Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Review

Recent advances in application of different hydrocolloids in dairy products T

to improve their techno-functional properties
Mohammad Yousefia, Seid Mahdi Jafarib,∗
a
Student Research Committee, Department of Food Science and Technology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
b
Department of Food Materials and Process Design Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: This paper aims to overview recent advances in utilization of various hydrocolloids in some dairy
Dairy products products. Different biopolymers including polysaccharides and proteins or both have been applied in dairy
Hydrocolloids formulations to improve their texture, rheology, physicochemical properties, and sensory attributes for meeting
Rheology the consumer demands.
Cheese
Scope and approach: In this section, explanations have been given about the common hydrocolloids and their
Yoghurt
functions, then proceeds by expressing the interactions/complexes between hydrocolloids and proteins, parti-
Ice cream
cularly casein micelles in dairy products. Finally, several examples considering the application of hydrocolloids
in common dairy products including acidified milk, cheese, ice cream, and yogurt are discussed. The main
approach of this study is to critically discuss the techno-functionality of hydrocolloids in dairy matrices based on
the interactions between proteins and polysaccharides and the factors affecting them, including pH, tempera-
ture, ionic strength, chemical structure and concentration of hydrocolloids. In this paper, effects of several
hydrocolloids, including carrageenan, locust bean gum, gelatin, xanthan, carboxyl methyl cellulose, and pectin,
along with their complexes with proteins on techno-functional properties of dairy products are discussed.
Key findings and conclusions: It has been revealed that the key issues when applying different hydrocolloids in
dairy formulations is improving their physical properties, including syneresis, zeta potential, gelation, thick-
ening capacity, stability, and rheological properties.

1. Introduction Today, application of hydrocolloids is considered as an integral part

The term ‘hydrocolloid’ originates from the Greek words, hydro
‘water’ and kolla ‘glue’. Hydrocolloids are ingredients forming colloidal
solutions in an aqueous phase due to the hydrophilic parts of their
structure. They include long-chain biopolymers which can be readily
dispersed, are partially or fully soluble, and are disposed to swell at
presence of an aqueous phase (S. M. Jafari, Beheshti, & Assadpour,
2013). They can play many roles in textural quality of food matrices
such as emulsifying (beverages), stabilizing and thickening (dairy based
products), coating and texturizing (confectionery), bulking (bakery
products), etc. (S. M. Jafari, Beheshti, & Assadpoor, 2012; Nishinari
et al., 2018). In addition to physical aspects, the sensory and nutritional
quality of foods may change using hydrocolloids. Also, food hydro-
colloids are known as healthy food additives (Mayakrishnan,
Kannappan, Abdullah, & Ahmed, 2013; Xu, Xu, Ma, Tang, & Zhang,
2013). However, nutritional, health-promoting, and sensory effects of
hydrocolloids is outside the scope of this review.
of food industries. The trends of consumers to use foods with desirable
sensory, textural and health benefits have increased the sales and pro-
duction of these compounds worldwide. According to ‘global market for
hydrocolloids’, the hydrocolloid market valued 5.70 billion in 2015 and
it is estimated to reach 7.56 billion by 2020 (https://www.
marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/hydrocolloid.asp).
Dairy foods are always considered as the most basic edible products
in the human food chain. According to Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) reports, the milk production in world experienced
0.5% growth rate during 2017 and it is expected to have a growth of
22% by 2027 (www.fao.org/docrep/i9166e/i9166e_Chapter7_Dairy.
pdf). Dairy foods consumption is linked to lower rates of many ill-
nesses such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndromes,
and dental caries (Louie et al., 2013; Sonestedt et al., 2011; Tanaka,
Miyake, & Sasaki, 2010). These advantages are surely pertained to the
presence of bioactive ingredients in dairy foods such as peptides, an-
tioxidants, oligosaccharides, probiotic bacteria, highly absorbable

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: smjafari@gau.ac.ir (S.M. Jafari).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.015
Received 24 October 2018; Received in revised form 17 April 2019; Accepted 18 April 2019
Available online 23 April 2019
0924-2244/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
calcium, vitamins, conjugated linoleic acid, organic acids, and other
bioactive components (Balthazar et al., 2018; Dantas et al., 2016; N.;
Martins, Oliveira, & Ferreira, 2017).
Applying hydrocolloids in dairy industries is based on two factors:
(1) they produce milk gels by giving a network body to the liquid so-
lutions, and (2) they can expand the shelf-life. Concerning the first
factor, gels are considered as mechanical rigid networks to be physi-
cally between the liquid and the solid states (Abaee, Mohammadian, &
Jafari, 2017). They include polymer molecules that form a network
system via several types of connections during the immersion in an
aqueous solution (Saha & Bhattacharya, 2010). The bonds connected
within a gel are composed of hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic associa-
tions, and cation mediated cross-links; therefore, hydrocolloid gels are
usually considered "physical gels" (Munarin, Tanzi, & Petrini, 2012).
Several investigations related to producing the gels by connecting
casein micelles with hydrocolloids in milk and their effects on physical
and rheological traits of milk have been performed. Kappa carrageenan
(k-carrageenan), gelatin, and pectin are the hydrocolloids most com-
monly used to form gels (Pang, Deeth, Sopade, Sharma, & Bansal,
2014).
Hydrocolloids can also expand the shelf-life of dairy products
through reducing wheying-off, suspending dispersed particles or in-
hibiting flocculation of protein micelles. It has been shown that adding
β-glucan hydrocolloidal composite led to a decrease in whey separation
values of non-fat yogurt compared to samples without any hydrocolloid
(Sahan, Yasar, & Hayaloglu, 2008). Also, guar gum (GG) and high
methoxyl pectin (LMP) have been used to reduce the flocculation of
casein micelles by increasing the viscosity of a Turkish yoghurt drink
“Ayran” (Koksoy & Kilic, 2004). In another work, it has been demon-
strated that gum tragacanthin adsorbed on the casein particles in an
Iranian yoghurt drink (Doogh) and prevented the casein particles from
aggregation by steric stabilization (Fatemeh Azarikia & Abbasi, 2010).
The present study was organized to cover two main gaps: (1) the
lack of comprehensive, complete, and integrated study, regarding the
application of hydrocolloids in the most used dairy products, including
milk and its protein-based ingredients and products such as whey
protein and casein isolate and concentrate, cheese, ice cream, and yo-
gurt; (2) the lack of a focused study on the role of hydrocolloids in
textural properties of dairy products. Therefore, the major research
questions addressed in the present review include which hydrocolloids
can be used in different dairy products? What are the interactions of
hydrocolloids and dairy proteins? What are the role of hydrocolloids in
techno-functional properties of dairy products?
2. Types and characteristics of common hydrocolloids in dairy
products
As mentioned in previous section, polysaccharides such as pectin,
carrageenan, (locust bean gum) LBG, xanthan, carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), GG, inulin, konjac glucomannan (KGM), Persian gum, β-glucan,
and gum Arabic are the most commonly used hydrocolloids in dairy
products. The characteristics of these polysaccharide biopolymers are
summarized in Table 1. In the following sections, application of hy-
drocolloids in the most important dairy products will be discussed.
2.1. Hydrocolloids in acidified milk
Acidified milk is a popular dairy product which is obtained by direct
mixing of milk with an acidic drink such as fruit juices or indirectly by
using lactic acid starters. But, their main problem is the flocculation and
sedimentation of milk proteins, including whey proteins and casein
micelles in pH values below 5 (Dalgleish & Corredig, 2012; Perez,
Carrara, Sánchez, Patino, & Santiago, 2009). The isoelectric point (PI)
of casein micelles and whey proteins are 4.6 and nearly 5.2, respec-
tively. Therefore, the principal purpose of adding hydrocolloids to such
products is stabilization of proteins in milk (Corredig, Sharafbafi, &
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483
Kristo, 2011). Casein micelles at natural milk (pH = 6.7) are believed to
be at a suspended state caused by steric repulsive forces between mi-
celles. In a process of milk acidification to the pH near 4, casein micelle
structures are destabilized. The failure is assumed to be associated with
the conformation breakdown of k-casein chains (Janhøj, Frøst, & Ipsen,
2008). In these conditions, the negatively charged hydrocolloids are
needed to bond with the positively charged casein micelles, thereby
creating a new steric repulsion between the hydrocolloids. Fig. 1 shows
the interaction of casein micelles with pectin in lower pH values
(Tromp, de Kruif, van Eijk, & Rolin, 2004).
According to the literature, polysaccharides of pectin, carrageenan,
and CMC have been used more than other hydrocolloids in acidified
milk drinks. Pectin is a prevalent hydrocolloid utilized in acidified milk.
High methoxyl pectin (HMP) has more applications than LMP due to
being most stable at pH of 3.5 ± 1.0 (Jensen, Rolin, & Ipsen, 2010). It
has been observed that pectin adsorbs on caseins at the beginning of
acidification, so that it affects the casein micelles conformation at the
pH range of 5.0–5.8 (Nakamura, Yoshida, Maeda, & Corredig, 2006). By
lowering the pH or increasing the pectin concentration, the zeta (ζ)
potential becomes more negative. Thus, the stability is enhanced due to
strong steric repulsions generated between pectin chains. Sejersen et al.
(2007) indicated that by adding pectin (0–0.5%) to non-treated acid-
ified milk, the ζ potential decreased from approximately +25 to −20
mV.
Carrageen is probably the 1st one in terms of frequencies used in
milk and milk products. Carrageenan could be existed in two forms of
random coil or helix (Schefer, Usov, & Mezzenga, 2015). The im-
portance of these conformations is related to the adsorption of carra-
geenan onto proteins. l-carrageenan freely attaches to milk proteins at
every temperature, as it exists only in highly charged coil forms; three
sulfate groups per disaccharide (Stone & Nickerson, 2012). k- and iota
carrageenan (i-carrageenan) with one and two sulfate groups per dis-
accharide, respectively are transited to helix structures when the tem-
perature decreases from 60 to 35 °C. These two biopolymers could bond
to milk proteins at helix state (Arltoft, Ipsen, Madsen, & De Vries,
2007). The transition of coil to helix improves the charge density via
conveying the charges close to each other; thus the connection between
k- and i-carrageenan with milk proteins occurs only at temperatures
below 60 °C. Also, the creation of helix structures is corresponding with
the formation of carrageenan gels (Banerjee & Bhattacharya, 2012). The
coil-helix structure of carrageenan has been illustrated in Fig. 2
(Jingjing Liu, Zhan, Wan, Wang, & Wang, 2015a).
Langendorff, Cuvelier, Michon, Launay, and Parker (2000) in-
vestigated the influences of carrageenan type on its behaviour in milk
mixtures by analyzing the effect of different temperatures on the casein
micelles size via polarimetry methods. Temperature, in the samples
containing lambda carrageenan (l-carrageenan), did not show any im-
pact. For i-carrageenan, the size of micelles stayed stable from 60 to
50 °C and incremented from 50 to 47 °C; then continued steady from 47
to 30 °C. The results of polarimetry exhibited that the helix formation
was commenced near to 47 °C. Also, the increase in size was ascribed to
the i-carrageenan adsorption on the surface of caseins. At the system
containing k-carrageenan, the size of casein micelle stayed unchanged
from 60 to 40 °C then was raised suddenly from 40 to 35 °C which is
related to the helix formation temperature (37 °C).
CMC is a cost effective polysaccharide used in acidified milks and it
is employed as a gelling, stabilizer, or thickening agent in dairy pro-
ducts. The electrosorption of CMC on casein micelles has been de-
termined to be at pH < 5.2 where the adsorption of CMC layer on the
surface of these micelles prevent the flocculation by steric repulsion
forces. Besides, the non-adsorbed CMC delays sedimentation of micelles
by increasing the viscosity of solution (Du et al., 2007). In other words,
hydrocolloids can also affect the structure of acidified milk through
acting as a thickening agent. In this regard, the random entanglement of
conformationally disarranged polymer chains above the critical con-
centration of hydrocolloid increases the viscosity. In addition to pH and
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483

