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    John H Mundy Europe in The High Middle Ages 1150 - 1309

    Uploaded by

    Hernán Scholten

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    A GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE Genoa aor: Derys Hay For many yar the volumes of Denys Hays dsingited General Hisory OF Europe have bovn sandal commendations for univers stent Shh formed and gerd pater They afer bod surveys oF Europes Thnry, which the Jviled dscuson {on 9 regina or continent-wide Tiny of soils economic, adminsttve sed snelectalthemes 8 Nove [a clear Ramet of pola events hey set ou combine scho= Tanhip with sccnblsy av tee which are both atacivey wien and elec vigour, Now the enare sequence funder revion by tial auton mos ofthe woes fr the Bs time since they were Piblahed and the books ae being redesigned and set The revit {Gener Hiory of Europe, wh comple, ell contain evel vom, ‘Once of dhe wholly a 4+ TH DECLINE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 4. HL At Jims G-THE LATE ROMAN WORLD Dol Hue Thame EX oe 4 EUROM INTHE CENTRAL MIDDLE AGES 902-1154 Cpr Bak 4 EUROPE IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 1130-1309 un H. Mandy EUROPE IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES Dep ay Cee bs Mand GQ. Bou EUROPE IN TIE SEVENTLENTH CENTURY D. Ht Peingon EUROPE IN-THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 1713-198 (Thi Eto) MS Ando EUROPE 178-1890 Pn Fd EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 83-1880 Head EUROPE 1980-165 fbn Roker FUROPE SINCE 1948 I) Ory + Aalbe de agin eto ‘Now eon puted i herve fmt GNSS tiem rp EUROPE IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 1150-1309 SECOND EDITION JOHN H, MUNDY LONDON AND NEW YORK ngynan Group UK Limited Conga Hose, Bar Mil Hast, Eye CMD 2, Englund Eelam Compo gh weld abel nh Unie Ste of America Sy LogrIc, Nw York © Longman Group UK Limited 1973, 1991 ‘Al igh ere no part ofthis pbiaon may be ‘eoloed ned in bree em or tamed Sy Yow ey ny mem, eons ech, Fowcapyig rng eee how ber he ar wen permis fhe Pasnew Frming eed copying a he Uaed Rigby ed Gye lpg Lesa gee Lal 90 Teena Cos Read tondo, WIP HE: Fi phd 173 Soles tt Sch oon 9 Bria Library Cataloging in Publication Data Ni ee ali "Ere he high Mile Age 150-1309.-2a4. (A (Gener tery of Bape) 1 farpe 100-1459 [ite See Saba SBN 0-$92-49995-1 PPR sha 080169 CSD tmz of Conga Cataloging in Pabetion Data ely re ate gh Mile Ae, 150-1309/ Jo Hine Mey Pre ral history of c) cm ~ (4 Geel ory of ao) ila lige wad ie ISBN Osea Die 9. < SBN oa 9395-1 9) 1 wep fvry 7-102" Me geo fe Tees Damme. tot sonra oo-no7y Se Sern Foi Bento ‘Prod by Longman Singapore Publisher (Re) Ld ‘Pane a Sgepore CONTENTS LIST OF MAPS x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS = PREFACE xi 1 INTRODUCTION, 1 The subject mater, p. 1 ~ Soures, p. 7 ~ History, ps 8 = Biography and poetry, pp. 10-11 PART ONE: EUROPE 3 2. SOCIAL FRONTIERS; CLERKS AND LAYMEN 15 The amo peoples, p. 15 ~ Lees, professions and hicism, pp 21-28 3. CULTURAL FRONTIERS: FRANCE, ITALY AND EUROPE 2» France, p. 29 ~taly, p36 ~ Europe, pp. 39-42 4 CRUSADES AND MISSIONS “ Crusades, p. 44 — Mision: and tolention, p. 53 ~ War and missions, pp. 57 ‘THE Jews Divisions and education, p. 60 ~ Govermmenc and economy. p.63~ Conversion and persecution, pp. 70-76 pe in te igh mie age 1150 — 1308 PART TWO: ECONOMY ” 6 FOUNDATION AND GROWTH Bt The land, p. 81 — The cowns, p. 86 ~ Industry and commerce, p. 90 ~ Phining, building and living sandands, peo 7 ORGANIZATION 101 rl enterprise, p. 101 ~ Commerce, p. 107 ~ Busnes, credit and industrial sractars, pp. 112-120 8 USURY AND CORPORATISM 21 Economic brotherhood, p. 121 ~ Church and usury, p. 123, = Goverment and ose, p. 128 ~ Economie Corporation, 150 Corporati and society, pp. 134-138 PART THREE: SOCIETY uw 9 WOMEN AND MEN 19 Marriage and love, p. 143 ~ Means, btericy and seligon, pp. 150-157 1 WORKERS 139 Farmers, p- 159 = Townsmen, pp. 168-175, 11 NOBLES AND SOLDIERS 178, Soldiers, p. 178 ~ Knighthood, p. 183 — Nobility and war, pp. 139-195 12 ECCLESIASTICS, ww ‘Types, p. 197 ~ Freedom, p. 202 ~ Rivals, p. 208 — Laymen, pp. 210-215 PART FOUR: GOVERNMENT 219 13 THE CHURCH ai Government and war, p. 221 — Popes, princes and emperors, i228, Local churches p. 230 — Chich goverament, pp. 235-241 Cont ‘THE GREATER MONARCHIES a3 “The Empire, 213 — England, p. 248 — France, pp, 253-260 MONARCHS, SENATES AND ASSEMBLIES 261 Popes. cardinals and councils, p. 261 ~ Secular princes and parlamens, pp. 261-271 16 PRINCES, VILLAGES AND TOWNS: 2s (Communities and defence, p. 273 ~ Village and town, p. 274 ~ Town and city, pp. 278-284 17 REPUBLICS. 285 Republican, p. 285 ~The ‘people’, p. 293 ~ Princes and oligarchs, pp. 299-304 18 GOVERNMENT AND LAW 307 Serbes and chanceris,p. 307 ~ Nota techniques, p. 311 — Taw, p. 312 Lawyers and judges, pp. 317-322 PART FIVE: THOUGHT 325 19 INTELLECTUALS a ‘Universes, p. 327 ~ Leaning and freedom, pp. 333-338 20 REASON AND RELIGION 340 History and progress, p. HO — Science and determinism, 347 ~ Nate and freedom, p. 350 ~ Deity and cerende, p. 355-360 21 ENTHUSIASM AND HERESY 30 Doubs and hers p. 862 ~ Divergence, p. 368 ~ The ideal work, pp. 374-377 22. REPRESSION AND PERSUASION 39) Divergent thought and socery, p_ 379 ~ Urban or run? p. 384 Force and convenion, pp. 387-395, pe nthe igh mileage 1150 ~ 1309 PART SIX: CHURCH AND STATE 23 POPES, CLERGY AND LAYFOLK. Lay power and the papucy p. 399 ~ Charch divisions, p Lay presue, pp. 410-416 24 UNAM SANCTAM Polemic,p. 418 ~ Conclusions, pp. 426-429 BIBLIOGRAPHY MAPS INDEX on 309 403; 418 o “7 356 LIST OF MAPS Europe's languages and pate of sedement ci 1300 ‘The Latins in the Entemn Mediterancan in the 1230s Spain sin 1310 ‘The Bri es cn 1500 ‘The Empire and Italy ca 1300 Feance inthe 1180 7. France dca 1310 Ris Renu itaaran expos, new edition 1900 oaward Rolle Sones Rene Baan me a sions Ty ‘Tesabe eivertjace ABBREVIATIONS AASS, Aa santonon 7) Wit ridin med a, ed, Avg Gaudens eral, 3 vols (Bologea. 