Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.

br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY 1

Dear READER,
This is a brief explanation about Scientific Research. These initial pages contain some basic concepts.
Next pages you can find elements to classify a research concerning: (1) Nature, (2) Objectives, (3) Approach
and (4) Methods and Techniques.

I. First classification (nature) category is related with outcomes or main purpose. Refers to
basic features and characteristic: Basic (as a base for another research) or Applied
resulting in a product or solving a problem).
II. The second category refers to objectives and the way of outcomes are presented
(exploratory, descriptive, explanatory). It’s the specific result to achieve.
III. On third category you’ll find the “approach” that means how to get closer to objectives
and goals. It refers to use quantitative, qualitative or mixed attitude. In both cases
researcher must be rigorous and follow normative procedures and data. It’s usually to say
that quantitate results are observer’ independent (positivism) although qualitative has a
meaning due to observer interpretation (interpretivism). You can find more information
from Burrell and Morgan (1999, p.22) and Morgan (1980, p.14).
IV. Last category (methods and techniques) represents the systematic work and how to act
or conduct experiments to reach more effective and efficient results. Linked to techniques
you’ll find tools to be used.

All you’ll see here is a concise description of science methodology. Please use full references for deep
and further information if you want to achieve productivity improvement. After reading you’ll find there is
no consensus or “THERE'S NO ONE SIZE FITS ALL”; all the way, this is a first step and an interesting beginning
for science research, informing main concepts according several authors.
When defining a methodology section of your publication you should (a) classify the research using
these categories and (b) describe in detail the steps of the path to reach your results. This is the system to
tell other people how to (step by step) get same results (or not).