Table 1
A summary of characteristics for the most widely used hydrocolloids in dairy products.
Hydrocolloid Ionic/ Properties Chemical structure References
nonionic

Carrageenan Anionic k-carrageenan: Gelling applications; transition from coil to (Li, Ni, Shao, & Mao, 2014; Nanaki
helix structures at 40–60 °C; forming brittle, strong and et al., 2015; Stone & Nickerson,
opaque gels; and nearly 25% sulfated 2012)
γ-carrageenan: Gelling applications; transition from coil to
helix structures at 40–60 °C; forming soft, elastic, and
transparent gels; nearly 32% sulfated
l-carrageenan: Thickening applications; existing always in
the coil form; nearly 35% sulfated

Pectin Anionic High-methoxyl pectin (HMP): Producing gels at presence of Walter and Taylor (2012)
65–70% sugar, 3.2–3.5 pH and 0.2–1.5% pectin
Low-methoxyl pectin (LMP): Producing gels at presence of
10–70% sugar, 2.6–7 pH and 15 mg/g calcium

CMC Anionic Stabilizing agent; no gel formation; 0.4–1.5 degree of Coffey, Bell, and Henderson (2006)
substitution; soluble in cold and hot water; producing great
viscosity

Tragacanth Anionic Acting as emulsifier, thickening agent, fat replacement, and (Cooke, Khosrowshahi, &
suspending agent; enhancing both steric repulsion and McSweeney, 2013; Kulkarni
viscosity in a protein solution Vishakha, Butte Kishor, & Rathod
Sudha, 2012)

Inulin Nonionic Including fructooligosaccharide (FOS, 3–8 fructose) and (Mensink, Frijlink, van der Voort
high performance inulin (11–65 fructose); fat and sugar Maarschalk, & Hinrichs, 2015;
replacement; producing gels containing insoluble Villegas & Costell, 2007)
microstructures

Locust bean gum Nonionic No gel formation; Linear polysaccharides, soluble in cold (Barak & Mudgil, 2014; Perissutti,
and hot water; forming very viscous solution; fat Bresolin, & Ganter, 2002)
replacement; its solutions are not changed by salts, heat
treatment, and pH; synergistic action with carrageenan and
xanthan gums; providing a creamy mouthfeel in cream-
cheese and ice cream

β-glucan Nonionic Providing very high viscose solutions; containing high (A. Ahmad, Anjum, Zahoor, Nawaz,
dietary fibers; acting as non-caloric stabilizing and & Dilshad, 2012; Limberger-Bayer
thickening agents in ice-cream and cheese; exhibiting et al., 2014)
Newtonian and pseudoplastic behavior

concentration of CMC, stability of acidified milk could be manipulated
by the adjustment of CMC molecular parameters, including molecular
weight and substitution conformation of its carboxymethyl groups. In
this regard, Du et al. (2009) investigated the diameter and ζ potential of
caseins during acidification period of acidified milk drinks using the
changes in the CMC molecular weight and its degree of substitution
(DS). They found that in a same DS, the ζ potential of casein micelles
coated with CMC enhanced with increasing the molecular weight of
CMC; whereas at an established molecular weight, ζ potential of the
casein-CMC with low DS (0.7 and 0.9) was lower in comparison with
CMC possessing high DS (1.2).
A brief overview of applied hydrocolloids and their impact on
properties of some acidified milk or milk protein solutions are given at
Table 2.
2.2. Hydrocolloids in cheese
Hydrocolloids have broader usages in dairy products like different
types of cheese. They can improve the texture properties such as re-
ducing the syneresis, enhancing the firmness, controlling the water