1888-1901) acre einige sur Cede der Piles des Mitel eile nd Former dete bis snercchncen Juande, ed, Lodi Rockinger,2 vols. (Munich, 1863-8) cic Cones cman. nal Eiedberg Dols. (Leiprig, 1879-81) cic Cars is cls, ed. Momsen, Ketger etal. 3 vols. (Bevin, 1912-20) aMGH Mowiments Gemanise Histo Const. Constant a pubs Epp. oh Epil slerae u ages ua Libel dete ss Sripons FIC; in usu shloron Foe srs gman anti in asm ‘ane SS iv ws hola Seo ram Germann oe scholonin Sassi Stausden des sptcen Mitelaen PL Pavol ans, J.B. Migne (Pris 1868) PREFACE “This hiony is writen for college and university students those sho hope to acquire rather more leaing than most oftheir peers. Such young people can understand everything thet eldes ean. The young, however, ako dir from the ol. Because of innocence oF Jgnorance, they have an advantage: dey often comprehend more ‘pill. Burdened by experience and leaming. older persons offen Seem to peer in order to judge instead of merdly looking in order tounderstand. ‘The oly sid Giles of Rome, are natal sceptical tnd ungenerows; the young generous and creduloas:? But asde fon this, all adults, young snd old, shae 2 cerain intelectual feqalty, A history addrewed to the young i therefore one ad Gresed eo 2 wider audience ~ the stidents then, and also their ptents and teachers “The expostion ofthis book his been intrlarded with quowtons| fiom primary sources, Occasional Lan technical terms, further= more, have been retained. This reminds reader of something easly fverlooked in vodys age of national Languages. The Europe rated here was a region divided mainly between the Latinspeaking peo- ples and the German-speaking ones. Although the later hail once Snvaded and suljcted the Lain, the ateacuon of the latter's Me~ dcerrincan culture had conquered the iavaders. Western Europe's tniveral language fad Become Latin, and French, language of [Lin stock, was the most widespread teary and legal vernacular. In spite of the imponance of the Germanic and Nordic peoples (and, for che ie being, the leser weight of the Slavs and Cel), [itis and i denvacves so dominated the cult lie of Europe that the single adjective best gushing dhe word “Europe for this Pee Period i ‘Latin’. This term cleanly distinguishes ‘the West from Greck, Savi and Arabie Europe, dhe Near Ea and Alfic. “Many primary sources cited here derive from printed eitions of| the omg, but thi ule t sometimes waived bec lick of cme ‘obliges me to have ecourse to documents and tacts cited in other Writes” books. Notably usefl here are authors such as Decima Dosie, ELH. Kertorowice and Georges de Lagarde. No mauce what the source, however, the tamitions of Lata and medieval vera ‘cular eae (bt ot Greek and Heres) are my ov. The method of cing peimary texts is simpliied, Literary texts are usally divided into Books and Books ino. Chapters 0 tht the fine number sche Book and the second the Chapter, in addon to which i ako inelded the page of the modern ediuon. Technical Cations of law are eichewed became non-apeciaits generally do not know them, Jusinian’s Code, for example, cited as Cade, noe 2s C., and canon law citations ae alo simplified. Occasional excep- tone to these res wil be noted atthe ee Footnotes are abbrevised, The most ssccinct references are those to texts taken fom books Inted in the general bibhography, which is sl? divided into groups one for each Pare ofthis history. ‘They may be searched for there. Other text or edn are giver fall references the fit sme they appear, but are thereaficeabbrevi- ated. The book in which they ae to be found may be searched for jn the general index under an approprate heading, locaton, pet- son's nae ote of work. "To make the mares cited in this book 26 Bnular as possible, CChnstan ames have beon Anglicied, if at all posible. Famly fates, however, pose greater dificult, A porton offen cited below is "Peuus Johannis Oliv’ that i, “Peter son of John Oliv Following the tition of normal scholarship, Oli will be reirred to a Peter John Oli. Another example Remigo, son of Giro- Tam. The Rian syle of Remigo de Gila wall be ws ‘Special thanks for providing tefl references to primary sources wed in dhe second etition ate owed to books and ances weiten by Joan Ferzanee, Leal L. Ous and Zephira E. Rokeah, the later ‘06 of whom were my doctoral seadents, and the fist a close cok Teague at Columbia Univensty. Various scholars in diferent institu- tions wore instrumental im pointing to other sich primary sources For the firs edition ofthis book, the most sigiican of these were Jocelyn N. Hllgth ofthe Pontifical Instzate of Mediaeval Staces fn Toronto, Domenico Malle of the Univeraty of Rome, Kenneth pe in igh ile ag 1150-1509 IM. Setton of the Insitute for Advanced Seades in Prisceton, Sir [Richard W. Souther of Oxford Univer, and Keanedy M. ‘Woods, To both the fist and second editions, Juli Kinlaner of| the Univeniiy of Chicago and Ronald G. Maso conenbated key feterencs fou Florentine maneseips. ‘Thanks are sll owed (0 Peter N, Riesnbeng of Washington University in Saint Lous and Beatrice Gottieb who zead the manusenpt of che fist edition of this book, John Mendy 10 Febrasry 1990 NOTES AND REFERENCES. 1 De reine prinipam 12 Rome, 17), 7. To Charlocte Williams Mundy INTRODUCTION ‘THE SUBJECT MATTER, History is often beclouded, and each period has clouds speci it. ‘Medieval isory’s cloud i becase Europe's culture was then ecle= Sastial whereas today’s secular. Scour toi seek wo Gnd che ‘origins of the insiations and thought they fvour when looking for today's spiritual ancestors, they vauk back over the Mile Ages to Greck and Roman antiguty. Prisoners of lcm, moderns who favour going to church, nos que or synagogue, experience thee only a subeuire, one cheet- ted by secular’ greater culture, Av 3 remit the fiends of the ‘Madde Agee are as bothersome ae its cnomics. They are thore who, reacong against secular dominance, Jook back to cate times i order to entiie the present. Ale recent European itory, one ‘undentande their doubts about sce, but shir Middle Ages is ‘often only paral smile to reality. Thee ideazed community of the medieval cown, for example, i clearly partly Bctional “Moder tesech has defined the difeences beeen clasical, medieval and moder times, and contested the otherworldly ent phat of lite antique and medieval thought sith the thie wordy emphasis of moderns and of their predecesos in antiquity. This Iruthfl dsenction has, however, encourage some eo inscribe ie stone. To them, the laser promotes sauonal propostons, those Within reach of natural demonstration, whereas the