Bearing investigation

Extract from the Railway technical

handbook, volume 1, chapter 6, page 122
to 135

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 6 Bearing
investigation
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Trouble in operation . . . . . . . . . . 125

Bearing damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Damage and failure matrix . . . . . 135

122
Bearing investigation

Roller bearings are extremely vital components in any railway

application. A large number of factors need to be considered to
select the appropriate bearing for an application. But, complete
information is not always available. Real operating conditions
might differ from the specifications. Wear and tear might
change the operating conditions. Also, use of the vehicle might
change over time. All of these can influence rolling bearing
service life. Damage to bearings might occur earlier than
foreseen. It is therefore important that timely inspections are
made to determine the root cause of the problem and that
actions are taken necessary to avoid recurrence of the
problem.
6

Considerations
Calculated bearing life is dealt with in the
different chapters . However, to select the
bearing final variant, a large number of
factors need to be considered . The
following main factors influence this
selection:

• type
• dimensions
• precision
• fits
• clearance
• cage
• heat treatment
• lubrication
• sealing
• mounting/dismounting

Selecting the appropriate bearing for the

application († chapter 4 and chapter 5)
is only the first step in achieving reliable
equipment performance .

123
 Type Precision Clearance Heat treatment Sealing

space
loads
speed
shocks
vibrations
misalignment
noise
rigidity– fits– speed
easy mounting– component temperatures– temperature
availability– required precision– speed– operating temperature– frictional moment
friction– speed– preload– environment– necessity of relubrication
cost– friction variation– dimensional stability– lubricant– environment

Operating Bearing
conditions specification

housing deformation ease of mounting lubricant relubrication interval accessibility

cleanliness speed vibrations seal type tooling
viscosity temperature noise environment mounting/dismounting procedure
temperature running precision speed vibrations
minimum loads shaft/housing material operating temperature shocks
allowed axial load load direction speed
static load loads operating temperature
loads
required life

Dimensions Fits Cage Lubrication Mounting

A large number of operating conditions influence the bearing specification

Trouble in operation
Calculated life expectancy of any bearing is based on eight assumptions:

The bearing
If all the assumptions in the table are is the appropriate one for the application .
met, a bearing would reach itsThe bearing is of high quality and has no inherent defects .
calculated
life . Dimensions of parts related to the bearing, such as shaft and housing seats, are approp
The bearing is mounted correctly .
Unfortunately, this is quite hypothetical .
The appropriate lubricant in the required quantity is always available to the bearing .
There is often something that occurs that
The bearing arrangement is properly protected (sealed) .
prevents “ideal” operating conditions .
The operating conditions are matched to the bearing arrangement .
Bearings might get damaged and their life
Recommended maintenance is performed .
impaired .
Even the smallest event can have severe
consequences – an example:
A Y25 axlebox can be fitted with two
spherical roller bearings . There are two
versions, a long axle for 20 tonnes
axleload and a shorter axle for 22,5
tonnes axleload . The main difference is
the width of the spacer between the
bearings . During an overhaul of an
axlebox for a 20 tonnes axleload, the
wrong distance ring (for
22,5 tonnes axleload) was fitted . The
width difference of 21 mm caused the
bearings to shift on the journal and, as
a result, heat was generated . Shaft
fatigue occurred and finally the axle
collapsed, leading to a derailment with
substantial material damage . A very 6
costly affair indeed compared to the cost
Y25 axlebox
of a small spacer .
It is clear that identifying the root Bearing arrangement
cause of bearing damage is the next step
in achieving reliable equipment
performance . One of the most difficult
tasks is identifying the root cause and
filtering out any secondary effects that
resulted from the root cause of failure .
A new bearing looks beautiful . Its
components have been made to exact
dimensions, often to fractions of microns .
Axlebox after
The dimensions have been checked many derailment (cut
times during the manufacturing process . through)
The areas that have been ground, such
as the surfaces of inner and outer rings
and rolling elements, look very shiny .
When examining a bearing that has
run for some time, a number of
changes can be observed, such as:

• dull areas on raceways and rolling

elements, sometimes even very
shiny
• inner ring and outer ring seats
are discoloured
• cage wear
• fretting corrosion on the inner ring
bore or outer ring outside diameter

Whether a bearing shows minor wear or thorough inspection can provide information about
damage, or has failed completely, a what happened to the bearing during operation .
During the inspection, the key is to look
for “patterns” . A pattern can be
“normal” or it can indicate a problem .
The patterns found quite frequently
identify the root cause of a problem .

Bearing damage Damage and limits of

acceptability
Because of the increasing attention given to
preventing bearing damage and failures from Damage is explained and limits of acceptability
recurring, the International Organization for are discussed below . Wheelset bearings are
Standardization (ISO) has developed a very critical components . If any doubt arises
methodology for classifying bearing damage on acceptability, the bearing should be
and failures (ISO 15243) . scrapped .
This standard recognizes six primary However, the limits for acceptability of
damage/failure modes and their sub-modes bearings used in freight wagons are less
related to post-manufacturing sustained stringent compared with other applications .
damage . These are based primarily upon For additional information, refer to the
the features visible on rolling element contact chapter Services, section Remanufacturing (†
surfaces and other functional surfaces and page 192) .
which identify the mechanisms involved in
each type of damage/failure .
Most bearing damage can be linked back to
the six main modes as well as their various
sub-modes .
In the following pages, damage to wheelset
bearings are presented . These are the most
common damage modes [26] . For additional
information, refer to the
SKF Maintenance handbook .