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M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
Fig. 1. A schematic illustration of the replacement of k-caseins with pectin at different pH values, and caseins coated with pectin molecules (Adapted from Tromp
et al. (2004) with some modifications).
behaviour, acting as an emulsifier, and improving the sensory attributes
(Abd Elhamid, 2013; S.; Ahmad, Butt, Pasha, & Sameen, 2016; Hosseini
Parvar, Matia-Merino, & Golding, 2015; Wang, Tong, Luo, Xu, & Ren,
2016). One of the unique features of hydrocolloids which has made
them effective in cheese producing is their ability for fat replacement or
fat mimetic by producing a texture similar to a natural cheese or even
better. For example, in a study focused on the effects of Arabic gum and
GG as fat replacers in Iranian white cheese, Lashkari, Madadlou, and
Alizadeh (2014) indicated that supplementation of cheese with GG re-
duced the hardness factor. In another study, (da Silva, de Souza
Ferreira, Bruschi, Britten, & Matumoto-Pintro, 2016) produced low fat
cheeses containing 0.5% (w/w) konjac glucomannan. The results of
storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and tan δ (equal to G″/G′)
revealed that 100% reduction in fat contents exhibited the hardness
value analogues to control samples (whole fat cheeses without hydro-
colloids).
Regarding the rheological aspects of hydrocolloids used in cheeses,
parameters including the hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, gummi-
ness, and chewiness are mostly investigated. The type of hydrocolloid
and cheese and the conditions of processing could affect such para-
meters. For instance, Volikakis, Biliaderis, Vamvakas, and Zerfiridis
(2004) showed that adding 0.7% β-glucan to low-fat white-brined
cheese increases the chewiness, while significantly decreases the
hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess. One of common difficulties
related to hydrocolloids is their adverse impact on sensory properties of
Fig. 2. A Schematic visual of the carrageenan gelling mechanism (Adapted from Liu et al. (2015) with some modifications).
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483
cheeses. It was shown that incorporation of inulin into the processed
cheese spread at different levels of 4, 6, and 8% (w/w) reduced colour,
appearance, spreadability, and flavour scores given by sensory panelists
(Giri, Kanawjia, & Singh, 2017). The similar results were obtained by
Kurultay, Öksüz, and Simsek (2000). They found out that the addition
of more than 0.2% CMC to Kashar cheese samples resulted in a re-
duction of sensory traits, mainly due to the development of alcohol odor
and bitter flavour.
In addition to mentioned functions of hydrocolloids in cheeses, they
likewise are utilized as edible coatings and films on cheeses. As an
example, Cerqueira et al. (2010) used chitosan and galactomannan
coatings on a ‘‘Regional” cheese to prolong its shelf-life by decreasing
the gas exchange rate, microbial load, and moisture lost. The other
example is the application of galactomannan coatings incorporated
with nisin on Ricotta cheese for controlling Listeria monocytogenes (J. T.
Martins, Cerqueira, Souza, Carmo Avides, & Vicente, 2010). Table 3
shows some examples indicating the applications of hydrocolloids in
different cheeses.
2.3. Hydrocolloids in ice cream
Hydrocolloids are considered important ingredients in preparation,
production, and preservation of ice cream. The major functionality of
polysaccharides in ice cream is related to the stabilizing (control of ice
recrystallization/ice crystals growth following freezing step i.e.
 Table 2
Influence of some hydrocolloids on physical characteristics of acidified milk or milk proteins solutions at different conditions.
Hydrocolloid Milk-based products Conditions Results References
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari

CMC
Mixture of CMC and pectin
k- and γ- carrageenan
Dextran
Sodium alginate and k-
carrageenan
Soybean soluble polysaccharide
Whole milk, aqueous CMC concentration (0.75–1.50% w/w); stress sweeps (0.02–300 Pa); At 0.75% CMC, no meaningful differences were seen at G′ and G″ Bayarri, González-Tomás, and
solution, and skimmed frequency (6.28 rad/s) values between the systems; at 1.5% CMC, G′ value was Costell (2009)
milk meaningfully lower for skimmed milk than for whole milk
Milk–jujube concentrate Concentrations of CMC (0.1–0.15% w/w), pectin (0.05–0.25% w/w), Flow behavior was fitted to power law; the most reported behavior Karimi, Sani, and Pourahmad
and jujube (2–7% w/w); shear rate (10–100 S−1), temperature was Newtonian; viscosity was incremented by increasing the (2016)
(4 ± 0.2 °C) hydrocolloid and milk-jujube concentrate amounts; stabilized
samples exhibited reduced ζ potential in comparison with control
samples
Sodium caseinate or milk Protein solutions concentration (0.5% w/v); ionic strengths (0–0.6 M, Improvement in emulsifying traits was observed by adding MenaCasanova and Totosaus
proteins concentrate NaCl); pH (6.0–7.5); carrageenans in decreased ionic strength (0.2 M, NaCl) and pH 6.0; (2011)
emulsion capacity was high in milk proteins concentrate than for
sodium caseinate
Acid milk gels Dextran concentration (0, 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 g/kg); Increasing dextran concentrations caused a linear growth in the Mende et al. (2013)
acidification with Streptococcus thermophilus DSM20259 or glucono-δ- stiffness of gel (microbial acidification: R2 = 0.94; GDL gels:
lactone (GDL); temperature of shear viscosity measurement (20 °C); R2 = 0.96; P < 0.05); increasing dextran concentrations
shear rate (0.1 s−1-100 s−1) indicated a meaningful decrease in syneresis of gels from 30.4% to
22.0%
Acidified milk Concentration of sodium alginate (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5% w/v), k- Flow behaviour was more pseudoplastic; at higher than 0.05% k- Yanes, Durán, and Costell
carrageenan, (0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05% w/v), skim-milk carrageenan, a sharp increase in the pseudoplastic behaviour was (2002)
mixture (10% w/v); solutions were fitted to Ostwald de Waele model seen, while increasing the sodium alginate produced the more
viscous solution
Acidified milk proteins SSPS was digested with purified hemicellulases and pectinases to SSPS at concentrations lower than 0.2% stabilized solutions at pH Nakamura, Furuta, Kato,

472
(SSPS) solution improve its stabilizing ability; pH (2–7) 3.4–4.4; galactose and arabinose residues in SSPS structure has an Maeda, and Nagamatsu (2003)
important task in stabilizing the acidified milk
Pectin, CMC, and k-carrageenan Raspberry juice-milk Concentrations of CMC (0.3% w/w), pectin (0.2% w/w), and k- The blends of CMC and pectin were more viscose and stable than Abedi, Sani, and Karazhiyan
carrageenan (0.35% w/w); temperature of viscosity measurement products containing pure CMC (P < 0.05); k-carrageenan, (2014)
(20 °C) individually, could not delay the sedimentation of caseins in
raspberry juice-milk
Xanthan gum, carrageenan, and Milk proteins solution Polysaccharide concentration (0.002 wt%); temperature (25–70 °C); At neutral pH, carrageenan and xanthan appeared to interact with Rohart, Bouveresse, Rutledge,
GG mixture containing methylene pH (4.3–7); ionic strength (0–0.1 M, NaCl); the combination of milk proteins while GG did not associate with proteins and Michon (2015)
blue methylene blue spectrophotometric and Independent Components
Analysis (ICA) was used to investigate the protein-polysaccharide
interactions
k-carrageenan and flaxseed gum Skim milk Concentrations of flaxseed gum (0–0.40% w/v), k-carrageenan Phase separation was seen when using flaxseed gum owing to the Chappellaz, Alexander, and
(0–0.06% w/v), and a combination of both of them; study was thermodynamic incompatibility of polysaccharide chains with Corredig (2010)
performed under diluted conditions using dynamic light scattering, caseins; system stabilization was observed in solutions containing
and under undiluted conditions using ultrasonic spectroscopy and 0.03% w/v κ-carrageenan; diffusing wave spectroscopy showed
diffusing wave spectroscopy that κ-carrageenan delayed the separation of phases by reducing
the mobility of caseins
Gelatin, xanthan gum, GG, LBG, Acid milk gels Concentrations of gelatin (0.4 and 1% w/w), xanthan (0.001, 0.005, Gelatin and xanthan had no impact on preventing the milk Pang, Deeth, and Bansal (2015)
and carrageenan and 0.01% w/w), GG and LBG (0.01, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.5% w/w), and gelation at the initial 30 min during acidification; GG (≥0.05%)
carrageenan (0.01, 0.05, and 0.1% w/w); temperature (10–40 °C); pH and LBG (≥0.1%) prevent the gelation at the early stages of
(4.6) acidification; carrageenan, at low concentration, induced the
primary gelation (≤0.05%), but, prevented the gelation in
increased concentration (0.2%)
Birch xylan Acid milk gels Xylan concentration (1.5 and 3% w/w); pH (4.6); temperature (40 °C) Lower syneresis and higher firmness, water holding capacity, and Rosa-Sibakov et al. (2016)
elasticity was seen with 3% w/w xylan in milk gels
l-carrageenan, LMP, HMP, or Milk protein-stabilized Each hydrocolloid concentration (0.4% w/w); pH (3–7); shear rate Proteins were unstable owing to the depletion flocculation in the Tippetts and Martini (2012)
gelatin emulsions (0.001–300.0 s−1); temperature of viscosity measurement (5 °C) presence of gelatin at pH 3 and HMp hydrocolloids at pH 7;
emulsion containing LMp at pH 7 was stable owing to the bridging
of calcium, leading to increase in the emulsion's viscosity; l-
Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483

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 Table 2 (continued)

Hydrocolloid Milk-based products Conditions Results References

M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari

carrageenan emulsions were more negatively charged and more

stable compared to others

473
Table 3
The influence of some hydrocolloids on physical properties of cheese samples at different conditions.
Hydrocolloid Cheese type Conditions Results References

