Chapter 11 Properties of Solution

11.1 Solution Composition

Solution = Solute + Solvent. For example, NaCl solution= Solute (NaCl) + Solvent (H2O)

Mass Percent =(mass of solute/ mass of solution) x 100% = [mass of solute/(mass of solute
+solvent)] x100%

Mole fraction of component A = XA = nA/(nA + nB) , where nA and nB represent the mole
number of A and B components.

Molarity = mole number of solute A /volume of solution (M)

Molality = moles of solute /kilogram of solvent (m)

Nomality = moles of solute A / mole number of electrons transferred or received

= the number of equivalents per liter of solution

Examples 11.1 and 11.2 (P486-489) Various methods for describing solution composition
and calculating various methods of solution composition from the molarity.

11.2 The Energies of Solution Formation

Solubility is defined as the maximum concentration of solute dissolved in solvent at certain
temperature and pressure.

Solubility is determined by the solute and solvent. Likes dissolve likes. For example, polar
solvent dissolve polar solute; non-polar solvent dissolve non polar solute.

Steps involved in the formation of a liquid solution:

1.) Separating the solute into individual components (expanding the solute) (enthalpy
change ∆H1)
2.) Overcoming intermolecular forces in the solvent to make room for the solute
(expanding the solvent) (enthalpy change ∆H2)
3.) Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form the solution (enthalpy change
∆H3)

Heat of solution (∆Hsoln) = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3 = ∆H1 +∆Hhyd

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 Where enthalpy of hydration (∆Hhyd) = ∆H2 + ∆H3

Example 11.3 (p492) Differentiating solvent properties

11.3 Factors affecting Solubility

11.3.1) Pressure effects
Where pressure has little effect on the solubilities of solids and liquids, it does
significantly increase the solubility of a gas.

The relationship between gas pressure and the concentration of dissolved gas is given by
Henry’s Law: The amount of a gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the solution.

C= kP
Where C represents the concentration of the dissolved gas, k is a constant (Henry’s
constant), P is the partial pressure of gaseous solute above the solution.

Example 11.4 (p495) Calculating Using Henry’s Law

11.3.2) Temperature Effects

An increase in temperature may increase or decrease the solubility of some solids in water.
(Figure 11.6, p496)

Experiments are the way to determine the solubility of solids in solvent.

The solubility of gases in water usually decreases with an increase in temperature. (Figure
11.7, p496).

11.4 The Vapor Pressure of Solutions

The vapor pressure of the solutions is related to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent by
Francois M. Raoult (1830-1901).

Raoult’s Law for ideal solution: Psoln = xsolvent P0solvent

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Where Psoln is the vapor pressure of the solution, xsolvent is the mole fraction of the solvent in
the solution, and P0solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent at the same temperature
and pressure.

Example 11.5 (p499) Calculating the vapor pressure of a solution

Example 11.6 (p500-5010 Calculating the vapor pressure of a solution containing ionic
solutes

Non-ideal solution: deviations from ideal solution. For a liquid –liquid solution containing
two components A and B:

Ptotal = PA + PB = xAPA0 + xB PB0

Where PA and PB are the partial pressure of A and B, xA and xB are the mole fraction of A
and B, and PA0 and PB0 are the vapor pressure of pure A and pure B, respectively.

Real solutions tend to obey Henry’s law for component in concentration near 0 and
Raoult’s law near 1.0.

Example 11.7 (p503) calculating the vapor pressure of a solution containing two liquids

11.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression

Boiling point (BP) elevation: BP of solution is always higher than that of pure solvent
when nonvolitale solutes are added to the solvent.

The change in boiling point can be expressed by the following equation:

∆T = Kbmsolute
where ∆T is the boiling point elevation, Kb is the molal boiling-point elevation constant,
and msolute is the molality of the solute in the solution.

Example 11.8 (p505) Calculating the molar mass by boiling-point elevation

Freezing-Point (FP) Depression: FP of solution is always lower than that of pure solvent
when non volatile solutes are added into the solvent.

The change in FP can be expressed by the following equation:

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 ∆T = Kf msolute
where ∆T is the FP depression, Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant, and
msolute is the molality of the solute in the solution.

Example 11.9-11.10 (p506-507) PF depression and determining molar mass by freezing

point depression

11.6 Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis: The flow of solvent into the solution through a semipermeable membrane.
Osmosis pressure: The difference in hydrostatic pressure at equilibrium

The dependence of the osmotic pressure on solution concentration is represented by the

equation:

∏ = MRT
where ∏ is the osmotic pressure in atm, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the gas law
constant, and T is the Kelvin temperature.

Example 11.11 (p509) Determining molar mass from osmotic pressure

Example 11.12 (p510) Isotonic solutions

Reverse Osmosis: The flow of solvent from the solution to the solvent side through a
semipermeable membrane under the action of an external pressure on the solution side.

11.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

Colligative Properties: The effect of solutes on physical properties of solution, like boiling
point elevation, freezing point depression and osmotic pressure, are called colligative
properties.

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The relationship between the moles of solute dissolved and the moles of particles in
solution is usually expressed using the van’t Hoff factor:

i = moles of particles in solution/moles of solute dissolved

Therefore ∆T = imK and ∏ = Imrt

Example 11.13 Ostomic pressure

11.8 Colloids

Colloids: the tiny particles suspended in solution

Stability of colloids: electrostatic repulsion.

Coagulation: The aggregates of tiny colloids to become larger particles