former’ are r= Tgious, beyond, thes, the reach ofthe same. This castes sme €0 ake institutions cotetminous with ideas the Church sr rlgion #0 to speak and the State and other secular insatuions are reason, This pen thigh ile ge 1150-1509 overlooks the fst tht, abhough chete are many diferences be= fovcen the two ways of thinking, Chey have something in common, ‘namely thei love of indemonstrable propostions. Many presen-chy Convictions about human fee wl, ioral potential, che necesity of pesonal freedom for social and economic advancement, for Example, and mankind's central role inthe cosmo ares indemon- Sable as any mystery ound in Chnstanity, oda or lars ‘Using the ideas expresed in the words “religious or ‘aio co eseribe motives for human action s both tadisons) and val. To {eject either one of them in fivour of the other, however, is (0 Iniuse them. Sonte say, for example, that a person or group acted ‘only for religious motives; others counter dat they were animated by only tational, economic or mteral motives. One wonders if cither one standing alone sufices to describe human actions. These actions vary. Men and women phy games. They cam payer wheck, reste god” names, make musi, do pazzles or cae ftom. When done by one alonc, thet have Bie to do with the society in which a perion lives, and seem instead to be means of| esting one's harmony woth the mature of things. When one pays ‘ith ers or before an adhenee, bowever, pay Becomes a way of Competing o joining with other men and women, ‘People hope that there is 4 naira order to which they ean 6 theanelves, oF of which they can make use, Tht dee 1 Ged 10 socier, but, rather like play, ranscends the particule soci world in which they live becate the problems it ces to handle ate uni- form throughout history, These problems are those caused by bith, ‘eaiborant growth, sickness and death a well 36 hopes for freedom Sind love, and are expreved by 2 miture of rational and religious pasims und ides The dere to avoid death, for example, causes Fumamty both to people the other world with possibly imaginary souls and to work sxtinaly to prolong fife inchs one The particulars of periods in which individuals ve aac hte torians especially beciste they distinguish one age from another. ‘They ako bulk lange in the sources for bistorieal su. probably beense humans spend liste time being born, loving or dying and rch in if’ routines. Only sleep takes more time than these. Ex- Pencnce neverteles qaches that the primal activites are more onsequental beemse humans are monty moved by the need and flesire to atin love and reain he b: finding and using che night ‘otder of things ‘istorians should therfore ty to recognize the similarities of human deste and need in the many languages, secular or eclesii- cal, echnical or commonsense, scenic oF myitic, lent hen by ‘ansent institutions, philosophies and religions One recall, for ‘ample, debates among even "mera thinkers as to whether the ideas of their fvourte intlleesal forebears were minly Gown from the thought of their time, or inead arose witht themselves, having few of no ouside sources. Such debater, one guesses, rehearse arguments af indemonstrble a8 the old scholatie ‘ones Livouring natural oF innate capacity vert the need for divine rice, argument esentally aboat free wil and determination. Ones, moreover, he smiles of some modem and medieval propostions about mankind’ role in natural history or under the deity are perceived, one can comprehend why humanity i acted to the indemonsteale ‘Ths addiction presumably derives from need nobody can be sure that his or het cancer will ne il, and nobody that he or she Ss loved. All one can do is hope and play gam. Although recourse to indemonseable propostions often inhibis human Feedom, bis tory abo shows thae it sometimes helps i Mowe snstinuions have heen Baile on humanity's natural, rexonable and. demonstrable need for health, mitral welfte and a measure of fcedom in the Asposion of talents and goods. It hte Rome, however, these n0r- tmally healtby dives and their concomiant imitations were 20 overwhelmed by intemal dispsion and extemal atack tha they became oppresive. ‘Then, the need for tector freedom forced the people co tum to the other would, dhe Wodd of the indemoesteable ‘Ahough Cheitanity’ obscursntsm pardy veflected a Elure of nerve, st was aso 2 iberng teceion fom series to sate and society and from the offen self-defeating race for wealth, learning and wellbeing. Rome's peoples rejected Greco-Roman earth-cen= ‘red reason, religion and sociey "The institutional precipiate of this once revolutionary atiade was the medieval Church. Empowered by the people, eclesasie] auudhorty was 2 counterbalance to lay power, thos making Nery 9 smatter of atemating choice between seulat and ecclesia ath= ‘ovis, institutions and pateras of thought. If one seemed unduly inhibiting, men and women could and did tum and choose che other, Great though i was, dis balnee Berween the wo powers was only temporary, is fonlacoming dseypdion announced when the clegy wel, called om wo direct the word in practel fe daring pe the gh ile ges 1150-1309 its period of leadership, began eo tur fom theslogy to philosophy. from mystery t reson, fom the other wold to Us one These being the authors opinion, ii asumed inthis book that few or no human activities ek 2 religious dimerson, an appeal t, or a we of, indemonstable propostions or ideas, and few or none lack an appeal to what can be known or projected to be reasonably likely om the bass of human experience in nature, The sudy of haere (bei differing fom those of dhe majors) has been con fied for example, by conflicts between ehoxe who chim that ss genesis wat religious an thoreaserng it wa social or economic "The medieval believer, doubter and heretic are described in tht ‘book 2 both religious and rational persons “There are ako divergent ways of viewing the eeaionship of na- sions, claves, groupe and sexes, Many feel thatthe powerful always fxploit the weak, the wake the pacific, the rich the pooe, and nen women. Conjecturing that scieties bined on violence are bound to lack sfBcient slaty o combat their enemies, others fvoue an opposing viewpoint, arguing that, stead of abuse, the ‘ae of one by the other 40 their mutual profe # society's cement Because