Pectin or CMC Egyptian kariesh Hydrocolloids concentrations (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6% w/w); temperature Hardness, springiness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and Korish and Abd Elhamid (2012)
cheese of samples before chemical analysis (40 ± 1 °C) and sensory gumminess were meaningfully lower in samples containing the
evaluations (20 ± 2 °C) hydrocolloids; kariesh cheese samples produced with 0.6% w⁄ w CMC
and 0.4% w⁄ w pectin recorded the top scores in sensory properties
Modified starch,LMP, LBG, k- Processed cheese Concentrations of LMP (0.1–0.25% w/w), LBG (0.2–0.8% w/w), LBG, modified starch and LMP could not be recommended as Černíková et al. (2010)
carrageenan, and γ-carrageenan modified starch (0.1–1% w/w), γ-carrageenan (1% w/w), and k- replacements; k- and γ-carrageenan appeared to be suitable potential
carrageenan (0.1–1% w/w); hydrocolloids were examined as possible replacements, but the final products were very hard
replacements for emulsifying salts based on phosphate and citrate
Tragacanth Low-fat Iranian Tragacanth concentration (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, or 1 g of gum/kg of milk); Gum tragacanth enhanced the rheological traits owing to its ability to Rahimi, Khosrowshahi,
white cheese analyzing days (3, 15, 30, 45, and 60 of ripening); temperature for bind water; the hardness parameter lessened in the ripening period Madadlou, and Aziznia (2007)
rheological tests (20 ± 1 °C)
Pectin Processed cheese 42 days keeping at 6 ± 2 °C; pectin concentration (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and The G′ and G″ values rose by increasing the pectin concentration at Macků, Buňka, Pavlínek,
0.8% w ⁄ w); frequency range (0.1–50.0 Hz) any frequency range; the flavour and appearance were not changed by Leciánová, and Hrabě (2008)
addition of pectin
l- γ- k-carrageenan, LBG, and Arabic Processed cheese Hydrocolloids concentration (1.0% w/w); oil kind (coconut fat, All samples containing k-carrageenan demonstrated the highest (Hanáková, Buňka, Pavlínek,
gum analogues butter, and palm oil); rheological and chemical tests were performed hardness and meaningfully increase in G*; the samples containing Hudečková, & Janiš, 2013)
after 7 days keeping at 6 ± 2 °C coconut fat and palm oil were measured as the hardest and lowest in
hardness value, respectively
β-glucan Low-fat cheddar β-glucan concentration (5.5% w/w); cheeses (Nutrim-I and Nutrim- The SEM graphs represented a more firmed texture of Nutrim cheese Konuklar, Inglett, Carriere, and
cheese II) were manufactured with 6.84 and 3.47% of fat, respectively than low-fat control samples; Nutrim was introduced as a good fat Felker (2004)
replacer in cheddar cheeses
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 M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari

Table 4
The influence of some hydrocolloids on physical characteristics of ice cream samples at different conditions.
Hydrocolloid Ice cream type Conditions Results References

Inulin Yog-ice cream dessert Inulin concentrations (5.0, 7.0, and 9.0% w/w); samples were fitted Inulin incremented the hardness and viscosity the of ice creams; El-Nagar, Clowes, Tudoricǎ,
to power law model meltdown characteristics of the samples illustrated a direct Kuri, & Brennan (2002)
connection between inulin and the melting point
Inulin Low-fat ice cream Inulin concentration (4.0% w/w); temperature of texture analysis No effect of inulin was observed on values of colour; inulin Akalın, Karagözlü, and Ünal
(20 ± 1 °C); the colour measurement indexes (L* = 97.26 incremented the hardness compared to the control sample; samples (2008)
(lightness), +a* = 0.13 (redness), +b* = 1.71 (yellowness)) inulin enriched with inulin were melted significantly quicker
compared to the control ones
LBG, CMC, GG, and sodium Kahramanmaras-type ice Total hydrocolloids concentration (1.0% w/w); 6-month storage; The control sample exhibited meaningfully lower pH and viscosity, Guven, Karaca, and Kacar
alginate cream control sample (containing only salep extract) and higher acidity, and also was less resistant against melting (2003)
compared to samples containing hydrocolloids
Basil gum, GG, and their blend Low-fat ice cream Hydrocolloids concentrations (0.35, 0.45, 0.50, and 0.55% w/w); the Thixotropic and shear thinning behaviors of all sample were Javidi, Razavi, Behrouzian,
(MGB) ration of hydrocolloids mixture (50:50); shear rate (150 s−1); observed; samples with basil gum and MGB displayed more and Alghooneh (2016)
temperature of rheology measurement (5 ± 1 °C) thixotropic state than GG ice creams; Addition of basil gum
decreased the meltdown rate and extent of melting at every