Sincerely

Cleverson Tabajara Vianna

tabajara@ifsc.edu.br
55 (48) 999 636363 BRAZIL

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 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY
Some Initial concepts & conventions
Methodology
The process used to collect,
assemble and analyze the present or
historical data / information in
purpose to get evidence and making
decisions.
Methodology may include
publication research, interviews,
surveys and other research
techniques, and could include both
present and historical information.
In a wide concept a
collection of methods can be a
Methodology.
Research Method
The process used by the
researcher to collect the information
needed to answer the research
problem (or questions).
There are qualitative,
quantitative or mixed research
methods.
Methods are a collection of
the techniques and tools used to
categorize, investigate, interpret and
identify the limitations of physical
sources.
Process
Process is a series of
operations, actions or steps taken in
order to achieve a specific goal.
Protocol and procedures are
processes with a clear and sequential
order.
Data Collection
Is the researcher information to
answer the research problem.
The famous 5w2h should be a
useful technique (why, what, who,
when, where, how and how much).
Selecting data collection must
consider: (a) identified hypothesis or
research problem; (b) The research
designs; (c) The information gathered
about the variables.
There are primary and
secondary types of data as you can see
next.
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2
Techniques Tools & Instruments
A technique is a process A research tool or a research
or procedure followed by instrument is virtually anything used
researchers. In Science research, in collecting data process. It could be
there are guidelines for how to an apparatus, a device, a mechanism
construct an effective scientific or implement used to carry out a
experiment such as you make sure function in researching.
the participants are unbiased. A tool is a device or computer
A technique is how you application that enables you do
carry your research and execute something. For example, a microscope
these processes. The technique or a modeling program.
could be how you design your This way, tools are objects
questions, then how figure out used in a certain order (a protocol) to
your topic, or a detailed achieve a purpose.
description of how use a tool or The ‘technique’, per se, may
doing a task. also be more fine-grained in
Techniques are adopted to describing just how one handles that
collect, assemble and evaluate tool to be successful.
data. Anything that becomes a
A technique can also means of collecting information for
describes an algorithm or how to your study can be seen as a research
handle a tool successfully and tool or a research instrument. For
allow another researcher to repeat example, observation forms, interview
(and confirm) the research results. schedules, questionnaires, and
Tools are easy to describe, interview guides are all classified as
while techniques are fine-grain research tools: observation forms,
descriptions and generally motor- interview schedules, questionnaires,
skills dependent. and interview guides.
An example is a kind of a Tools can be physical things
simulation like Monte Carlo or computer programs. e.g.: SPSS
technique. software can be considered a tool. A
statistical technique will be used and
probably “quantitative” is the
Variable
approach.
A variable is defined by a Example of Data mining tools
quantity or quality. The dependent for research: Orange R-Soft WEKA,
variable is the variable affected by Data Dissipation, BI, etc.
an independent variable.
Determining this relation is the
object of the researcher (usually
quantitative).
Protocols & procedures
Systematically applied protocols Some procedures
and standardized procedural rules reduce offer practical advantages in
Bias, avoiding distorted findings or specific areas (e.g. in
unethical gains, distinguishing evidence internet data collection like
from beliefs, ideology or feelings. literature reviews, scientific
This way a method with databases etc.).
appropriate procedures or protocols, Also refer to “protocols”
reaches confidence in research findings. which are logical sequence
Doing this, probably other researchers descriptions of how we
will find same results. would use some particular
tools.
 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY
What is a Scientific
research?
Research represents a systematic
evaluation and collection of data,
using defined and documented
methods. It is organized in
purpose do clear question and get
answers. Research is conduct by
researchers to prove hypothesis,
solve a problem or a certainty
about a specific phenomenon.
1 Nature of
Investigation
Basic - It does not have
immediate purposes and usually
produces knowledge or data to be
used in another research.
Applied - For immediate
purposes, it generates products,
processes or solutions.
2 Objectives
Exploratory
Phase Preliminary Research, for
the purpose of obtaining more
information (delimitation of a
theme) on a subject (with little or
no knowledge). It will guide the
objectives, methods and the
formulation of the research
questions or even give a new
focus.
It generally uses bibliographic
research and case studies and
involves usually:
Bibliographical survey; Interviews
and Analysis of examples.
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Classifications
2 Objectives (cont.)
Considering a straight
concept, it refers to a new
progress of science, preceding
the research that will still
come.
Notice that in general the
"exploratory phase" of any
research is confused with an
"exploratory research".
Descriptive
It registers and describes the
observed facts without
interfering on them. Describes
the characteristics of a given
population or phenomenon;
Establishes relationships
between variables.
It involves the use of standard
data collection techniques:
Questionnaire and systematic
observation.
A case can be the “Ex post
facto Research” for descriptive
research Studies.
Explanatory
It explains the causes, based
on the record, analysis,
classification and
interpretation of the observed
phenomena. It identifies
factors that contribute to the
occurrence of phenomena;
"Deepens the knowledge of
reality because it explains
Reason, why things. (GIL,
2010, p. 28).
Natural sciences use this
method, and, in the social
sciences, the observational
method is manly applied.
3
3 Approach
Qualitative
The natural environment is a direct
source for data collection,
interpretation of phenomena and
attribution of Meanings.
It is an approach for exploring and
understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.
Has an inductive style, a focus on
individual meaning, and the
importance of rendering the
complexity of a situation. (CRESWELL,
2015;2016; Mayer, 2015; Esterberg,
2002)
Quantitative
It requires the use of statistical resources
and techniques, seeking to translate into
numbers the knowledge Generated by
the researcher.
is an approach for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship
among variables. These variables, in turn,
can be measured (CRESWELL, 1998).
In general, is about testing theories
deductively, building in protections
against bias, controlling for alternative
explanations, and being able to generalize
and replicate the findings.
Mixed Approach
Researching with a Mixed methods
approach involves collecting both
quantitative and qualitative data,
integrating the two forms of data, and
using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and
theoretical frameworks. The focus of
this form of inquiry is to reach a
combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches in purpose
to provides a full understanding of a
research problem. Of course, it
should be better than each one alone
(CRESWELL, 2015;2016)
 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY 4