both of these views afe rational and yet wholly indemon= stable, thi book avoids choosing des. ‘Violence and ciation cored in dhe Mile Ags. although lamenting servitude, for example, some moder writers, even radi cal ones, have aserted tha without i there would have been no fulture. Tecan surely be shown that labour is nvexary for cea tion, and tht coerced hbour ofen has advantages over fre, Greco Roman civilization wis spread. around the Meditemanean and towards dhe Rhine and Dansbe valleys in lange pat by a temporary increase of servitude, Ht chat does not mean that cocrced work is always beneficial History scene fo say only that oppresion 2 ses helps humankind at other st harms i ‘Many have been 0 sickened by past savagery tha they see no profie in history, which, to them, merely provides models for bad Behaviour. Thi postion weik: to deny hideousess suppresses ‘much of living snd all of dying. Other, too numerous to ite, love Selectively, explaining away evl and emphaszing the good. Theie post is read in termt of their present: good insation and. good pope have led to today's fallment. In the view of such thinkers, fhe medieval atempt to extrpte heresy and atack slam and Jian wis unhappily necesary because the Church created and defended European culture, The subordinate place of women and ado the exploitation of peasints by townsmen and londs were fictional Inceaue without ther labour there would hive been no mowuments fof aro letters, Partly true. pethaps, these views would ive si= prised medieval men and women who knew and worried about wha they were doing Jews and Musins were detested but soinee times adie, ser seomned but ako emancipated, and women b= (alized but ao loved at equal, Some abo asert that exploitation of others always destroys the vunjmt Like the mad, indvidials and societies undoubtedly offen repeat actions to exces, persisting in behaviour chat causes defeat. Bur there a necesary link between self-destruction and lack of justice? One can surely exist without the othr, 36 the long dination ff awl empires atts, not to speak of some appalling person Sill, up t0 today, someone might say, all empires hae fallen: but then, up to today, all individuals have died, and surely noe because of sel-destruction Up to today, death has been largely independent of humanity an its insitutions, and, because of the fear 1 inspires, has caused both human invenson and destruction. Having given lie, nature launches all into a ace fom oncoming death. Cludeen, men and Women are the runners, who combat their neighbour, young apis old, men agaist women, debtors agains creditor, Bmalies provinces ations and races one aginst the other. Butts abo crue that, fom the brief commerce ofthese racers, new life derives 10 run yet father dances, as do exchanges of information, momen tary but fond solidrtien and eclsvely long-lived iniations and tulturs, Fear ako makes one worry about sthat one docs to other, but, given the tempo of death’ approach, only hasty and pal resition can be made, The history of individual and societies shows that exces it wrong or se-deleating- Overboumse by death's ruth and the hordes liven before it, however, who can know when he or she hie ppased the limit? An hisorian of sch verginowe scenes had best {void morazing, and instead imitate Benedict Spinoza, who wrote: en ay ind tn: dc ob a {See T wal te ito the Ding rnang tt tence wh the te ‘eam of pint ase acum te thenut d l dloy {Ske cg now lng rt, or cnc bt onde bat pe the igh mile ages 11501309 [A cendeney 10 ead back modern experience into history mst ao be rssted. An example i the nineseenthcentury view ®t ‘conomic expatsion i necesanly accompanied by growing human feedom. The opinion is mistaken: Europe's caly modern expan- son was accompanied by 2 great increase in savery. Again, reflet= Ing the. imaginary. tsiumph of the boongeoiie'an the. Frenel Revolution, nota ew hitorans have believed that merchants were progresive, but churchmen, nobles and pests backward. Not ‘nly simplsic, this overlooks the probbicon of usury, which, along with technological change, made all the difference beeween tmedical and modern economic individualism or expitasa. Lastly, many of the same seadens, however much they otherwise die ered, claimed to have found an estental and origina diference bbenween northern uibunim and tha ofthe Mediterranean. Serving 2s capial of a province and housing rol landowners, dhe ancient city a said Co have lived again in medieval Iealy whereas the horthem city created a new urbanism led by 2 bourgeoisie fee from the trammels of rural society. To some, the medieval bour= fe0i city was the comentone ofthe progressive modem and capi false mercanele and manufacturing cigs to other i was ao an ‘orginal ceaton of northern, even German culture. This book ar tgs instead cat, in their orgs, sorteen and southern medieval towns sere Fundamentally smi “Again the Church's nods of oday have inspired not a few to ‘maintain thot apparent asertions of polteal power by the popes really dealt with moral or eclesistical questions. This postion dis- regards the fact tht, ro many charchesen and popes, the world was to be made into fic school for eaching humanity how co atin heaven. The Protestant and even Cathohe view that, by fang © reforn i the period treated in ths volume, the papal Church in= ‘ited is overthrow daring the Reformation is surely foo narrow [Al the people and not jos afew clergy planted the seeds of hat, feat eansformation, and-no amount of the iad of reform envis- ged by modem Chaistans would have prevented ie ‘Las, one regres that Scandinavia, the Therm penis, south crm lay and Soy do not balk large in this Book, A sel greater Tack is chat Slavonic Europe and the Greek and Musi areas ofthe ‘Mediterranean are hardly touched on at all ‘The excuse 5 that 2 ‘book on wenem Europe cannot tret everything. A paral com pensation i that, wth the exception of southern Tay, instotions in Scandinavia, Hungary and neatby Shvonic sites were not die simular to those scen eater in the Carolingian pened SOURCES Many readers and hizorians want to sce whit individal actors did fom history's sage, They wish to evaluate the cantnbations of Bir ‘mos leaders, t0 sce how sucess they were of were not, whether fr not chy foresaw the future before thei time of were