG) of different feeder impedance, the DG with
10
smaller feeder impedance responds more quickly when the system load changes and takes more
shared power. This is due to its lower inertia that makes its time response shorter than the other
DGs with larger impedances[27] [11].
The active and reactive power involved is given are;
 X i  X Li   Ei cos  i  VPCC 2    Ri  RLi  EiVPCC sin 

Pi  (3-1)
 xi  X Li    Ri  RLi 
2 2
 X i  X Li   Ei cos  i  VPCC 2    Ri  RLi  EiVPCC sin 

Qi  (3-2)
 X i  X Li    Ri  RLi 
2 2
When power angle  is small enough, we can assume that that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑖 = 1. In
addition, when the resistance of the power supply impedance system is very low compared with
the reactance, can be rewritten as;
EiVPCC i VPCC  Ei  VPCC 

Pi  Qi  (3-3)
X i  X Li X i  X Li
According to(3-3), the reactive power of the DG is related to the impedance of the power supply.
The voltage and reactive droop coefficient 𝑛𝑞𝑖 of the common coupling point 𝑉𝑃𝐶𝐶 is given as
VPCC  E *i  VPCC 
Qi  (3-4)
 X i  X Li   nqiVPCC
As given in (4), an imbalance of reactive power still exists even though the two frequency
generators have coefficients at which the voltage is equal to the same capacity and the droop is
used. This is the result of the difference between the power supply impedance conditions
𝑋i 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋Li [28]. There is a characteristic of the slight limitation of reactive power. The
conventional droop control sharing must be static enough to avoid frequency deviation. Under
normal circumstances, the increased voltage drop factor increases the partition of reactive power
also reduces its error on the other hand leads to significant voltage deviations in steady state.
Conventional droop algorithms can provide balanced sharing of active power for inductive
networks, while in resistive networks, the active power and reactive power are coupled, which
makes managing difficult [29][30]Therefore, once realized in a low voltage MG system, this
method has some special problems, as described in [28]
11
3.3 Power sharing with the Conventional Frequency and Voltage

Droop Method
In a typical power system, a synchronous generator will distribute every rise of system load
by using droop characteristics to drop down the frequency. The control scheme operating without
a communication link for power sharing is based on droop. Remote operation of the inverter
without a communication link is necessary to avoid complexity and high cost while enlightening
the reliability requirements of the monitoring system. In addition, this system is easier to extend
because the plug-and-play functionality of the module allows the device to be replaced without
shutting down the entire structure[31] [32]. This achieve the features of plug and play [8].
The communication dependency of parallel connected inverters can be prevented by the

droop control algorithm. This is referred as wireless control method where there is no physical
interconnection of inverters.
  n  m p P
 (3-5)
U  U  nq Q
*
Where U ∗ is the magnitude of the output reference voltage, n is the nominal angular
frequency; Pi, Q i_i is the active and reactive power calculated from the measured output voltage
and the output current of the inverter terminal, respectively[29]. Thus, the voltage reference of the
converter U ∗ is synthesized by  and U in the synchronous reference frame. The voltage output
then applies U ∗ 𝑟𝑒𝑓 to the voltage V-I control loop to create the converter's pulse width modulated
input signal command [33]
Figure 3- 2: Block diagram of the power controller.[40]
12
The droop control illustration with power calculation depicted in Figure 3- 2. A low pass
filter is used to extract the fundamental components of the output power as shown below.
Pi  ci Pi  ci (vodi iodi  voqiioqi ) (3-6)
Qi  ci Qi  ci (voqi iodi  vodiioqi ) (3-7)
Where vodi , voqi , iodi , and ioqi are dc components
3.4 Selection of the proposed voltage droop scheme parameters

The droop coefficients on the trades-off 𝑃 − 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, also relays on the 𝑄 − 𝑈relationship
[39]. The frequency droop factor is designed to distribute the load requirements between the VSC
with respect to their real power ratings and to account for the peak frequency. Therefore, the
following equation should be satisfied.
m p1 Pn1  m p 2 Pn 2  m p 3 Pn3  ...  m pN Pn1N  max (3-8)
The coefficients n p ,n q are calculated to set a static trade-off between distribution of reactive
power between the DGs especially during periods of high load, as well as precise adjustment of
the voltage across the load bus. To this end, in the first step, the maximum allowable voltage
deviation of each respective voltage drops in the proposed voltage drop arrangement and its
component are selected, provided that
Emax  En  Eq  E p (3-9)
Since the load distribution has to be proportional to the reactive power of the DG unit, the
system parameters must be cautiously selected:
n01Qn1  n02Qn 2  ...  n0 N QnN  En (3-10)
kq1Q 3n1  kq 2Q 3n2  ...  kqN Q 3nN  Eq (3-11)
k p1 P 2 n1Qn1  k p 2 P 2 n 2Qn 2  ...  k pN P 2 n 2QnN  EP (3-12)
Where Qni is reactive power rating of VSCi. Equations, (3-11) and (3-12)give
D1 (P1n , Q1n ) Q1n  ...  D N (PNn , Q Nn ) Q Nn  Emax (3-13)
This demonstrates that the load sharing in VSCs is proportional to the reactive power of the units.
13
3.5 Secondary Control