474
concentration in comparison with the GG and MGB samples
Balangu seed gum, palmate-tuber Soft ice cream Hydrocolloids concentrations (0.3, 0.4, or 0.5% w/w); temperature of Samples containing CMC or Balangu seed were not meaningfully (M. Bahramparvar,
salep (PTS), and CMC viscosity measurement 5 ± 0.5 °C different (P > 0.05) in many rheological traits; in opposite samples Khodaparast, & Razavi, 2009)
fortified of palmate-tuber salep (P < 0.05)
Xanthan Ice cream mixes Xanthan concentrations (0–0.8% w/w); solutions were fitted to the Flow behaviour was pseudoplastic; the samples with xanthan were Dogan, Kayacier, Toker,
model of Ostwald de Waele; measurements were performed in the detected as strong gel-like macromolecular dispersions (G′ much Yilmaz, and Karaman (2013)
1–100 s−1 shear rate at 5 °C; frequency range (0.1–10 Hz) greater than G″); the 0.4 and 0.8% of xanthan gum, remarkably
altered the internal structure of the ice cream mixes
LBG or GG Ice cream model systems Hydrocolloid concentration (0.3% w/w); solutions were fitted to LBG solutions produced weak gel networks with cycling of Patmore, Goff, and Fernandes
Herschel–Bulkley model; frequency sweeps (oscillational) temperature, but GG solutions did not; (2003)
(0.05–5 Hz); strain (4%) temperature of rheology measurement
(−1 °C)
k-carrageenan; basil gum, and GG Vanilla ice cream Concentration of k-carrageenan (0, 0.01 or 0.02%), basil gum Melting rate of ice creams increased during the keeping, but k- Maryam BahramParvar et al.
(96.94% w/w), and GG (3.06% w/w); temperature of melting rate carrageenan did not show any significant impact at this parameter (2013)
measurement (21 °C)
Tragacanth Salep based ice cream Tragacanth concentrations (0–0.5% w/w); shear rates (1–100s−1); Increasing the amount of tragacanth increment the viscoelastic traits Kurt, Cengiz, and Kahyaoglu
mix frequency (0.1–10 Hz) according to the tan δ values; samples containing tragacanth showed (2016)
higher Young's modulus
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M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
hardening and storage – prevention of phase separation), thickening,
texturing, heat shock, and melting resistance. Recent published articles
show that inulin and basil gum are becoming popular in producing ice
creams (Akbari, Eskandari, Niakosari, & Bedeltavana, 2016;
BahramParvar, Tehrani, & Razavi, 2013; Maryam BahramParvar,
Razavi, & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2012; Maryam).
Melting examinations are utilized to demonstrate the melting traits
and shape preservation of ice cream (Muse & Hartel, 2004). Meltdown
of ice cream depends on the phenomena of mass and heat transfer.
Hydrocolloids can affect the ice cream melting quality, because they
have the ability to bind water and subsequently enhance the micro-
viscosity of ice creams (Marshall, Goff, & Hartel, 2012). It has been
revealed that higher hydrocolloids concentration has usually a direct
relationship with the decrease in ice cream melting rate (Cropper,
Kocaoglu-Vurma, Tharp, & Harper, 2013; Varela, Pintor, & Fiszman,
2014). Although, there are technological and consumers’ acceptability
limitation on the hydrocolloids addition in the ice cream mix; in ad-
dition, melting resistance is also strongly dependent on sweeteners and
milk solids-not-fat (MSNF) fortifiers. Increasing hydrocolloids causes an
increment in serum microviscosity, hence it will take a longer time for
serum to diffuse from the interior layers of ice cream to exterior layers.
Moreover, hydrocolloids enhance the overrun of ice creams which
subsequently decrease the rate of heat transfer and melting (Soukoulis,
Chandrinos, & Tzia, 2008).
Uncontrolled growth of ice crystals throughout freezing and storage
is one of the main difficulties related to ice cream consumption which
affects adversely the sensory properties. It has been proposed that hy-
drocolloids could modify the interface between ice crystals and serum,
through several mechanisms such as adsorption onto the surface of
crystals, modifying the rate of water adsorption onto crystals, or
modifying the rate of diffusity that macromolecules and solutes go
away from surface of ice crystals (Bolliger, Wildmoser, Goff, & Tharp,
2000; Goff & Hartel, 2013). Gelation of hydrocolloids is another factor
mentioned in the literature to delay water molecules recrystallization
through entrapment of water. The firmness of gel has been linked to its
capacity to inhibit crystal growth; however, the fragility of gels would
be a hindrance parameter. Regand and Goff (2002) carefully in-
vestigated the mechanisms involved in inhibition of ice crystal growth
by hydrocolloids during the temperature cycling. They suggested that,
in addition to gelation effect, water-holding by proteins and poly-
saccharides and sometimes steric hindrance induced by a gel-like net-
work of some polysaccharides makes a decrease in the rate of the re-
crystallization. These phenomena increases the kinetic of melt-re-grow
instead of melt-diffuse-grow during temperature cycling, causing the
keeping of the ice crystal size and at a small range of the crystal dis-
tribution. In their study, the growth of ice crystal in frozen ice creams
was meaningfully retarded in samples containing xanthan, LBG, and
xanthan without milk solids-nonfat.
Hydrocolloids are accounted as a proper fat replacer in ice creams
like cheese samples. Fat replacers are composed of fat substitutes, in-
cluding carbohydrate- or protein-based fat mimetics, or a combination
of them. The purpose of replacing fats with hydrocolloids is decreasing
the calorie, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids, while maintaining
sensory properties and the texture of ice creams. Among fat replacers,
inulin has a more popularity and it has been employed in ice cream
formulations as a modifier of texture, sugar or fat replacer (Meyer,
Bayarri, Tárrega, & Costell, 2011). Inulin forms particle gel networks
through binding water. The role of inulin as a fat replacer, affecting the
sensory properties of ice creams has been well studied by Tiwari,
Sharma, Kumar, and Kaur (2015). Their sensory evaluation results de-
monstrated that 4% inulin included in samples had acceptable scores
close to control samples. Also, adhesiveness and hardness meaningfully
were incremented at ice creams containing inulin and replacement of
fat with inulin increased meltdown rates and reduced the viscosity. In
addition to mentioned applications, hydrocolloids have numerous ef-
fects on sensory and mechanical properties of ice creams which have
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been summarized in Table 4.
2.4. Hydrocolloids in yogurt
Yogurt is one of the most used fermented products globally which is
reputable for its nutritional value, well-being benefits, and digestibility
(Ghorbanzade, et al., 2017; Tavakoli, Hosseini, Jafari, & Katouzian,
2018). Nowadays, the production and consumption of non- or low-fat
yogurts has increased, such that the global market of low-fat yogurt was
valued at 11.65 billion USD in 2016 and is predicted to reach 28.19
USD billion by 2025 (Grandviewresearch, 2017). However, elimination
of fat is accompanied with some concerns related to low viscosity, poor
texture, and syneresis (K. J. Aryana & Olson, 2017).
Addition of hydrocolloids to yogurt is a practical method for in-
creasing the viscosity and decreasing the syneresis. Polysaccharide
hydrocolloids along with the casein micelles cooperate in forming 3D
gel networks which maintain the aqueous phase (Lunardello,
Yamashita, Benassi, & De Rensis, 2012). Various studies have been
performed regarding the use of hydrocolloids to control syneresis in
yogurts. Examples comprise the utilization of β-glucan, inulin, traga-
canth, and gelatin (Ares et al., 2007; K.; Aryana, Plauche, Rao, McGrew,
& Shah, 2007; Aziznia, Khosrowshahi, Madadlou, & Rahimi, 2008;
Singh, Kim, & Liu, 2012). Among these polysaccharides, gelatin and
inulin have been more prominent.
Inulin is used to replace fat and to reduce the syneresis of non-fat
yogurts, while improving the taste and mouthfeel (Allgeyer, Miller, &
Lee, 2010). In a study conducted by Crispín-Isidro, Lobato-Calleros,
Espinosa-Andrews, Alvarez-Ramirez, and Vernon-Carter (2015), SEM
micrographs revealed that inulin formed elongated gels that have been
interacted with protein structures in reduced-fat stirred yogurt, causing
the fortification in the yogurt physical behavior as a water binding
agent. Also, syneresis was significantly lower for inulin treated samples
compared to full-fat control yogurts. Gelatin amends the texture of low-
fat yogurts, resulting in a stronger matrix of dairy products with fewer
affinities to syneresis. This effect has been ascribed to gelatin interac-
tions with casein micelles in yogurt, developing the durable 3D net-
works, which subsequently reduce the serum separation of yogurts
(Pang, Deeth, Yang, Prakash, & Bansal, 2017).
Rheological properties and water holding capacity are other im-
portant parameters in textural quality of yogurt. Everett and McLeod
(2005) showed that the addition of LMP up to 1 g/L strengthened the
casein network of stirred skim milk yogurt via bridging of casein ag-
gregates, thus decreasing the water holding capacity. Incrementing the
LMP concentration from 1 to 5 g/L demonstrated an increase at water
holding capacity and a decrease at dynamic moduli and apparent
viscosity. The sterically stabilization induced by both depletion floc-
culation and electrostatic attraction between the polysaccharide and
casein at this concentration and subsequently reduced effective volume
fraction resulted in the decreased viscosity and increased water holding
capacity. These authors also concluded that, in yogurt samples enriched
with non-adsorbing hydrocolloids (xanthan, guar, and LBG gum), de-
pletion flocculation may happen up to 1 g/L concentration. But, at
higher concentrations, the viscous polysaccharide solution probably
trap casein aggregates, thereby increasing the dynamic moduli and
apparent viscosity, and decreasing the water holding capacity.
Acidity and gelation are considered as important indices of yogurt
texture. Studies show that the presence of hydrocolloids could alter
these parameters. Based on the type of hydrocolloid used (amino acid
or carbohydrate base), acidity of yogurt may change. Amino acid based
hydrocolloids such as gelatin or whey protein concentrate (WPC) have
been exhibited to lower the acidity more than samples prepared
without any hydrocolloid. In fact, the starter culture of yogurt, i.e.
Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus can use amino
acids to grow quickly and produce more lactic acid; however, poly-
saccharide hydrocolloids have not a significant effect on acidity (Arioui,
Saada, & Cheriguene, 2018; Aziznia et al., 2008; Bahrami, Ahmadi,
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
Alizadeh, & Hosseini, 2013).
Hydrocolloids participate in the gelation of yogurt as well as
changing its microstructure. In this concern, Supavititpatana,
Wirjantoro, Apichartsrangkoon, and Raviyan (2008) investigated the
effect of gelatin in various concentrations of 0–0.6% (w/v) on the
texture of corn–milk yogurt. They found out that, in samples containing
0.4 and 0.6% gelatin, G′ plots were less frequency dependent compared
to G″ plots and also their tan δ were as low as 0.2, indicating the solid-
like structures with the true gel behaviour. In fact, bridging of gelatin
with the network structure positioned inside the micelles of casein,
which can preserve the aqueous phase more effectively, is the main
reason for enhancing the yogurt gel by the addition of gelatin. Also by
increasing the amount of gelatin, the microstructure of gel became
denser, highly branched, and had a homogeneous spongy-like inner
containing few air cells. However, high concentration of a gelatin im-
pairs the palatability of a natural yogurt.
Another crucial factor for application of hydrocolloids in yogurts is
the sensory properties. Different polysaccharides generate exclusive
sensory features due to their type, concentration, process conditions,
and type of yogurt. It has been pointed out that low-fat pot-set yogurts
containing gelatin in concentrations of 0.5–1.5% got sensory scores
similar to full-fat yogurt at thickness, smoothness, and creaminess.
However, yogurts with carrageenan (0.01–0.08%) and xanthan gum
(0.005–0.015%) showed an unfavorable mouthfeel like lumpiness and
chalkiness (Nguyen, Kravchuk, Bhandari, & Prakash, 2017). More ex-
amples demonstrating the application of hydrocolloids in yogurts are
shown in Table 5.
3. Protein–polysaccharide interactions for dairy products
Protein–polysaccharide interactions can be categorized in three
groups of co-solubility, segregation, and complexation (Patino &
Pilosof, 2011). Fig. 3 shows a schematic of these interactions. Also, the
forces contributed in protein-polysaccharide interactions are composed
of electrostatic reactions and steric repulsion (Doublier, Garnier,
Renard, & Sanchez, 2000).
In a situation where the concentration of polysaccharide and protein
solutions and also the entropy are low along with negative Gibbs free
energy, the co-solubility occurs (Goh, Sarkar, & Singh, 2014). This
denotes polysaccharide and protein hydrocolloids have been well-
mixed and have made a stable solution without any interaction. For
instance, complexation of sodium caseinate/gum tragacanth solution at
0.06 wt% and pH = 6.50 has been indicated to result in a co-soluble
system (Gorji, Gorji, & Mohammadifar, 2014).
The segregation phenomenon happens when a fairly intense net
repulsion is created between polysaccharides and proteins in aqueous
solutions. In fact, in a solution containing proteins and non-charged
polysaccharides with 100 or more monomers, repulsive interactions
between the protein-polysaccharide dominate the negligible entropy of
mixing. These conditions cause the instability of the solution. Polymers
net charge and solvent characteristics can control this phenomena. If
the solvent is water, the biopolymer with more hydrophilic reactive
groups would bond water molecules and would be diluted, while the
other biopolymer would be precipitated. In a situation when one of
biopolymers is charged and the other is not-charged, small ions existed
on charged biopolymers dominate the entropy of mixing, thereby
suppressing the segregation. In the conditions when two biopolymers
have same charges, the dissimilarity in the charge density controls the
segregation phenomena. In such cases, phase instability occurs at
concentrations where the absence of hydration water makes specific
interactions (van de Velde, de Hoog, Oosterveld, & Tromp, 2015). The
existence of high levels of biopolymers is likewise the other precondi-
tion. As a result, the thermodynamic incompatibility of these two dif-
ferent biopolymers cause them to go into two distinctive phases. In
these conditions, one of the phases is polysaccharide rich, while the
other one is protein rich (Patino & Pilosof, 2011). As an example, i- and
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κ-carrageenan at high concentrations goes segregate with milk caseins
when the temperature is as high as 60 °C. Also, this behavior has been
reported between sodium alginate and whey protein concentrate, and
the konjac glucomannan and casein micelles in a milk system (Dai,
Jiang, Shah, & Corke, 2017; Perez, Carrara, Sánchez, Santiago, &
Rodríguez Patino, 2010).
The complexation phenomena formed between protein-poly-
saccharide structures can be divided into three types of soluble com-
plexation, coacervation, and co-precipitation (Ghasemi, Jafari,
Assadpour, & Khomeiri, 2017, 2018). In a soluble complex system,
biopolymers are homogeneously dispersed all over the solution. This
state is obtained when the number of opposite charges, caused by two
different biopolymers is not equal. However, with getting higher in
concentration and hydrocolloid weight, the molecules tend to form a
two-phase system (segregation). The co-precipitation occurs when there
is an insufficient amount of anionic polysaccharides to prevent the
proteins from precipitation at their isoelectric point PI. Also, the strong
affinity of two biopolymers to each other may neutralize the negative
groups of molecules which subsequently will result in precipitation or
coacervation (Moghbeli, Jafari, Maghsoudlou, & Dehnad, 2019). F.
Azarikia and Abbasi (2016) observed formation of a precipitation state
by adding Persian gum soluble fractions or gum tragacanth soluble
fractions at 0.2% concentration to whey protein isolate solution at
pH = 4 and 5. In fact, the attraction of polysaccharide negative groups
by proteins amino groups caused precipitation. But, the increase in
amount of anionic molecules developed negative charges of the solu-
tion, hence precipitation was prevented by electrostatic repulsion in-
duced by hydrocolloids.
In another work, the amount of precipitation resulted by the in-
teraction of WPI and Persian gum as a function of pH was studied by
(Raoufi, Fang, Kadkhodaee, Phillips, & Najafi, 2017). They observed a
maximum complex yield (precipitation) at a pH when the charge den-
sity of the biopolymers were stoichiometrically balanced. They named
this point as electrical equivalence point pH (EPP). The highest pre-
cipitation was obtained at pH = 3.4 in which two biopolymers had
equivalent charges. Further decrease or increase of pH lowered the
interaction between WPI and Persian gum. The reason of decreasing in
precipitation yield at lower pH values can be attributed to the proto-
nation of polysaccharide carboxylic groups.
The formation of coacervate is the consequence of electrostatic in-
teraction between two oppositely charge macromolecules (Moghbeli
et al., 2019). The electrostatically connected complexes can be in-
soluble or soluble. The insoluble complex is concentrated as coacervate
drops, resulting in the separation of solution into two aqueous layers,
whereby one part is riched with two biopolymers and the second phase
contains mainly the solvent with a poor concentration of biopolymers
(Gao et al., 2017). Adding approximately 1% propylene glycol alginate
was shown to induce the coacervation of nearly 75.8% of the milk
proteins (Chen, Chen, & Hsieh, 2016). Also, it has been shown that
bovine serum albumin and β-lactoglobulin form complex coacervates
when mixing with sodium alginate at pH = 4.2. Details about coa-
cervation phenomena have been given in following sections.
4. Factors that affect protein-polysaccharide interactions
Several factors such as molecular weight and concentration of
polymers, shaking rate, temperature, structural form, pH, ionic strength
of solutions, types of polysaccharide side branches, and electrical
charge of hydrocolloids determine the quality of protein–poly-
saccharide hydrocolloid interactions (Protte, Balinger, Weiss, Löffler, &
Nöbel, 2019). The mechanistic effect most important parameters on the
formation of protein-polysaccharide complexes are discussed below.
4.1. pH
pH is one of the most fundamental factors determining the
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Table 5
The influence of some hydrocolloids on physical characteristics of yogurt samples at different conditions.
Hydrocolloid Yogurt type Conditions Results References