reation- anes incapable of undentanding their present. This isa renonable desire because Ine requires models. Ar the same tne, this kind of history can easly become a cult of human frnc, 2 paral equivalent fof medieval canonization. Even in modern times, when (unl the inwoduetion of the telephone) sources were abundant, this pro duced dubious history. [¢ overlooks ehe fct this, quite aps from the natural relactance to disclose interest or devious motives even to ones tis hard for an individual eo know what prompecd his or er actions. For obvious reson, i x harder in regard to other. The student af medieval hstony ako fices a paucy of sources stating the intentions (whether fise or tue) of ator or describing their msimate felings and conduct. A few text, however, do 50 ‘The w-cilled autbiogzaphty of Peter che Hermit of Monte Mor- tone who became Pope Celestine V (pope 1294, d. 1296) is 4 work astonishingly ich in deta about it hero and his ie. Sia. the Ife of the canonized king of France, Lous 1X, finished by John, lord of Joie, in 1308, sketches aspects ofthe ing’ beha- out, qualities, chess and speech, nor © apeak of those of his c= sading notables and cley, wih immente ream and candour (On the whole, however, this kind of material fe caer i me= Aiea than in modern or contemporary history. This snot s0 grave 2 weakness it migh a fist seem. Although the texts cited Below do not relate what specific individual sid about their actions, they fen clearly show thei isiestonal and pychologsal context. I, then, one docs not lea about speciic persons, ae kiows rather easly whae people generally thought about, heir ways of ating nd thei plans for ving. Apart fom specaied treaties of theo- logy. philosophy, law and government, the two mor snsractive types Were the many hisories and the great pieces of literature composed during this period Bape gh mileage 150-1308 HISTORY [Although the elegance of an Oxo of Fresing (@. 1158) was not surpased in the period with which ths volume deal, univer his tory was well represented. Other dhan the English historians men tioned below, good examples are che Panton of Goatiey of Viterbo (1191) and the Hisontal Minor of the Dominican ency- clopredse Vincent of Beauvais (cea 1259). Simar in edition ‘vas Willam of Nangis (2 1500), historian ofthe royal monastery (Of S Denis thi, from about 1274, began t0 produce the official Yemculsr ante of the French monarchy, the Great Crone "There were abo specialized histories with a lage. chronological rang lke Marin of Troppa’s (8. 1278) papal and imperial history, 2 version of which war Binshed by 1258 arly because thei treatment of aniguity and che eater Mid [Ages oes wually dstiled Som eater sources, historians were more fonginal though no more trthfel when desing with ther own times, Among the best were England's prolife chronicles Willam fof Newburgh (&. 1198), Roger of Hoveden (dk 1201) and she ‘monk of St Allars, Mathew Paris (2. 1259) whose excellence is- {tates how information could be mansited with accuracy and de- tal fom one part of Europe to another. Eack imporant event fvoked its hstonans. An example isthe German monk Helmbol's (1177 story of the conquest of the Baltic Slavs, Among the bese historians of dhe Cres in the Nese East was Willam, arch- bishop of Tyre (ca 1186), ged in Arabic and Greek, who abo ‘wrote alos although much ted, account of the ovental sats. “History” id not quite mean what fe means today. A famed pee~ cher, James of Vitry’s (4.1240) Oneual History is 2 historical {guidebook of te Holy Land and adbacent regions nd his Oxide Fisory rated the order, stoctere and sacraments of che Latin Church. His works were manual for parish ries, preaches and clergy on pgrimage oF misions. Again. history wat 4 moral dici= pline, Moraizrs al, historians favoured partis or interest, Mat~ thew Pasi, for example, being hossle to both Rome and the monarchy of Henry Il, Although informacive and often very pet= Ceptve, hisory was primary parsan, even polemical, and there- fore even more openly bused in fivour of comtemporary causes. iT such an be imagined, than profesional academic history today. Some event were covered thoroughly. The Albigensan Crussde atdton ‘of 1209 and the inwoduction of the Ingusitors into Languedoc in the 1230s, for example, were recorded i the general French and Englsh chronicles. Local and specie historic express almost every posible point of view, save that of the Cathar church, Peter of Vaux de Cerny, 3 Cistercian who accompanied the crusaders (1212-18), wrote a detailed polemical hisory, fill of coloural pro ppganda and miracles. A rhymed veraculae history composed by ‘wo authors, now called the Song ofthe Crsade, expressed the 3- tudes of the southerners, especialy the second alt Although in- tolerant, 2 cool account of the spread and reprenion of Cathar sw given by 2 chaplain of the counts of Tovlovse, William of Poyiaurens, im the 1270s. He enlivened his record with natural ‘wonders, but mires were left to propagandists like Vaux de Cem tay. A brief bur remskably accurate story of the early rpreiion (of Cathar was given by the Dominican Willam Peison, bimselt an enthusiastic Inquisitor (2.1268). Lastly, ere isthe history ofthe Dominican order writen by the noted Inquisitor and hisoran Bee saad Gui (41331) in which atention was paid to Languedoc and “Toulouse, where the order's mother house wa loested ‘Gai was one of seven thon from the new mendicant orders who recorded the glories of their founders, the ives of thie sins and their leamed men, the biter replete wich the tes of their ‘Works. A mixture of tht genre with the chronicle was that by Sabimbene of Parma (dita 1290), one of the most atoning documents of al Salimbene's book outines the history of the Fran= jrscan order ffom the death of is founder, its intermecine struggles and bates with other orders and the papacy. Tetereted ia zeoe™ ting Church government, he alo interpolated a tract On Prats ‘This was imerwoven wih 2 colourful account ofthe wars beoween {he Kian republic and the Hohenstaufen Empire from 1167 t0 1287, and with an intensely personal hisary of hi oem entry into the order and life thee, spiced with percepve, i intolerant, deals fon every divergent religious and politcal sect. “Town and provincial history was an ealy specialty of laymen, A notable ample wat the hitory oF the March of Trewco senten by the son of 2 notary, the grammaran Rolandine of Padus (4. 