As mentioned earlier, primary control can result in frequency and voltage deviations. Energy
storage systems are sometimes used to compensate for such voltage abnormality and frequencies
due to their ability to provide power to the system load. The main control is realized in each local
DG. The auxiliary controller is used as a normal centralized control called a central controller MG.
It recovers the voltage and amplitude frequencies and recompenses deviations produced by the
main control level. This recover the deviated voltage magnitude and diverged frequency.
∗ ∗
Detecting 𝜔𝑀𝐺 and 𝐸𝑀𝐺 , and comparing them with reference 𝜔𝑀𝐺 and 𝐸𝑀𝐺 difference
managed by compensators 𝛿𝐸 along with 𝛿𝜔 referred to each DG unit to recover the voltage
amplitude and frequency
  K P (ref   )  K i  (ref   )dt  s (3-14)
 E  K PE (v ref   )  K iE  (v ref  E )dt (3-15)
Because K p , K i , K pE , KiE we are control parameters for the auxiliary control level. The
additional term s in the frequency controller allows the media gateway to synchronize with
the main gate. In standalone mode, this item is neglected. But, during synchronization, the PLL
module is essential for measurement
3.6 Voltage and current control loop of the grid-forming converter
In this research the PI controllers possess infinite gain and therefore cannot eliminate steady
state errors at the fundamental frequency. Hence, it is necessary to apply the negative sequence
and the positive sequence separately to adjust the unbalanced disturbance current. Therefore, the
combination of the ratio and the resonance term forms the PIR to eliminate the steady-state error
though following the reducing harmonics in the sinusoidal signal and voltage. Also, harmonic
compensators can be added to improve power quality. Figure 3- 3 shows the control loop for voltage
and current. It contains some feedback and feedforward terms to decouple the dynamics of the
dq − axis axis [34].
14
Figure 3- 3: The DER control block diagram
The algebraic equations of the V-I are shown below:

ild ( ref )  Fiod  nC f U oq  k pv (U od ( ref )  U od )  kiv  d (3-16)
ilq ( ref )  Fioq  nC f U od  k pv (U oq ( ref )  U oq )  kiv  q (3-17)
According to the current controller structure of Figure 7, PWM block moderate the voltage
output generated by the current control loop as given by;
U id ( ref )  n L f ilq  k pc (ild ( ref )  ild )  kic d (3-18)
U iq ( ref )  n L f ilq  k pc (ild (ref )  ild )  kic q (3-19)
The dynamic equations of the LC filter with the coupling inductance is given by
diild Rf 1
  iild  (uid  uod )  oiilq (3-20)
dt Lf Lf
diilq Rf 1
 iilq  (uiq  uoq )  oiild (3-21)
dt Lf Lf
where R f Lf and Cf represents LC filter parameters and the feed-forward voltage is given
bellow .More details are discussed in [34],[16].
uref i ffd  R f  iid ( ref )  o  L f iiq  uod

(3-22)
uref i ffq  R f  iiq ( ref )  o  L f iiq  uoq
15
3.7 Improved control strategies for the reactive power sharing of

islanded microgrid
3.7.1 Active power sharing with inductive feeder impedance
To deal with the above mentioned challenges, the suggested scheme employs adaptive
transient features to assuming an improved droop function to provide an adaptive active damping
device for the power sharing method as given in the following equation.
dP
0     mP  md (3-23)
dt
dQ
v 0d  V   nQ  nd (3-24)
dt
Where 𝑚𝑑 is an adaptive gain and 𝑛𝑑 is a control parameter
In this autonomous method, the dynamic performance of real power distribution is realized
with less effects on the system stability. As given in above equations, this method can improve the
reliability of the MG, but then again it does not consider the dynamic stability of active power
sharing under diverse working circumstances of the MG. [34]
3.7.2 Improved P - V/Q - f Droop Control under Resistive Feeder Impedance