Guar gum, xanthan, Frozen yogurt Concentrations of hydrocolloids (0.1 and 0.25 w/w); samples was preserved The incorporation of 0.2% xanthan gum was incremented the overall Soukoulis and Tzia (2008)
and CMC freezer at −15 °C for 24 h acceptance and creaminess
LBG and fish and cow Low-fat yogurt Hydrocolloids concentration (0.5% w/w); Texture analysis were including Gelatin enhanced texture properties and reduced syneresis without any Pancar, Andiç, and Boran
gelatin gumminess, hardness, springiness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness; sensory impact on sensory traits; fish and bovine gelatins decreased the syneresis (2016)
evaluation were performed by 9-point hedonic scale and improved the yogurt texture quality
Psyllium husk gum Low-fat set yogurt gel Psyllium husk gum concentration (0.072–0.128% w/w); temperature of High stability of yogurt along with decreased amount of syneresis was Ladjevardi, Gharibzahedi, and
viscosity measurement (24 ± 2 °C); yogurt fat content (0.29–1.71% w/w); seen in samples containing the gum; RSM-CCRD was reported to be Mousavi (2015)
optimum formulation of samples was obtained using RSM-central composite successful in optimizing the formulation of low-fat yogurt fortified with
rotatable design (CCRD) psyllium husk gum
Inulin Yogurt from UF Inulin concentration (20–70 g/L); temperature of rheological analysis There was a direct relationship between the viscosity and creaminess Rinaldoni, Campderrós, and
concentrate of soy milk 10 ± 1 °C; sensory analysis (odor, color, texture, and flavor) with inulin amount; the yogurt with 50 g/L of inulin presented nice Padilla (2012)