1276). To this may be addled a Ineratae in praise of individual ees. The lone cited in dheve pages is the curoualysatsial pre of Milan by Bonvesino of Riva in about 1282, Since ay Iteracy in Lain wat Widespread in Tay, these were in that language. As seen above dicot the Albigensian Crusade, vernacular Hstory had abo began #0 pe nthe ge mile ages 150-1308 make ie appearance, An outsanding work was the history of the Fourth Crusade and of the Latin Empire of Constantinople by Geofiey of Villhardouin, mal of the Champagne and of Ro= sania (Lae 1213), BIOGRAPHY AND POETRY As in Otto of Feising’s and his continuators Deols of Frederik 1 Barbarose, biography sea close to hisory. Capetian ideology in- spted Ie of Pip Augustus of France by Wiliam the Breton Gea 1224-26), Princely lines were abo interested in recording the hntories of their falics and the deeds of fimous ancoson. ‘The canon Breton of Ambo’ (f 1155-73) hitory ofthe counts cof Anjo and lonts of Amboise and that ofthe lords of Ardees and ‘sunt of Guincs by the clerk Lambert of Andes (f. 1194-1203) ‘exemplify chis genre, A chaplain composed 2 vernacular verse bio= ‘gophy of Willis, mahal of England and earl of Pembroke (¢ 1219). work which, Hf not always teutful sx det, is veracity iself about the milieu of his hero, By the thiteends century, laymen were inthis busines themselves, writing both biographies and autobiographies in the vernacular Amvong the most celebrated fof these were the memoirs of Pip of Novara (1261-64), sei biog joni and historian of Cyprus and of what was called “Over= seas France’. Joinville’ biography of Louis IX, mentioned above nother CCarcer and advancement attracted the élite eat set the tone for medical society. What they wanted were heroes who taught les Sons. Some of thes, lke the twelth-cenury Ralph of Camb, pre= fehed the viewe of moderation and the unhappy fte of those ruled by exces. Others, ike the eater and ever popular Song of Rein provided heroes whowe sicdal and Christ tke saciice was the model of how so win fime by arms, There were also humorous Canatures of martial vals, complete with anticheroes who be- faved without a shred of vitue. The rlgious counterpart of the esqstion of fame by solder was the atainment of sanctity by dhe Sins the Church's heroes. Sain” ves were becoming increasingly histone in ths period and lage collections of usc co preachers "were appearing. A celebrated example was James of Vorapne's (Var fazze, 1208) collecion of semi-biographies and ales called the rode Golder Legend. Reled to this Itertere were such exemplaist, semichioral books 18 the Dislogwe of Mia: by the Cistercian Caesars of Heiterbich (@. 1240), designed to explore for the Deneit of novices the hazard, joys. history and heroer of the fie rebgovs ‘A spate of increasingly specaied tracts on the “ages of man manners, chivalry and social and poltel theory wae writen by laymen such as Novara mentioned above, Brunet Latin (1204 5) and the polymath Raymond Lbll (A cies 1315). These auton wrote in the vermacubr and this reminds che reader that, in lay Jeers, venacuh verse initially predominated. In poetry, the indie vidual wis the cental subject, Influenced by religios thought {hemes of spiritual stent oF progress were uti in poems sich 2 Dosa. The subject wae exaly joined to tha of lve, In his Es dnd Enide Chain of Troyes (f. 1150-80) = a poct admired by Dante ~ taught that crue love ourshes only among those who strive 1 advance inthe worl. The tess to be overcome by lover were investigated in Archurian Iterture by meane of figs ike Lancelot and Queen Genevieve. Troubadour vere especially ex plored the pasion and unresolvable loging of being in love. There ‘was indeed, an enormous erature onthe subject, some oft pliy= fal and early. In 11846 Andrew the Chaplain wrote his On Lar, 2 wiry socio: philosophical encyclopaedia ofthis topic ‘Vemacular waiting, moreover, had begun to arscend history war's heroics and love. Mentioned above, Raymond Lill joined love co theology. Yee another writer in the vermacaar was the eat poce Dante Alighien (2. 1321) who began work on his Diine ‘Comedy bout 1317. During the ten or more year he spent on this vvemacular verse encyclopedia, he took time off to compose in [atin a politial and cedesiologial wact On Monachy (sound BIS). Widely ciculated, the lager part of the Romane ofthe Roe \was writen in French somewhere between 1270 and 1285 by John CClopinel of Meang on the Loire, presumably cletk. Not only 4 lively description of love, of the war between woman axl maa, of ‘manners and behaviour Joi’s poem was aso 2 vernacular eneyelo- pacdia of philosophy and theology. A translator of Latin texts, John ako provided the ly ite with elegant vulgarzatons of clerical ‘hough, suc as that oF che Cstercian Alan of Lille (1202). “These rmsazks touch on the relaionship ofthe cry and lity. & ‘opie outlined inthe next chapter open high midleg 11501308 NOTES AND REFERENCES. 1 ra pin 1, A Op Ca Gad, Heider 1925) PART ONE Europe 2 SOCIAL FRONTIERS: CLERKS AND LAYMEN ‘THE TWO PEOPLES Inypelled by motives described in Mr Brooke's eater volume in this series and occasionally reviewed here, western Europeans dlev= sted the Church to lead Latin society during the Gregorian age, 2 pod of socal and internal warfire extending fom about 1050 tual 1130. During this slow revolution, a new structure of socal and goveramenal posser came into being, and remined to charac= terize wetem Europe's apogee in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- tories, This stricture differed from that obtaining in the citer Middle Ages and fom the one that appeared in caly modern times, Before the revolution, Europeans had been governed ~ ex- ept on local and tamil levels bew investigated by historical a= thropologies ~ by empires and quasnational ses, aided by offen rebelious but always subordinate churches. Afer 1304, larger unite ‘of political and social power were growing into nation states or ‘ther subwantal units of goveminent, auch 2 the Flian peinipates and lage German principalities Here ako secular power wa con= ing to rule a subordinate clergy, and eventually, indeed, to replace them partly by lay Levies, the