Condition
The traditional P − f , Q − v droop scheme is not accurate for power sharing under the
resistor MG network or low voltage MG, where the line parameters R i , Xi and typical current
ratings are given. High, medium and low voltage lines [35][36]. In [36], a new control circuit
was developed based on the virtual resistor 𝑅𝑣 , improving current separation and limiting the
voltage drop in a small range, so the steady-state as wee as transient response of parallel DGS
without the use of coupling signals is improved, as indicated below.
vref  v0  Z v ( s )io (3-25)
Where 𝑍𝑉(𝑠) is the virtual output impedance. The value of 𝑍𝑉(𝑠) must be greater to 𝑍𝑜(𝑠) and
extreme expected line impedance.
16
Figure 3- 4: Droop-control method for LV MG with the Virtual resistor [50]
The results of the virtual resistor are to remove a small portion of the original output voltage
reference. Therefore, the design of the dumping resistor Rs is not only to ameliorate the distribution
of current nevertheless to avoid the dropping of the output voltage.
3.7.3 Active Power Sharing Strategies under Unknown Feeder Impedance

Condition
As discussed, for low voltage systems with large X / R ratios, classic control algorithm relays
on frequency and voltage drops for the respective both real and reactive. But it reduces frequency
and voltage levels relatively to their loading conditions [52].
Both adaptive droop and optimized droop control can achieve equivalent power sharing
ensuring high disturbance rejection performance and at the same time eliminate voltage and
frequency deviation as proven in[39]. In these two-control scheme the dynamic stability of active
power sharing is assured. However, they are not suitable for interconnected DGs and system with
a complex feeder impedance. To enhance the stability of a MG with unknown line impedances
and decoupling techniques was suggested in[40] . Their disadvantage is that they are not good
for complex MG systems and the rea power allocation is not efficient though the cost of generation
is not even considered [41]. The problem is that the cost of generation was not taken in account
and the proportional active power is not achieved[42].
Adaptive droop and optimized droop control enable equivalent power sharing, ensuring high
disturbance rejection while eliminating voltage and frequency deviations, as discussed in [48 [39].
17
However, they are not suitable for multiple DG units and systems with complex power impedances.
For improving the transient response and stability of MGs with unknown feed impedance,
decoupling techniques and improved PV and Of attenuation control have been proposed in [40].
Their disadvantage is that they are not suitable for complex MG systems, and the proportional
sharing of effective power is not efficient and even does not take into account production costs.
Considering unidentified line impedance conditions. A networked based MGs power allocation
is suggested in [[43][44][41]to improve active power sharing. Impedance in unknown lines and
improved dynamic performance. The problem is that production costs are not taken into account
and the proportional active power has not yet been reached[45] [42].
3.7.4 Conventional Reactive Power Sharing Strategies in the Secondary

Control
Consensus-based distributed voltage control (DVC) is proposed in [46]. It cracks the

difficulties of sharing reactive power in an independent MG using an inverter with an inductive
power line and an uninformed power topology. This control scheme promises a desired reactive
power allocation in a steady state without a central controller or communication unit.
Figure 3- 5: Primary and secondary control ac Microgrid
18
The Optimized the secondary control equations are available for complex MGs and can
provide active and reactive power sharing without high bandwidth communication. In addition,
the graph theory simplifies the control law and restores the frequency deviation. Disadvantages
are communication delays in low-bandwidth communication, and control equations must be
optimized in MGs with complex loads[47]
3.7.5 Reactive power sharing based programming algorithm
However, the algorithm defined in the literature does not consider the ability of a single RES,
and its apparent power is limited. If the active power is usually calculated from the MPPT
algorithm, the resulting limit of the almost nominal view conversion algorithm is equal to that
power sharing cannot be used as an overload may occur, which may result in damage or does not
include the operation of the RES unit[46] . The purpose of the virtual frequency power control
strategy is based on [48], where the phase angle changes due to virtual frequency variations,
thereby eliminating fluctuations in the actual frequency that cause load changes. Power controller
sharing active and reactive power as shown.
The programing-based control method are appropriate to prevent the system overloading and
equipment damage. They ensure proportional power sharing and equipment safety furthermore
they are appropriate for application in a complex MG with a good performance and expendability
on the other hand these algorithm are difficult in design for complex MG application [42].
19
4. Enhanced Virtual Impedance for Power Sharing Control

in the AC Microgrid
4.1 Research Methodology
4.1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes an improved virtual impedance method for controlling power sharing
to overcome the weaknesses of conventional methods in an AC microgrid. Section 3 is intended
to ensure a balanced distribution of reactive and active power between several DGs with different
feeder impedances in the stationary and transient states. The method is based on a strategy for
different feeders between parallel inverters in a distributed power source (DG), by adaptive virtual
impedance. This chapter discusses the development of improved virtual impedance to ensure
balanced distribution of reactive and active power between several DGs with different feeder
impedances in the stationary and transient states. The proposed virtual negative resistance and
inductance compensate for the line resistance and create a separation of the inductive power supply,
thereby improving the sharing of reactive power in the microgrid. The target is achieved by
adjusting the reduced characteristics and parameters of the controller in MATLAB / Simulink
without physically connecting the actual devices in the micro-network. The complex dynamic
configuration of microgrids containing local and common/common loads between DGs is studied,
which deteriorates the reactance distribution.
4.1.2 System description