477
flavor, smell, and color
Different chain length Non-fat yogurt Inulin concentration (4% w/w); 500 s−1 shear rate for 60 s; solutions were All inulin-containing yogurts indicated lower firmness, yield stress, G*, Paseephol, Small, and Sherkat
inulins fitted to Herschel-Bulkley model; frequency sweep (0.05–100 Hz) G′, and G″ compared to control samples (without inulin); non-fat yogurts (2008)
fortified with inulin showed a close rheological behavior to full-fat
yogurts
KGM Low-fat and skimmed KGM concentration (0.5% w/w); physicochemical, color, water holding Addition of KGM had no meaningful effect on conformation, acidity, and Dai, Corke, and Shah (2016)
yogurts capacity, and texture analysis were performed pH; yogurts containing KGM had higher whiteness, greenness, and
yellowness compared to control full-fat samples without hydrocolloid;
KGM was not observed to impact on the capacity of water holding, but
decreased the syneresis and improved the firmness of samples
Hydrolyzed guar gum Low-fat yogurt Hydrolyzed guar gum concentrations (0.1–0.3% w/w); storage (4 °C The viscoelastic behaviour of fortified samples displayed weak gels Hussain et al. (2017)
throughout 21 days); frequency sweeps (0.01–100 Hz); shear stress (10 Pa) (Gʺ > Gʹ); the hydrolytic form of guar gum exhibited better rheological
and structural features
Pectin Low-fat yogurt Pectin concentrations (0–0.6% w/w); storage (4 °C); temperature of The acidity and viscosity was incremented with the increase in the Arioui, Ait Saada, and
viscosity measurement (25 °C) concentration of pectin; the best value of viscosity was related to samples Cheriguene (2017)
with 0.6% pectin
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M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
Fig. 3. A schematic representation of interactions between proteins and polysaccharide hydrocolloids.
formation of protein-polysaccharide complexes. Concerning the impact
of pH, a new model named “charge patch model” has been proposed.
This model categorizes the pH range into three parts bounded by cri-
tical pH (pHc), second transition pH (pHφ), and pH-associated turbidity
(pHd or pHφ2) (Wagoner, Vardhanabhuti, & Foegeding, 2016). During
the acidification of dairy samples, there is a point that polymers begin
to form soluble complexes. This point has been called as pHc; in fact the
availability of charges on the surface of polymers is the provocative
factor for generating soluble complexes which is not reliant on the
polymer ratio (Hirt & Jones, 2014). Further acidification of samples
proceeds the nucleation and growth of biopolymers, which initiates the
formation of insoluble coacervates. pHφ is corresponded to the for-
mation of coacervates. Complex coacervation happens when two bio-
polymers are intensely attracted to each other due to their oppositely
electrical charges. Finally, at the pHd, the produced complexes come
back to the conditions before acidification, i.e. co-soluble polymers.
Naturally the protonation of polysaccharides at very low pH levels leads
to the dissociation of complexes (Ru, Wang, Lee, Ding, & Huang, 2012).
For instance, the values of pHc, pHφ, and pHd for the complex of WPI
and flaxseed gum has been shown to be 5.4, 5.0, and 1.8, respectively
(Jun Liu, Shim, Shen, Wang, & Reaney, 2017). In the case of β-lacto-
globulin-sodium alginate, pHC, pHɸ1, and pHd values were found to be
4.8, 4.2 and 1.6, respectively (Raoufi et al., 2017).
4.2. Temperature
Temperature is another important factor, enhancing the stabiliza-
tion of protein-polysaccharide interactions, particularly, to produce a
stable gel in dairy products. Controlled heating of protein-poly-
saccharide solutions during the stages when polymers are in co-soluble
states promotes the stability of complexes in the acidification period
(Jones & McClements, 2011). If the temperature exceeds the dena-
turation temperature (Td) of a targeted protein, it shows a stable
manner against changes in solution electrostatic conditions due to mi-
tigating the accessibility of reactive sites. On the other hand, formation
of low energy and non-specific interactions such as hydrophobic bonds
between proteins and polysaccharides improves the rate of stability and
gelling. Krzeminski, Prell, Weiss, and Hinrichs (2014) showed that heat-
treated mixtures of whey protein-pectin (up to 90 °C) inclined to pro-
duce more compact, small, and stable structures compared to unheated
ones. Also, it has been demonstrated that after thermal treatment, many
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pectin molecules remain unmodified. These pectins have similar func-
tions to catalysts at chemical reactions. In other words, the remaining
pectin molecules have the ability to stabilize the complex by in-
crementing the viscosity of the solution, preventing complexes from
precipitation or Ostwald-ripening (Zeeb, Mi-Yeon, Gibis, & Weiss,
2018).
4.3. Ionic strength
The coacervation process in some dairy products such as cheese is
affected by the addition of salts particularly, NaCl. The use of low
concentrations of NaCl up to a critical level may favor the formation of
complexes due to the diminution in attractive forces among polymers
(Santos, da Costa, & Garcia-Rojas, 2018). In this situation, salt access to
polymer charged sites unwinds the polymer, simplifying the electro-
static attraction. Nonetheless, at high concentrations of salt, Na+ and
Cl− compete with the negative and positive sites of polysaccharide and
protein, respectively, shielding the biopolymer charges and reducing
interactions between them. For example, Gulão, de Souza, da Silva,
Coimbra, and Garcia-Rojas (2014) noticed that low NaCl concentrations
(100–250 mM) improved the interaction between gum Arabic and lac-
toferrin by detecting the increased particle size and turbidity. In op-
posite, a decrease in the size of particles corresponded to the turbidity
data when applying high concentration of salt (300 and 500 mM) which
exhibited its negative impact on the interaction.
Also, incrementing ionic strength shifts pHφ and pHc to lesser values
of pH as well as decreasing the space between pHd and pHφ (Hirt &
Jones, 2014), resulting in an undesired insoluble coacervation. In this
regard, Jun Liu, Shim, Wang, and Reaney (2015b) found that the high
incorporation of NaCl in the solution having bovine serum albumin and
flaxseed gum not only decreased the complex formation, but also
changed the values of pHφ from 5.0 to 4.4 and pHc from 5.4 to 4.8,
resulting in a drop in the stoichiometry and number of coacervate
complexes.
4.4. Chemical structure and concentration of polysaccharides
Chemical structure of hydrocolloids, particularly the presence of
negative, positive, or neutral net charges is a critical factor, determining
the physical condition of solutions containing both proteins and poly-
saccharides. Based on the anionic, cationic, or non-ionic nature of
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
polysaccharides, different conditions are needed to produce a stable
dairy product.
Anionic polysaccharides such as alginates, pectin, and carrageenans
stabilize the dairy matrix mainly based on the adsorption of poly-
saccharides on the surface of positively charged proteins below the
isoelectric pH of proteins. Initial interactions of oppositely charged
protein-polysaccharide leads to the formation of insoluble aggregates.
More binding of anionic polysaccharides to these aggregates make them
efficiently anionic, producing soluble complexes. But anionic poly-
saccharides may bind to anionic proteins (pH > pI) via small cationic
sites of proteins. In this condition, the formation of anionic “poly-
saccharide-protein” aggregates generates soluble complexes.
Chitosan is a cationic hydrocolloid at pH < 5.5. The partial dea-
cetylation of chitin produces chitosan. It is non-toxic, biocompatible,
and biodegradable which is utilized in food, pharmaceutical, and gene
therapy fields. This heteropolysaccharide is constituted of linear β-1, 4-
linked N-Glycolyl-D-glucosamine and N-Acetylglucosamine units
(Hosseinnejad & Jafari, 2016). Due to the presence of positively
charged reactive sites induced by amine groups, acidification of protein
solutions or dairy products make both protein and polysaccharide po-
sitive in charge, resulting in lack of interactions. In such situations,
higher pH is needed to produce stable products. For example, the for-
mation of heat stable dispersion without any precipitation up to 20 days
was seen at the solution containing chitosan and whey proteins at
pH = 5.5 (Zeeb et al., 2018). Since many dairy products are based on
fermentation and acidification, the use of chitosan is less common.
Tara gum, GG, LBG, and konjac glucomannan are among the most
used non-ionic polysaccharides. Interactions between proteins and
these polysaccharides are less common owing to the neutral char-
acteristic of them. Increasing the viscosity of solutions is the most
dominated mechanism, in which non-ionic hydrocolloids delay the
aggregation of proteins and improve the stability. LBG is a non-diges-
tible thickening polysaccharide constituted of 1-4-linked β-D-manno-
pyranosyl units in backbone, with 1-6-linked g-D-galactopyranosyl side
groups. This hydrocolloid has the ability to generate very viscous dis-
persions which are practically unaffected by heat processing or pH,
mostly owing to its neutral character (Farshchi, Ettelaie, & Holmes,
2013). It was observed that LBG improved the stability of oil-in-water
emulsions containing sodium caseinate. LBG at concentration of 0.5%
w/v led to a significant reduction in the diameter of oil droplets and less
than 5% creaming index, which were contributed to the heightened
stability of the solution (Perrechil & Cunha, 2010).
Concentration is another factor, influencing the stabilization–dest-
abilization of dairy products. The variation in the texture of dairy
matrices induced by changing in the concentration of polysaccharides
depends on the presence of adsorbing or non-adsorbing biopolymers.
Adsorbing polysaccharides such as carrageenan or low-methoxyl pectin
commonly alter the textural and rheological properties of protein-
containing products by incrementing the concentration through me-
chanisms of (1) bridging flocculation, (2) steric stabilization, (3) de-
pletion flocculation induced by remained unadsorbed polysaccharide.
In the case of unadsorbed polysaccharides such as guar gum or xanthan