philosopher of moder tnes, Alkhough lage monarchis lingered into the evel and this teenth centuries, and although, 2 shall be seen, some sates that were to become modem nations were already evolving, mont power was entrusted to the ecumenical goverment ofthe Roman {Church and the local governments of town and cotneyide, The lar, whether urban or rural. seigniorl or republican, achieved 2 Alegres of fcedom from centl governments they were never gain pe the gh ile age 1150-1309 to enjoy. From the days of the Gregorans until he turmoil of he Fourteeath ad fiiecnth centuries, Europe wat led by an inadvertent but rel sllance between her ansocriie and her churchmen under the See of Peter The Chutch embodied the cultural ideniy of the ‘Christian public. Although war pemited, Chvtendom's true was were the Crass, peated waves of expansion a the expense of neighbour ing eakure and religions. The needs ofthis saperalsm encouraged plins designed to realize at home the idcal of peacefel Christan brotherhood, and the military dite was restrained at home by the ‘dea and law of jst wae and dhe peace or euce of God. Just price tn the condemnation of ary were employed 10 protect crusaders tnd police the marketplace, A propoganda for economic brother- hhood helped to build social corporatsm with which to te the tgspng hands of the rch and mighy. In every activity, the expan= Sion of the pentental system and ofthe cours of canon Lave test- fied to the slings ofthe people to allow the clergy to regulate and frmonie ie om earth [Not alvays happy, ehe clergy were aided by the monastic or ders, Ined, round 1100, the monks sere often ahead of the ees. CGistercians were fied for clearing forests and: mares, Europe's best soldiers served ia dhe ranks of the military orders, and new foandations appeared everywhere to house the aged, the sick, the desire and he fille, The ehitecnth century aw the falslment fof eather effort in education: the building of che university system tnd parsh school, Friars, monks and passh ceggy combined 0 hance the role of sacenotal authority by proclising the miracle Of the mas and expanding penitental pois. In ryard to the mss, the cup having been withdrawn fom the lity during the Gregor rian age, che piety maricle of ranssbsantation was finally cod- fied at the fourdh Lateran Council sn 1215 and the feast of the Body of Christ spread by papal edict in 1264, The role ofthe pis in the miracle of the mas and as judge in the court of conscience fortied a confident sense that there exiced 2 direct lnk between God's eternal ordinance and oman insitatios, between heaven and ca ‘Circumstances seemed to justify thi sanguine atitude. Growing population, new cleared Held, new towne, expanding personal Feeder and the comqoet of foreign lands made nature herself seem bbenefisat and earthly insittions Bt 10 help achieve a happy end Sill this sequired dificult adjuaments on the part of Chesians Sil ins: Clas and lame ‘ones that caused basic changes in the ethos ofthe Church. Many were sil atracted by what had once given feedom in the day of Rome and the Stte-dominated churches of the calcr Middle ‘Ages: dhe accent on the other world ~ the world of heaven again camh, of spinal sins mater vais, of tings fle bt indemon= Sable agunst things demonstrable. Moved by succes. however, both clergy and laity cared co examine and manipulate the world Jim which they lived. The receptiveness Arstotelian and Arabic ritual philosophy was an expression ofthis. Another wae height= ened ingerest in both the ideal and practical forms of ecclesiastical tnd scculir goverment. Cercal and ly utopian tied to remake fhe word on the model of the superal Jerwalem, to make + ‘heaven om earth. Around 1200, this movement atracted sich varied groups asthe teachers at Paris headed by Peter Cantor (precentor of Nésre Dame, d. 1197) and the lmmble crafeflk brigaded in the sas movement ofthe Talian Hua “The Avsan Fear (ales of Rome (d. 1316) sid that govemment’s rain objecaive wa to edaate men and women to attain heaven For this, the people mast be 3€ peace, poses the matenal means of living well and have suitable education. ng te ene he he ty er rr a it Kg, {Eeenh ar te we wi ince dws ei of amng nce (Pte es not pote ccon dS nr wh wean BC Working in the word led eo a gradual sift noe only of values bot alto of clerical nsitions, ‘When the Seite dominated che CChuseh, che monks contemplative and clotered hfe seemed more consequential than the active Hie, This conviction never wholly died. The abbot Rupert of Deutz (4. 1135) chimed thatthe apos~- Ter had been’ monks, and that che Saviour did not have them preach, baptize or perform miracles but instead ral dhemuelves by fxemplifing virtue and humbling themselves before others. This what the later Francs of Assis (8. 1226) alo tught. On the other hand, the Asssn’s Francicane ssent t0 stork to animate the Church's mision by preaching and simulating penance at the ‘world’s crostoads. Ths programme was eather prevsioned by Petr ‘Cantor, who likened teaching and preaching toa house Is founda- tion # study and reading. ispuation and. dscusson compase 16 amp in he high mile es 1150-1309 walls “preaching . «ithe roof protecting the fthfal from the heat and tempest of the vices Preaching eat necessary to make the world inco a Chrisian so ciety, Bernard of Clavaus's (1153) tours to southern France, the Rihncland and ehewhere dluseate how famous preachers were sought after by the local lem. In the thuveenth century the teniverityteplced the cloister asthe training ground for the pulp tnd Pars produced many ssccesfal preachers whose sermons were Collected for the ase of ocher, Among thew were he revivalist Fale (2. 1202), a pa priest of Neully and student of Peter Can tor, Robert of Corson (@. 1218), potesior at Paris and cardinal; Stephen Langton (2. 1228), profewor there and later archbishop of ‘Canterbury: and Jamies of Vitry, who did in 1240 a archbishop of Acie and cardinal The mendicane picked sp thi torch. Local fltonicler exaggerstedly chimed that a Francican spelbiner, Ber~ thold of Regensburg (@. 