In this study, a 10KVA standalone AC MG consisting of three DGs of equal rating as shown
in Fig.1 with the control block diagram of each DG shown in Fig.5 is used in the investigations.
The MG and its proposed power sharing control approach validated in MATLAB/Simulink
environment. The detailed control and configuration parameters of the MG are given in Table1.
The MG has all the inverters with the same rating and droop gains for accurate analysis of balanced
power sharing.
The selection of the droop gains. In order to get a suitable resonant frequency, a filter
inductor is connected to a filter capacitor. In addition, for an accurate voltage regulation at the
common bus, a large coupling inductance is used to ensure an acceptable coupling impedance
between the connection bus and the inverter output. In the design of voltage-current control loops,
the standard PI gains are used to provide the accurate output voltage and current. For the sake of a
suitable low output impedance and enhanced disturbance rejection, the feedforward gain was
applied in the current control loop of the inverter system[16]. The simulation parameter shown in
table 3 are given in [17]
20
Table 4- 1 Simulation Parameters
Description Parameter Value

Input DC Voltage 𝑉𝐷𝐶 700V
DG Unit Rating 𝑆 10KVA
Nominal VL_L 𝑉0 310V
Nominal Frequency 𝑓 60Hz
Switching Frequency 𝑓𝑠 31.41rad/s
Frequency Droop Coe. 𝑚𝑝 12 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑊
Voltage droop Coe. 𝑛𝑞 1.5 × 10−3 𝑉/𝑣𝑎𝑟
Feeder 1 Impedance 𝑍1 0.224 + 𝑗9.24 ×Ω
Feeder 2 Impedance 𝑍2 0.381 + 𝑗15 × 10−4 Ω
Feeder 3 Impedance 𝑍3 0.642 + 𝑗26 × 10−4 Ω
LC Filter 𝐿𝑓 , 𝐶𝑓 , 𝑟𝑓 5 × 10−3 𝐻; 0.2Ω; 0.75 × 10−6 𝐹
Coupling Inductor 𝐿𝑐 , 𝑟𝐿𝑐 5 × 10−3 𝐻; 0.2Ω

Virtual Impedance 𝐿𝑣 , 𝑅𝑣 0.32 × 10−3 𝐻; 0.04Ω
Vir.Imp PI Controller 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 1,1
V.C PI Gain 𝐾𝑝𝑣 , 𝐾𝑖𝑣 0.05; 390
C.C. PI Gain 𝐾𝑝𝑐 , 𝐾𝑖𝑐 , 𝐹 10.5; 16000; 0.75
*VL-L – Line to line Voltage; Coe – Coefficient; Vir. Imp – Virtual Impedance; V.C- Voltage Controller; C.C- Current
Controller.
4.1.3 Proposed Control Approach

To solve the inaccuracy of power sharing due to the output impedance mismatch a virtual
impedance control loop is designed which includes a virtual resistance 𝑅𝑣 and a virtual
inductance 𝐿𝑣 . Traditionally the physical resistance is used to ensure for system . On the other
hand it is limited by the low efficiency due to the ohmic and power losses.
Energy Rv X v R1 X1  R1  X 1
Source
DG1 Uv U d1 U
Local Controller U DG1
UL1
UP
CC
U DG 2 R2 X2
Energy
Source
DG2 UL2
Local Controller
Load
Figure 4- 1: Detailed equivalent circuit of the controlled network model
21
The proposed virtual resistance offers high level of efficiency as it provides a control loop
which make it different from the physical resistance. In this manner, there is a possibility of
implementing an efficient power sharing control with no power losses in the virtual resistance.
Furthermore, the virtual inductance is added in the controller to improve the active and reactive
power decoupling that boosts the stability and performance of the droop control[49].
The main goal is to boost the line impedance virtually so that the feeder voltage losses in all
three circuits are equal. By accurately selecting the appropriate parameters using the virtual droop,
improved control of the droop by voltage compensation introduced into the power loop can be
obtained as given by (32) and shown in Figure 4- 2. Detailed equivalent circuit of the controlled
network model . The virtual voltage magnitude 𝑈𝑣𝑝 considering the common bus voltage 𝑈𝑃𝐶𝐶 ,
line voltage drop 𝑈𝑙𝑖 and virtual voltage drop 𝑈𝑣𝑖 is given as follow
U vp  U PCC  U li  U vi (4-1)
In this case, the virtual voltage drop 𝑈𝑣𝑑 is calculated from the filter output current and the
virtual impedance control outputs. The virtual voltage drop is given by;
U vd  Rv I od  X v I oq
(4-2)
U vq  Rv I oq  X v I od
The reference voltage is given by