gum, stabilization–destabilization procedures undergo transitions from
(1) depletion flocculation to (2) entrapped colloidal particles at a vis-
cous biopolymer network (Everett & McLeod, 2005).
5. Influence of hydrocolloids on stability of dairy products
The way polysaccharide and protein hydrocolloids are bonded to
each other specifies the stability in milk, ice cream, cheese, yogurts, and
other dairy-based products (Corredig et al., 2011). The most important
factors investigated after adding hydrocolloids into dairy products in-
clude determining the zeta potential (ζ potential), creaming index (CI)
and the rheological properties of dairy products after gelling by hy-
drocolloids.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483
5.1. Zeta potential and creaming index
One of the important factor describing the conditions of biopoly-
mers is ζ potential (Seid Mahdi Jafari & Esfanjani, 2017). The ζ po-
tential displays the charge magnitude existing on the surface of a col-
loidal particle. Particles, containing a high ζ potential show self-
stabilizing manner and high stability, since their charges inhibit coa-
lescence (C. Liu et al., 2011). Reported ζ potential related to the mi-
celles of casein at pH = 6.7 ranges between −8 and −22 mV de-
termined by Philippe, Le Graët, and Gaucheron (2005). The stability of
casein micelles in natural milk, in addition to negative charges, is re-
lated to the hairy layer present on caseins. The increase in H+ ion
concentration in milk causes the ζ values go up to a positive range.
Therefore, coalescence or precipitation happens. In this case, addition
of some hydrocolloids to be laid on the damaged sections of casein
micelles is a practical approach for recovering the original stability
(Dickinson, 2009). For example, Abbasi and Mohammadi (2013) ob-
served that ζ potential of milk acidified by orange juice was +16 mV.
By contrast, the natural milk and milk stabilized with soluble fractions
of gum tragacanth (SFGT), soluble fractions of Persian gum (SFPG) and
their combination (SFPG-SFGT) showed negative ζ values ranged from
−24 to −31 mV.
The impact of CMC and soybean soluble polysaccharide (SSPS) on ζ
potential of acidified drinks of skimmed milk as a preventing agent of
casein agglomeration were investigated by Ntazinda, Cheserek, Sheng,
Meng, and Lu (2014). Their data exposed that micelles stabilized by
CMC in the concentrations of 2–6 g/L have ζ potential of −22.1 to
−33.8 mV, demonstrating the absorption of CMC on the caseins which
are positively charged, and also the ζ potential of 3.4 to −12.5 mV was
reported for SSPS-stabilized micelles at same concentrations. Higher
levels have likewise been shown to increment the negative charges of
hydrocolloids. The ζ potential of all samples containing CMC was
higher (P < 0.05) than those containing SSPS, indicating the stronger
electrostatic repulsive forces of CMC-stabilized micelles.
The CI is an important factor determining the stability of emulsions.
This index gives ancillary information about the droplet aggregation in
emulsions (McClements & Jafari, 2018). Also, it is defined as the ratio
of separated phase to emulsion height multiplied by 100 (Omid
Shamsara, Seid Mahdi Jafari, & Zayniddin K. Muhidinov, 2017a). Thus,
the emulsion stability decreases at higher CI value. Hydrocolloids are
able to reduce the CI index in an emulsion system. It has been shown
that sunflower oil/water emulsion systems stabilized by pectin/β-lac-
toglobulin complex or apricot gum/β-lactoglobulin complex decreased
the CI index of emulsions (Omid Shamsara, Seid Mahdi Jafari, &
Zayniddin Kamarovich Muhidinov, 2017b; Shamsara et al., 2015).
Lower creaming rates in ice creams treated with CMC were found
and attributed to the attractive interactions between CMC and milk
proteins; however, the addition of polysaccharides are not always in
favor of lowering the creaming index, such that the incorporation of
guar gum into ice creams was shown to weaken the creaming stability
(Cheng, Ma, Li, Yan, & Cui, 2015). The depletion flocculation phe-
nomenon caused by non-ionic polysaccharides can result in the segre-
gative phase separation, which is in contradiction with creaming sta-
bility (Corredig et al., 2011).
5.2. Rheological properties of gels
Gels are interconnected molecular networks which entrap a liquid
medium and are mechanically rigid. In the other words, the process of
gelling aids to improve the structure of foods by controlling the aqueous
phase. Hydrocolloids can form gels through hydrophobic association,
hydrogen bonding, and cation mediated cross-linking. The gelling
process includes the association of more than one polymer chains in
regions called “junction zones”. In fact, the formation of these junction
zones in a three-dimensional form create the gel. Alginate, carrageenan,
pectin, gellan, agar, and gelatin are the most used hydrocolloids gelling
M. Yousefi and S.M. Jafari
agents. Hydrocolloids commonly function as thickening, stabilizing, or
emulsifying agents in dairy products before producing gels. In this
condition, the most common flow behaviours of dairy foods are
Newtonian, pseudoplastic (shear-thinning) or both (Rao, 2014), and the
products are well-fitted to power law (Ostwald–de Waele) or Her-
schel–Bulkley models.
Regarding the rheology of gels in dairy foods, G′, G″, complex
modulus (G*), and loss tangent (tan δ) are the most widely used
parameters. G′ is a criterion of the energy stored in the gels during an
intermittent usage of stress and G″ is the viscous response; in the other
words, it is a quantity of the wasted energy. Tan δ indicates how much
the strain and stress are out of phase with each other (Mehrnia, Jafari,
Makhmal-Zadeh, & Maghsoudlou, 2017). Materials with viscous-like
behaviour with high G′ show elastic-like behaviour, while substances
with high G″ exhibit more viscous-like behaviour similar to conditions
that tan δ > 1. The G* is another factor which shows the overall re-
sponse about the physical quality of gels, including the visible attributes
such as the flexibility or stiffness (Saha & Bhattacharya, 2010). These
indices are parts of small-amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOCS) tests.
Their measurement is based on the frequencies given to a food matrix
by a rheometer.
Rheological behavior could be used to estimate the stability of gels
produced through incorporation of hydrocolloids using G′, G″. When
G′ > G″ and both of them are dependent to the frequency (weak gel),
junction zones could be easily devastated even at a low shear rate. But,
in conditions that G′ > > G″, and both are frequency independent, the
behaviour of strong gel is observed. Lobato-Calleros, Ramírez-Santiago,
Vernon-Carter, and Alvarez-Ramirez (2014) examined the influence of
native maize (YNMS), chemically modified maize (YMS), and tapioca
starches (YTS) (10 g/L) as fat replacers for measuring the viscoelasticity
of decreased-fat stirred yogurt. Their results showed that G′ pre-
dominated over G″ and both were dependent to the frequency, a be-
haviour which is related to the gels with weak structural networks.
6. Conclusion and future remarks
Hydrocolloids are long-chain biopolymers which can be readily
dispersed, are partially or fully soluble, and are disposed to swell at the
presence of an aqueous phase. This paper represents a critical review
related to the application and behavior of different hydrocolloids in
acidified milk, cheese, yogurt, and ice cream as the most consumed
dairy products. Hydrocolloids not only can improve the texture of dairy
products by increasing their viscosity, but also they may interact with
whey proteins and casein micelles to enhance the techno-functional
properties of dairy products. These interactions could happen as co-
solubility, segregation, and complexation, which are guided by elec-
trostatic reactions, steric repulsion, and depletion flocculation forces.
Many factors affect the quality of protein-polysaccharide interactions,
including pH, temperature, ionic strength, chemical structure and
concentration of hydrocolloids which have been discussed in this study.
Also, the application of several hydrocolloids such as carrageenan, lo-
cust bean gum, gelatin, xanthan, carboxyl methyl cellulose, pectin, etc.
to improve the physical properties of dairy matrices including syneresis,
zeta potential, stability, and rheological properties along with gelation
and thickening have been investigated. On the other hand, some nu-
tritional and sensory attributes of dairy samples treated by hydro-
colloids have been also mentioned briefly.
One of the most important topics which researchers might be in-
terested is the need for the formulation of dairy products or other food
formulations using hydrocolloids: “isn't it possible to make these pro-
ducts without hydrocolloids?” absolutely it is possible, but one of the
biggest obstacles is the economic issue. Application of hydrocolloids
can decrease the cost of these products and improve their quality. On
the other hand, developed countries demand production of dairy pro-
ducts containing reduced fat and sugar. The use of hydrocolloids such
as inulin can result in formulation of dairy products with low fat.
480
Trends in Food Science & Technology 88 (2019) 468–483
Therefore, dairy industries have become more oriented towards the use
of inulin. Also, development of new products as well as their increasing
diversity has driven dairy industries to use more hydrocolloids.
In addition to gelling, thickening and stabilizing roles, hydrocolloids
are important in improving the nutritional value (fat reduction and
function as dietary fibers), encapsulation of bioactive ingredients,
production of edible biopolymers films, enhancing the emulsifying ca-
pacity of dairy products, etc. Particularly, it is anticipated that the use
of hydrocolloids as emulsifiers will be paid more attentions in next
years, and even, the possibility of introducing novel hydrocolloids in
food industries, for example, those obtained from agricultural by-pro-
ducts such as soy soluble polysaccharid or flaxseed gum. Besides, there
are still issues which need further clarification such as effects of hy-
drocoolids combination, and effects of processing (temperature, pres-
sure, pH, steam, etc.) on the structure and performance of hydro-
colloids, and the development of nanohydrocolloids e.g. crystalline
nanocellulose.
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