4 Methods, Procedures & Techniques

Case study (method) Action Research Participant Research
Case studies involve the detailed (method) (method)
study of a case (a person or small Conceived and carried out to Developed with the participation
groups). Various methods of data solve a collective problem. of groups Research and/or
collection and analysis are used butResearchers and participants Researchers Individual In similar
this typically includes observation who are representative of the situations and is characterized by
and interviews and may involve
situation or problem are the interaction among the
consulting other people and personal
involved in a cooperative or members.
or public records.
Case studies have a very narrow participative manner. In the specific case of the
focus which results in detailed It is understood as a kind of [...] participant research, [...] due to
descriptive data. Empirical-based social research the difficulties in hiring
Usually, case study is the that is conceived in close researchers and advisors, to
preferred method when (a) "how" association with an action or reproduce material for data
or "why" questions are being with the resolution of a collection and even to ensure the
posed, (b) the investigator has collective problem and in which collaboration of the groups
little control over events, and (c) researchers and participants presumably interested, Research
the focus is on a contemporary representing the situation or planning tends, in most cases, to
phenomenon within a real-life problem are Engaged in a be quite flexible. (GIL, 2010, p. 157).
context. cooperative or participative In participant observation
This situation distinguishes case manner. (Thiollent, 1998, p. 14). studies, the researcher becomes
study research from other (or is already) part of the group
types of social science research. Ex-Post-Facto to be observed
In non-participant observation
Nevertheless, the methods all Research (method from studies, the researcher is not part
overlap in many ways, not past facts)
marked by sharp boundaries. of the group being studied. The
The researcher seeks to
Yin (2009) researcher decides in advance
measure impacts, effects,
The case study consists of precisely what kind of behavior is
variables of a past fact.
collecting and analyzing relevant to the study and can be
We can define ex-post-facto
information about a particular realistically and ethically
research "as a systematic and
individual. A group or Community empirical investigation in which observed. The observation can be
in order to study various aspects carried out in a few different
the researcher has no direct
that are object of the research. It control over the independent ways. For example, it could be
is a type of qualitative and/or continuous over a set period (e.g.
variables, because it has already
quantitative research. They are one hour) or regularly for shorter
occurred” (GIL, 2008, p. 54).
requirements for your periods of time (for 60 seconds
In this research, we sought to
achievement: objectification, every so often) or on a random
know the possible relationships
originality and coherence. basis. Observation does not only
between the variables.
Yin (1991) identifies three types include noting what happened or
of case study: The “critical case” was said but also the fact that a
looking for evidence for a Field research specific behavior did not occur at
hypothesis or theory challenges. (method) the time of observation.
The “unique case” is focused on It is the observation of
an uncommon case with a special spontaneous facts and
interest. The “revelatory case” phenomena (usually on site).
looking for a new vision or idea.

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 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY 5

Delphi (method) Experimental differs from

Developed in USA during 1950’s, Conceptual research which is Monographic (Method)
it has been considered related to some abstract idea(s) Also used in ethnography, in
particularly useful in helping or theory. philosophy, sociology and
researchers determine the range The study might include an economics sciences. Is written by
of opinions on a particular subject intervention such as training one author.
using successive refinements. programs, social activity, the A monographic research usually
It can be different groups are then introduction of controlled has a social object (e.g. a city, an
compared and compare results. changes in the person’s living enterprise, a community or a
Usually there are series of environment (e.g. different family).
“rounds” in which the participants lighting, background noise, Uses many indicators and
(“panelists”) generate ideas or different care routine) or categories in purpose to find and
identify salient issues, comment different forms of interaction. describes structural components
on a questionnaire (constructed of the object in study. Also
on the basis of the results from
Ethnography (method) explores intra‐ and inter‐
the first round) and re-evaluate Widely used by anthropology, disciplinary subjects.
their original responses. ethnography aims to describe
the meanings of a particular
Experimental (method) group or particular social
phenomenon; conducts in-
depth interviews; initiates
It establishes an object of study observation; Analyzes the
and observed the variables that informants ' discourse;
influence the phenomena. Investigates the details of a fact
Sometimes can restore the and ultimately interprets the
phenomena conditions to observe meaning and Social practices.
it in an environment under
Naturalistic or
control and can thus detect the Hot to cite in APA
cause-effect relationship between nonparticipant
Observation (method) style
variables and phenomena.
Experimental research has In this method there is no
typically a quantitative approach intervention of the researcher. VIANNA, Cleverson
and relies an experience or Only observing the Tabajara. 2020. A brief
spontaneous actions in the view of Methods and
observation. This method carries
natural behavior of the classifications of Science
out considering a hypothesis but
Research.
can be done without regarding for participants. Retrieved from <url >.
a previous theory. Like ethnographic method is an
DOI:
observational method but
Experimental research is more referred as nonparticipant
frequent in the technological observation. The disadvantages
sciences and in biological of this method are the small
sciences. It seeks to demonstrate scale and sample size (not
how and why a certain fact is representative of population
produced. sometimes).
An example is “observing the
interactions of pre-school aged
children”.