 Uod  U vpd  U vd
*
 (4-3)
 U oq  U vpq  U vq
*

As stated in the previous sections, the three inverters must provide the same reactive power.
Figure 4- 3 illustrates the proposed adaptive power sharing strategy. By applying a proportional-
integral (PI) controller with a virtual impedance coefficient [11], the reactive power difference
should be kept close to zero in transient mode. Starting from (3-4), the sharing error of reactive
power between 𝑖 𝑡ℎ and 𝑗𝑡ℎ and DG units operating in parallel with𝑄𝑖 is given by (4-4)
Qi  Q j X j  Xi
Qi j   (4-4)
Qi X j  nq jVpcc
22
PWM
𝑈𝑜𝑑 , 𝑈𝑜𝑞
𝑈𝑜𝑖
Power
P n    m p P 1
wt
LC filter abc/dq
Calculation LPF 𝑆
𝑖𝑜𝑖 𝐼𝑜𝑑 , 𝐼𝑜𝑞
U od
U dref
Q U ref  U  nq Q
*
()
LPF U*d(ref)
𝐼𝑜𝑑 , 𝐼𝑜𝑞 U dComp
()
Ri iod  X i ioq Voltage & PWM

Current
Ri ioq  X i iod Control
U q()Comp
U *q(ref)
Qi  Q j X j  Xi
Qi j   PI 0
Qi X j  nq jV pcc U qref
()
U oq
Figure 4- 2: proposed adaptive power-sharing strategy with Virtual Impedance PI controller.
From (4-4), the reactive power sharing error is connected to the inductive impedance, the
magnitude voltage available at the PCC, the difference in the reactance impedance 𝑋𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 𝑉𝑃𝐶𝐶 and
the droop coefficient 𝑛𝑞𝑗 . From the proposed model, the reactive the sharing error is calculated.
The change in load demand affects the output power of each DG. The MGCC which is a secondary
control layer provides a ∆𝑄 error which is regulated by the virtual resistance and eliminated to
have a balanced power sharing among all generation units.
To limit the harmonics arising from nonlinear elements such as the virtual inductance(𝐿𝑣 ), line
inductance(𝐿𝑙 ) and filter capacitance (𝐶𝑓 ) an LCL is used. The principle of designing the filter is
based on the following equation.
 10 f1  f1  f h

 fL  1 (4-5)
 (2 L f C f )
where 𝑓1 , 𝑓𝐿 and 𝑓ℎ are the respective fundamental frequency, filter cut-off frequency and
the minimum harmonic frequency. A slight series resistance is connected with LC filter to limit
the resonance in the system. Thus, the transfer function of a complete filter goes here
V0 1/  j11C f  1
G f s   
j1 L f  1/  j1C f   j1  / L 2   1
2
(4-6)
Vi
 