1272), arated crowds of a hundred thow- sand or more ‘Scnpeure and Bible history wore basi sources for preachers. An example ofthe latter 5 de Sct’ Matar of a one-time chancel- lor of Pars, Per Comevor (cs 1179), recounting the bible stony with egendty accretions. Scripre wat given is great oF oF- nny glos by commentator sarsing with Anselm of Laon 117) and ending with Gilbere the Univers, 2 canon of Auserte and ber bhop of London (1134). Thereafer followed com Imentares or posts on specie pars of the Bible. Much was done in Pars, where the work of wo canons regular oF Se Vitor, Hugh (@. Ural) ane Andrew (1175), was later advanced by the circle of| Peter Cantor mentioned above. I the thteenth century, leadenip paved to the mendicans, whe added much taditional Jesh come entry, especially that of Rashi of Troyes (Solomon Son of Ise, 4. 1105), Including posilatos as radical as Peter John Oliv (6 1398), che Francicuts produced the greatest commenttor of al, Nicholas of Lyte (&. 1340) These studies prompted disatsaction wih the scrod text ite Forever singing wide, another Pranci= fan, Roger Bacon (1292), atrbuted the imperfections of the oneemporiry Bible to the fact chat the Pars bookmakers were laymen and married ones t that! The pulpit led to penitence and the court of conscience. The Francacan Alexander of Hales (4.1245) and the Dominican Tho- mas Aguins (of Agno, d. 1274) together expounded the docrine ff the teary of the sins, reservoir of superabundane grace on ‘Sal ten: Cle and een which to daw for fongvenes co be granted dhe ilible, Developing. the idea of pongitory, churchmen were caidentthac the puma ments and pardons they asigned penctated beyond le into the beyond. This system was reinforced by the insitence ofthe Lateran Council of 1215 on at lest one annual confewion, Mav of suisty appeared, one ofthe earlier by the Cistercian Alan of Lille in the later ewelh century. About the sme me, Peter Cantor ised his Ov Saramonts and Adie 10 the Soul, whose third book. wis devoted to cases of conscience. Like 2 collection of legal opinions was che sundard Summa of Pose Caer wniten berwoen 1220 znd 1234 by Raymond of Pedatore (1275), This literature brat- ched out co prove epitomes and specialized tact. A compilation talled Rules for the Merhans of Toulouse concerning wsiry and re= lated topics was culled by 2 Dominican named Guy from the mich Tanger Sanna of Confer of John of Freburg (4.131) writen sa the 12905, The clergy needed manuals to understand the work and their place in it Job of Salsbury (dL 1189) Paint touched om all Subjecs regarling the rition of the fith to seca lie and gow femment, but in too clegant and specialized a way to appeal to 4 textbook audience. More success were the Sewouey by Petr Lombard (da bishop of Paris in 1160), 2 mana treating base questions of theology and Church organization, 2 work “canonized? atthe Literin Counel in 1215, Daning the thicenth century, the feneyelopactic eaditon reached it apogee in the Demnincan’ Vine cent of Beauvais Great Minor, a wark subdivided into three pants ature, doctrine and history. ‘Clergy working in the world soon began ¢o absorb the intense sease of vocation that had marked the withdrvwn relgios. Tha inner asceccisn and progres in sel-discipine was explored by the Franciscan Bonavenaure J of Fada, 1274) i hit emeary of the Mind. Although spisitua withdrawal sll seracted, physical e= tiement into the closer lacked the appl ofan active engagement in the world’ be. Those Sighting the word's evils were soon cilled superior co the monks contined in ther cloites, and Robert of Carzon chimed that a teacher exphining seiptute in the schools deserved 2 reward higher han that of any Caterina, The canons Hostemss (Henry of Sst, cardial of Oss, d. 1271) reed Suse judges leading the active life withour duplicity, life which, i ‘well conducted more feu shan the contemplizive” “These attitudes exemplify the purdox of Church leadership: dhe pe in dhe ih ile per 1150-1309 more the clergy leh the more they came to respect the worl!’ profesions. Some even admitted thi soldier were more seeded than monks. Gregory VII bad complained in 1079 to Abbot Hugh fof Cluny, who had received 4 Burgundian dake into the eloter when the papacy needed allies agaise the Empire, “you have feceived the duke into Chinys quiet anf thereby cused a hunted thousand Chrigias t lack a protestor.* Canon lawyers sere Hat- tered t0 hea Boncompayo of Sigpa (d. before 1250) borrow from [Roma le to liken them to soles in ams Perhaps the clergy could have provided tha faction themscles, and, to sie extent dd, asin the mitary orders. Directing te hie Of the work, however, was only par oftheir ambition. Another vas the desire to proce ecclsasteal Hberty by gaining feedom From seculr authority, Dominant though churchmen seemed ter the Gregorian age, they remembered carer subjection, and, to void Lay oppsesion, ynshed to be their own judges. Since princes tnd magserates wanted officers accountable in secular cours, ee- dn required clerks to withdraw from secular office and the exer~ ‘ue of professions involving them in the ly world. Yet someone hha to fill such posiaons. Paradoxically, then, the Gregorian desire for freedom fiom lay power not only resulted in Rome leading Europe fora time, but ako encouraged a reforming lity and clengy to purge the olf clencal cadres holding secular office. This helped Cree the beginnings of the seculr iterte or elvial pofesions ‘anng the Gregorian oubles, Not 2 few early just and senbes were one-time slerks who had been mamried or charged with si mony and led, soto speak, ito hy professionalism The change should not be oventted, because this was no over= ight transformation, Lay Bercy sn Latin had never eniely van~ ‘hed. That princes should be iterate had always been urged, and there were lay notaries and Lawyers in part Of Tealy before the Gregorian age, Theee exceptions, however, merely prove the rule. [As the Premoustitenian Phi of Harvenge (@- 1182) said, the ‘word ‘clerk” meant ‘chutchman’, and charters, even chose rien by secular notaries, offen refered to the clergy simply as ‘iterate jpesons’ in thn pesiod. As shall be ater seen, the separation of the Spheres of ly and clerk was long obscured by the lack of tines laymen and by the perience of the old State-dominated churches of eater dese, ‘A start ad been mae, however, and ecclesiastical lgishtion| poineed in two dvections Starting ety i the ewelth century and 2» Slt: Clos an amen

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