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 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY
Data Collection
Techniques
Data-collection techniques means a responses. Interviews
systematic collection of
information about the study object.
Data are collected in purpose to
reach conclusive answer research
questions about phenomena,
objects or people.
Data can be obtained by observing,
Interviewing, questionnaires, focus
group discussions, etc.
Survey, Interview &
Questionnaire (method)
A survey commonly has a respondents. There are ‘open-
theoretical clarification, a
hypothesis to be tested or even an and answers. An open-ended
idea to be explored. Are the most
common technique of research
from academic, industry or
government area. Is fully
associated to quantitative
methods, implies in same
questions and order, contrasting
with Interviewing and other
unobtrusive options.
The survey involves direct
interrogation (through a
questionnaire) to a group of
people whose behavior is being
researched. The interviews may be
unstructured or made through
questionnaires and these are
classified as structured and semi-
structured.
Questionnaires are a good
way to obtain information from
many people and/or people who
may not have the time to attend
an interview.
Questionnaires typically contain instrument.
multiple choice questions, attitude
scales, closed questions and open-
ended questions.
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Questionnaires can be
fully structured (usually is a
choice among answers), semi
or non-structured, depending
on the liberty level of
Interviews are
usually carried out in face-to-
face mode, but it can be done
by using real-time
technological resources.
Questionnaires are useful for
driving interviews.
Usually in interviews a
questionnaire or a guide is used.
As respondents has
different levels, types of
qualifications, questions must
be easily understandable to all
ended’ and ‘closed’ questions
question leaves the
respondent entirely free and
should leave sufficient space
or time to answer. On the
other side, close questions
show a scale or categories to
be chosen (and even “none”
option). These are a large
variety of scales and can be
built from attitudes to a list of
products or services. Likert
scale is a very useful option int
this case.
There are also
interdependent questions or
filtered questions, like: if “yes”
go to questions xx; ‘skip’ if
condition. Be aware if you are
not conductions the interview
or questionnaire, is up to the
respondents choose the order
they like, not in a logical order
you planned for. Internet
Polling is also a practical
6
COMMENTS:
As we can observe, Research is a
term used liberally for any kind of
investigation that is intended to
uncover interesting or new facts.
There are a large range of tools
and techniques used for different
enquiry that are applied in a
research.
Adequate and precise research
methods will give reliable
solutions. There are specific
methods used for collecting and
analyzing data in practical issues.
There are also clear and
attractive presentation data style
The nature of research problem,
kind of data to be treated will
advise appropriate type of
research and collecting data. A
procedure is applied in collecting,
processing and analysand data.
By using processes and
procedures is possible to define
variable relationships
There are four main types of
quantitative research designs:
descriptive, correlational, quasi-
experimental and experimental.
The differences between the four
types primarily relates to the
degree the researcher designs for
control of the variables in the
experiment. Surveys and polls for
example, are preferable data
collection tools used in
quantitative research.
Technology is a great support
and a survey can be answered on
mobile phones, emails or an
accessing an internet address
(URL).
 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY
DATA COLLECTION - SOURCE CLASSIFICATON
Primary sources:
documents
Document analysis is a form of
qualitative research in which
documents are interpreted by the
researcher to give voice and meaning
around an assessment topic (Bowen,
2009)
It is based on materials that have not
yet received an analytical treatment.
Common primary sources are:
original documents such as diaries,
speeches, manuscripts, letters,
interviews, records, eyewitness
accounts, autobiographies. Empirical
scholarly works such as research
articles, clinical reports, case studies,
dissertations. Creative works such as
poetry, music, video, photography.
Gil (2008) defines as primary data
that did not receive any analytical
treatment, such as: official
documents, reports, letters,
contracts, diaries, films, photographs,
recordings, etc.
GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory works within
inductive and a deductive (Qualitative
Methods; Positivism and Realism).
The grounded theory develops
an inductive derived grounded theory
about a phenomenon (Strauss and
Corbin, 1998). It is “conceptually
dense” and based on qualitative
research methods, with procedures,
and simultaneous processes for data
collection and analysis.
Produce theories integrated
into a theoretical framework, that
consist of relationships among
concepts representing “patterns of
action and interaction (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998, p. 278). Of course, it
must be “grounded” in a systematic
analysis and collection of data and it
is popular in the sociological area.
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Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, summarize, or discuss information
or details originally presented in another source. The secondary
ones are the ones that have, in some way, been analyzed, such
as: Research reports, company reports, statistical tables, among
others.
Literature Review/ Annotated
Bibliography
Puts the researcher in touch with the existing publications
(books, magazines, periodicals and scientific articles,
newspapers, newsletters, monographs, dissertations, theses,
cartographic material, Internet).
A literature review provides a comprehensive approach to
evaluate a question. The main purpose of the bibliography
research is to provide a compilation of trust‐related articles.