23
where 1 stands for the fundamental angular frequency of the microgrid and L represents
the cut-off frequency of the inverter which can be calculated as
L  1/ L f Cf (4-7)
The filter voltage drop should be ≤ 3% of the voltage output of inverter. This condition is
expressed in the equation bellow,
1
0.97  1 (4-8)
1  12 / L 2
4.2 Simulation Results and Discussion
To obtain the proper resonant frequency, the filter inductor is connected to the filter capacitor.
In addition, in order to perform accurate voltage regulation on the common bus, a large coupled
inductor is used to provide an acceptable coupling impedance between the connection bus and the
drive output. In the design of the V-I loop, the standard PI gain is used to provide accurate output
voltage and current. In order to obtain a lower proper output impedance and improved disturbance
rejection, the feedforward gain was applied in the current control loop of the inverter system[21].
4.2.1 Results
At the start with a constant public load of 2.5kW, the DGs under conventional droop control
in experiences a slight transient in the active power supply which also affects the frequency
response. When the load is increased at 2s and withdrawn at 4s, slight excursions in the active
power supply and frequency response are observed. In comparison with suggest scheme in all DGs
is stable and equally shared at a stable frequency for the reactive power generation and output
voltage in Figure 4- 4, the DGs show significant imbalances. DG1 generates the highest amount of
reactive power which in turn results in the lowest output voltage. DG3 generates the lowest at the
highest output voltage. In relation to the proposed control method, the reactive power amongst all
the DGs is accurately shared at the same output voltage as shown in Figure 4- 5.
24
Figure 4-3: Active power sharing and frequency with conventional droop control
Figure 4- 4: Active power sharing and frequency with the proposed control technique
Figure 4- 5: Reactive power sharing and output voltage with conventional droop control
25
Figure 4-6: Reactive power sharing and output voltage with the proposed control technique
When the a local is connected to the individual DG in additional to the existing common
load at the interval shown Figure 4- 6, the conventional droop control system experiences
significant transients in the active power. In the case of reactive power generation, there is a
considerable imbalance between DGs during this time interval. As a load is imitated locally at
the output of the DG1 at 2s and 4s, the reactive power exceeds the remaining power and the
weakest power generated by DG3. The only local load on the system on the DG2 bus is
accompanied by the highest reactive power output between 3 and 5 seconds. A DG with a local
load at a given time produces a higher reactive power. During this interval, the corresponding
voltage magnitude describes the reverse trend observed in the reactive power output, as shown in
Figure 4- 7. For the proposed control strategy, the active power is accurately shared without any
interference in the interval shown in Figure 4-8b. Alternative generators share balanced reactive
power with equal output voltages, as shown in Figures 4-8b and 4-8c.
(a) (b)
26
(c)
Figure 4-8: Conventional method: (a) Active power, (b) reactive power, (c) Output Voltage
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4- 8: Proposed method: (a) Active power, (b) reactive power, (c) Output Voltage
4.2.2 Discussion
The designed method incorporates an autonomous virtual impedance that is implemented to
to allow an enhanced sharing of reactive power using VPS commands. This is achieved by proper
selection of the virtual inductor and resistor, which allows a stable output voltage to be obtained.
The combination of the voltage compensation obtained virtually promised an efficient power
decoupling. This is different from the traditional droop control method, which does not provide
balanced power sharing due to differences in line impedance. Power distribution can now be shared
equally and efficiently for linear loads either local or common loads no matter how impedance
discrepancy might be high. The introduction of unbalanced and nonlinear loads has been analysed
in the next section of this work
27
5. Secondary Control for Power Sharing in a Standalone

Microgrid under Unequal Feeder Impedance and
Complex Loads
5.1 Research Methodology
5.1.1 Secondary control
Secondary Control
K
f
f MG ( ref ) kpf  if
s
wo
f MG mp
*
P
Q nq
E MG E U d ref
* U *od
E
EMG(ref ) K
kpE  iE
Conventional Droop E U qref  0
s
Virtual Impedance U dv U *oq
 R v
I odi X
iabc acb
dq
v
X v
ioqi U qv
R v
Qi  Q j KiZ
Qij  kpZ 
Qi s
Figure 5- 1: A MG power control structure with the virtual impedance scheme
Local measurements of V-I output is performed by the lower control level to create the reactive
as well as actual power of the classic droop method. The MCC utilize both (40) besides (41) to
restore deviation caused by the main control-level to zero.
5.1.2 Proposed power sharing method

For MGs with parallel operated DGs, the impedance mismatch affects the reactive power
distribution destructively as described in in section 3.2. The practice of a PI in a DC components
offers exact control of sinewave currents regulation of sinusoidal currents in a symmetrical 3𝜑
network. Nevertheless, PI cannot eliminate the steady-state error. The power quality can be
enhanced by applying the harmonic compensator as demonstrated in [34]. In this chapter, PIR has
been applied in V-I control loop to deal with the effects DC voltage unbalanced load and balanced
load create harmonics.
28
Voltage control loop Current control loop
kiv
k pv 
s U id ( ref )
U od ( ref ) ild ( ref )
k2 s kic
s  2wc 2 s  (2w0 ) 2
2 k pc 
s
k6 s wc f F Iod wLf
s  2wc 6 s  (6w0 )2
2
U oq ( ref ) iiq
kiv U od ( ref ) iiq wLf

k pv  wc f
s F Ioq
U oq ( ref )
k2 s
kic
s  2wc 2 s  (2w0 )2
2 k pc 
ilq ( ref ) s
U iq ( ref )
k6 s
s  2wc 6 s  (6w0 )2
2
Figure 5- 2: Voltage-Current control based PI-multi-resonant controller
DC values are given by the positive sequence in function of the fundamental frequency
reference frame. For example, the harmonics voltage 5th, 7th, 11th remain AC components [24].
The transfer function of the voltage controller is given by
 K  n
K r hwc s
Gv ( s)   K pv  iv    (5-1)
 s  h1,2,3... s  2wc vh  (hw) 2
Kic
Gc ( s)  K pc  (5-2)
s
Given that 𝐾𝑝𝑣 𝑎nd 𝐾𝑖𝑣 represent PI coefficients, 𝐾𝑟 ℎ stand for the harmonic resonant
coefficientis and 𝑤𝑐 𝑣ℎ is a harmonic resonant term and 𝑤ℎ is the resonant frequency. A PI is
used to improve the system tracking capability and remove all dc componentd [50]. On the other
hand the voltage output is compensated by the PIR while removing all harmonics and the transfer
function is illustrated in the following equation.
 K  K2 s K6 s
Gv ( s)   K pv  iv    (5-3)
 s  s  2wc 2 s  (2w0 ) s  2wc 6 s  (6w0 ) 2
2
The voltage-current control loop parameters 𝑘𝑣𝑝 , 𝑘𝑣𝑖 , 𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑖𝑖 and the coefficients of PIR
related harmonics ℎ (5𝑡ℎ , 7𝑡ℎ , 11𝑡ℎ ) order are detailed in [22]
29
5.2 Simulation and Discussion

The suggested control method was tested in the same network configuration discussed to
evaluate its feasibility in 3 to reject harmonics and ensuring the compensation of the output voltage
taking into account unbalanced and nonlinear loads. More detailed control parameter are given
in section [17].
Figure 5- 3: Voltage output with classic droop method
Figure 5- 6: Reactive power with the designed

control scheme
Figure 5- 4: Reactive power output with classic

droop method
Figure 5- 7: Active power out considering

unbalance and nonlinear loads
Figure 5- 5: Voltage output with the proposed

approach
Figure 5- 8: System frequency with the

suggested method
30
Figure 5- 9: Restored system frequency Figure 5- 10: Restored output voltage
The analysis begins when supplying nonlinear loads, star connected and delta connected
three phase unbalanced loads starts with a connection of a 3𝜑 rectifier within RL load from 0 s
up to t=2.5 s at that time the first load is connected up to 4.5 s after a linear-load which is initially
ON then the last one joins at t=6 till the sixth second where all loads are coupled together . In
Figure 5- 1 the inverter near to the point of common coupling experience a minimum loss
voltage while it provides more reactive power to the PCC load as depicted in Figure 5-1. The
discrepancy in feeder impedance is the main source that affected the response time to support the
load step compared to the other DG units of more DGs units.
As all DGs units are operating under identical droop gains on the other hand with different
feeder impedance hence the active are tracking each to ensure a stable with the system frequency
remaining in the acceptable range as shown in Figure 5- 3 and Figure 5-1. Even though all DGs
operates under the same droop coefficients there is a considerable difference of voltage drop in
feeder lines cause by the discrepancy of the feeder impedances as depicted in Figure 5-1, Figure
5- 6
The suggested compensation technique shows the competence tracking performance of
voltage-current loop of the reference signals throughout a steady state illustrated in Figure 5-7.
The voltage output is kept in operating limit of standalone MG in transient and steady state mode.
Figure 5- 8 illustrated the distribution of the reactive power amongst three DG units. The
secondary control was applied to cope with deviations resulted by interruptions from connection
and disconnections of the system loads and generation units. Consequently, the voltage amplitude
was recovered to normal range as depicted in Figure 5- 9 and Figure 5-10.
31
6. Conclusion and Future Research

6.1 Conclusion
In a standalone microgram, the main concern is balancing the load. An effective method of
load balancing is to perform a small signal analysis on two basic model of frequency and angle
droop control. Voltage droop shows a greater stability and higher gain, making them better power
sharing for accurate load distribution with high gain but, it is a challenging to ensure the reactive
power sharing in the MGs supplying nonlinear and unbalanced loads. The realization of reactive
power sharing in a voltage source inverter (VSI) based islanded AC MG handling the mismatched
line impedance and nonlinear load is a challenge for the conventional droop control droop method
Virtue impedance is enhanced by the compensating the line voltage drop which is calculated
based on the reactive power error and the voltage drop difference between the line impedances.
The virtual resistance and virtual inductance are considered as initial values and then the PI applied
to the virtual impedance control loop for its adaptive tuning to keep reactive power error near to
zero. The reactive power sharing error involves the secondary control in which the reactive power
error is transmitted from the MGCC to the local controllers of the DG units via a low-bandwidth
communication link
The compensating voltage was determined considering the reactive power error and the
voltage drop difference in the line impedances. The PI was realized in virtual impedance control
loop to keep the reactive power error near to zero. To optimize the PI controller parameters for the
V-I loops and droop coefficients, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was employed
in MATLAB/Simulink. The complex dynamic configurations of a MG containing local and
public/common loads among DGs which deteriorate the reactive sharing were investigated. It was
shown in 5, the hierarchical control was applied to facilitate nonlinear, nonlinear and linear loads
sharing real and reactive power. This has been achieved by utilizing the PIR in voltage loop. To
overcome the challenges related to the frequency and voltage deviation, secondary control restores
all these parameters to the acceptable limits. The method showed an effectiveness for sharing either
reactive or real power between three parallel connected DGs and is not affected by the harmonic
content normally resulted by nonlinear loads.
6.2 Future Research
This work focussed much on load variation and their categories but mainly feeder
impedance discrepancy. For the next research on this suggest distributed generations of different
rating should be considered and the droop coefficient for each generation should be unique so that
the variation of output reactive power will not depending only on the line voltage or loads but also
the droop coefficients.
32
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36
Publications
1. Z. Xu, N. Vedaste, N. Emile , N. Olivier, P. Simiyu, and N. Innocent, “Secondary Control
for Power Sharing in a Standalone Microgrid under Unequal Feeder Impedance and
Complex Loads,” 2nd IEEE Conf. Energy Internet Energy Syst. Integr. EI2 2018 - Proc.,
pp. 1–6, 2018.
2. Z. Xu, N. Vedaste, P. Simiyu, and D. Giovanni, “Enhanced Virtual Impedance for Power
Sharing Control in the AC Microgrid,” IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution. 2018.
Under Review
3. Z. Xu, N. Vedaste, P. Simiyu, and D. Giovanni, “Environmental Benefits of Modern Power
System and Clean Energy,” 2019 4th International Conference on Sustainable and
Renewable Energy Engineering. May 11-13, 2019
37