Requirements: Review and synthesize previously published
literature associated with the research problem, observing
truthfulness of sources and possible inconsistencies.
Ins spite of technology and Scientific data base, Bibliographical
research is an arduous and time-consuming task (Magarey,
2001; Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Bachrach, & Podsakoff, 2008;
Gibbert, Ruigrok, & Wicki, 2008).
It must be not only descriptive, but analytical and that means a
consistent systematic approach.
Reliability and validity of the findings
through of Triangulations of information
Reliability and Validity of findings are linked to triangulation.
Triangulation: The "Reliability of a case study can be ensured by
the use of various sources of evidence, and the significance of
the findings will have more quality still if the techniques are
different." (MARTINS, 2006, p. 80).
Main Triangulation types:
Data source – Triangulation of data – the alternative most used
by researchers –,
Triangulation of researchers – distinct evaluators place their
positions on the findings of the study-,
Triangulation of theories – reading the data by the lenses of
different theories –,
Methodological triangulation – Different methodological
approaches for conducting the same research. (MARTINS, 2006, p. 80).
 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY
Further comments in Research Techniques
• In the Historical method, the focus is on
investigating events or institutions of the
past, to verify their influence on the
current society. (PRODANOV, 2013).
• The Method It deals with the explanation
of the phenomena and allows analyzing
the concrete data, deducing from this "the
constant, abstract and general elements."
(LAKATOS MARCONI, 2003, p. 107).
• For GIL (2008) The comparative method
Time-If Research of individuals, classes,
phenomena or facts, with a view to
highlighting the differences and the
similarities between them.
• The Monographic method It has as a
principle that the study of a case in depth
can be considered representative of many
others or even of all similar cases (GIL,
2008). These cases may be individuals,
institutions, groups, community, etc. In this
situation, the research process aims to
examine the selected theme in order to
observe all the factors that influence it,
analyzing it in all its aspects.
• The Experimental method: It consists,
especially, in submitting the objects of
study to the influence of certain variables,
under controlled conditions and known by
the researcher. The purpose is to observe
the results that the variable produces in
the object (GIL, 2008).
• The descriptive researches and exploratory
researches are those that usually perform
social researchers due to the concern with
the performance of groups of individuals.
• Descriptive research approaches can
provide a new view of the problem. When
they seek to establish the nature of
relationships between variables of
influence, they approach the explanatory
research.
• Practically all research involves the
bibliographical (research) study
(theoretical Reference).
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• While bibliographic research is used fundamentally
from the contributions of several authors on a
given subject. Documentary research is based on
materials not analyzed and classified in depth.
• Other types of research: market research;
Behavioral research; Causal research; Diagnostic
research; Statistical research; Typological research;
Prospective research.
• The Observational method is one of the most used
in the social sciences and presents some interesting
aspects. "On the one hand, it can be regarded as
the most primitive and, consequently, the most
inaccurate. But, on the other hand, it can be one of
the most modern, since it is what enables the
highest degree of accuracy in the social sciences. "
(GIL, 2008, p. 16).
• The role of the Statistical method is essentially to
enable a quantitative description of society,
regarded as an organized whole. According to Gil
(2008, p. 17), "This method is based on the
application of the statistical theory of probability
and constitutes an important aid for research in
social sciences."
• It is clear then that the Statistical method
establishes probabilities and not absolute truths.
• The Clinical method is based on a profound
relationship between researcher and research. "It is
mainly used in psychological research, whose
researchers are individuals who seek the
psychologist or the psychiatrist to get help." (GIL,
2008, p. 17). The clinical method has become one
of the most important in psychological research,
especially after Freud's work (GIL, 2008).
• The observational method differs from the
experimental in few aspects in the relationship
between them: "In the experiments, the scientist
makes arrangements for something to happen, in
order to observe what follows, whereas, in the
study by observation, only observes something that
happens or already happened. " (GIL, 2008, p. 16).
 Professor CLEVERSON TABAJARA VIANNA – Tabajara@ifsc.edu.br – RESEARCH SCIENCE SUMMARY 9

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Index

1 Nature of Investigation, 3 Likert scale, 6

2 Objectives, 3 Literature Review/ Annotated Bibliography, 7
Action Research (method), 4 Mixed Approach, 3
Applied, 3 Monographic (Method), 5
Basic, 3 Monographic method, 8
Case study (method), 4 Naturalistic or nonparticipant Observation
Clinical method, 8 (method), 5
comparative method, 8 observational method, 8
DATA COLLECTION - SOURCE CLASSIFICATON, 7 Observational method, 8
Delphi (method), 5 Other types of research, 8
Descriptive, 3 Participant Research (method), 4
Descriptive research, 8 Primary sources: documents, 7
descriptive researches, 8 Qualitative, 3
Ethnography (method), 5 Quantitative, 3
experimental, 8 Questionnaires, 6
Experimental (method), 5 Secondary Sources, 7
Experimental method, 8 Some Initial concepts conventions, 2
Explanatory, 3 Statistical method, 8
Exploratory, 3 Survey, Interview & Questionnaire, 6
exploratory researches, 8 Triangulations, 7
Further comments in Research Techniques, 8 Usually in interviews a questionnaire or a guide is
GROUNDED THEORY, 7 used., 6
Historical method, 8

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