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硕士学位论文

Research on Microgrid Power Control Method Using

Classified Index: TM76

Thesis for the Master Degree

Research on Microgrid Power Control Method Using

Academic Degree Applied for： Master of Engineering

Specialty Field: Electric Power System and its Automation

Training Mode： Full Time

Degree-Conferring-Institution： North China Electric Power University

I, NDAYISHIMIYE Vedaste, hereby declare that this project entitled “Research on

Date: 2019/ 06/10/

关键词：交流微电网; 分层控制; 下垂控制; 分布式发电; 虚阻抗; 比例积分共振; 微电网中央

3.7.1 Active power sharing with inductive feeder impedance ........................................16

Figure 2- 1: Generalized microgrid structure ...............................................................................7

Figure 3- 1. Equivalent schematic of two parallel-DGs in an islanded MG[34] .......................... 10

Figure 4- 1: Detailed equivalent circuit of the controlled network model .................................. 21

DER distributed energy resources

DNA Distribution Network operator

LPF Low Pass Filter

DVC Distributed Voltage Control

MAS Multiagent System

MGCC Microgrid Central Controller

MPPT Maximum power point

PCC Point of Common Coupling

PI Proportional Integral Controller

PIR Proportional Integral Control

PSO Particle Swam Optimization

RES Renewable Energy Sources

VSC Voltage Source conv

Figure 1- 2: Microgrid physical layout [7]

The integration of unregulated renewable energy that is difficult to control in a power

Integration of renewable energy[6].

1.2 Research content

for large-scale power outages around the world.

1.3 Research objectives

1.4 Methodology and scope

1.5 Organization of the thesis

In Chapter 2, microgrid structure is discussed. In this chapter a diversity of microgrid

2. Microgrid: Structure, Components, and Principles of

2.2 Structure and components

Distributed Generation (DG) Unit

Figure 2- 1: Generalized microgrid structure

2.3 Working principle of microgrid

2.4 Control of microgrid

2.5 Microgrid Supervisory Control

Figure 2- 2: A microgrid supervisory control architecture

2.6 Centralized Microgrid Control

2.7 Decentralized Microgrid Control

Figure 2- 3: Schematic diagram of a MAS architecture for a decentralized microgrid

3. Overview of power sharing methods in Hierarchical

Controlling the power of non-radial distribution systems of complexes of various renewable

3.2 Problems of the Reactive Power Sharing in the Droop Control

Figure 3- 1. Equivalent schematic of two parallel-DGs in an islanded MG [34]

The active and reactive power involved is given are;

 X i  X Li   Ei cos  i  VPCC 2    Ri  RLi  EiVPCC sin 

 X i  X Li   Ei cos  i  VPCC 2    Ri  RLi  EiVPCC sin 

EiVPCC i VPCC  Ei  VPCC 

3.3 Power sharing with the Conventional Frequency and Voltage

The communication dependency of parallel connected inverters can be prevented by the

Figure 3- 2: Block diagram of the power controller.[40]

Pi  ci Pi  ci (vodi iodi  voqiioqi ) (3-6)

Qi  ci Qi  ci (voqi iodi  vodiioqi ) (3-7)

Where vodi , voqi , iodi , and ioqi are dc components