Sub-surface initiated fatigue

Fatigue
Surface initiated fatigue

Abrasive wear
Wear
Adhesive wear

Moisture corrosion
Corrosion Fretting corrosion
Frictional corrosion
False brinelling

Excessive voltage
Electrical erosion
Current leakage

Overload

Plastic deformation Indentation from debris

Indentation from handling

 Forced fracture
ISO 15243: Bearing damage
classification
Fracture and cracking Fatigue fracture
– showing 6 primary failure
modes and their sub-modes.
Thermal cracking
Fatigue Sub-surface initiated
fatigue in the outer
Fatigue is a change in the material ring load zone
structure that is caused by the repeated
stresses developed in the contacts
between the rolling elements and the
raceways . Fatigue is mostly manifested
visibly as spalling/ flaking, i .e . breaking
out of material .

Sub-surface initiated fatigue

Due to repeated stresses, material fatigue
results . Structural changes occur
underneath the raceway surface and micro
cracks develop . When these cracks reach
the surface, material breaks loose and
spalls occur .
Pure sub-surface fatigue under
normal operating conditions does not
occur frequently, only after very long
running time .
However, if operating conditions
become abnormal, certain areas of the
bearing might become too heavily loaded,
leading to early fatigue . One common
example is shaft and housing seats that
are deformed, i .e . tapered, out-of-round,
out-of-square, or thermally distorted .
Another possibility is steel that is not
clean . Impurities such as oxides weaken
the material structure, leading to earlier
material fatigue .
Limits of acceptability1)
Bearings with sub-surface initiated fatigue
should always be scrapped .
Possible action
Check bearings seats for conformity .
Check loading conditions .
Surface initiated
fatigue in the outer
ring of a spherical
roller bearing.
There is surface
distress on part of the
outer ring raceway. In
one place spalling has
already started.
Surface initiated fatigue
Surface initiated fatigue in general is
caused by inadequate lubrication . If the
lubricant supply or lubricant selection is
wrong, or if the lubricant is contaminated,
the contact surfaces will no longer be
separated by an appropriate lubricant film 6
. Asperities shear over each other and
break off . The surface becomes plastically
deformed and sometimes smoothened .
Micro-spalls occur and in turn grow to
larger spalls . Finally, a combination of
total spalling/wear might occur around the
load zone and on the rotating inner ring .
Sometimes wear, corrosion, electrical
erosion and plastic deformation also
damage the raceway surfaces . These are
dealt with separately .
Limits of acceptability1)
Bearings with surface initiated fatigue
spalls should always be scrapped .

Possible action
Check lubrication conditions:

• appropriate grease
• sufficient grease
• replenishment/overhaul intervals
• adequate sealing
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .
 Wear Pocket wear in a steel
cage
Wear is the progressive removal of
material resulting from the interaction of
the asperities of two sliding or
rolling/sliding contacting surfaces during
service .

Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear is the progressive removal
of material . Smearing on the large
This type of wear occurs most of the diameter thrust face of a
tapered roller
time due to inadequate lubrication
resulting mostly from the ingress of C grease .
abrasive contaminant particles . Raceway of
n be Frictional c
material, but also rolling elements and
cage material, is removed by abrasion . aside Frictional co
Mois c is a chemica
Most of the time, dull surfaces appear . c
However, some abrasive particles might r reaction act
Rust the by relative m
act as polishing material and surfaces
form the movements
might become extremely shiny, all
or heavier
between con
depending on the size, their hardness and Adhesive wear (smearing)
agents oil, surfaces und
in what stage . Adhesive wear, just like most other the it certain con
This is an accelerating process because lubrication-related damage, occurs the suitable
inside a bea
wear particles will further reduce the between two mating surfaces . It is often in between
Railway axle
lubrication ability of the lubricant and this a material transfer from one surface to q r bearings usu
destroys the micro geometry of the another with friction heat, sometimes that racewasuffer from
bearings . with a tempering lubricant(c fretting corr
The cage is usually a critical part of or rehardening effect on the surface . This c or wear cau
the bearing . Rings and rolling elements produces localized stress concentrations pr Limitsvibration wh
are hardened to around 60 Rockwell . A with potential spalling of the contact areas adeq ac also known
sheet metal cage is usually made from . pr B false brinell
unhardened soft steel . If lubrication fails, In railway axle bearings, this is quite the c
the cage might be the first component to rare and usually due to poor lubrication . sur c Fretting corr
collapse . The roller thrust face (large end) in pr that Fretting cor
tapered roller bearings and the soon with occurs whe
Limits of acceptability1) corresponding thrust face on the inner de shouldis a relative
Wear that results in a mirror finish on ring become smeared with a rust scrapped
movement b
the bearing components might be characteristic torn finish as shown above . pr stain a bearing rin
acceptable . However, further clean
gr surface
shaft or ho
conditions are needed . When wear Limits of acceptability1)
str be because the
causes ridges that can be felt with a Any bearing with smearing detectable by acr c too loose, o
fingernail or other blunt probes in the drawing a fingernail across the damage r mightinaccuracies
running surfaces of the bearing, the should be scrapped . mostl acceptable
formed . Th
bearing should be scrapped .
c it relative mov
Possible action t remo may cause s
Possible action
Check lubrication conditions: elementpolishing
particles of
Implement bearings/units with polymer
dis fine to become
cages in case not already used before . • appropriate grease paper detached fr
Check seals for effectiveness in stopping • sufficient grease cor surface . Th
possible ingress of particles . Check the • replenishment/overhaul intervals highest Pos particles oxi
grease type . Analyze grease for foreign • adequate sealing non- Checkquickly whe
particles and their possible origin .
bearings,
conditions
exposed to
such makeoxygen in th
during use atmosphere
standstill
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .

128
trapp of rust on the than 0,100 R
l n
e
ed outside surface mm, u
a l
betw of the outer depending s
r i
t
een ring or in the on the a n
the bore of the application n e
m
c ,
surfac inner ring . The . a
F e
r
es) . raceway path k
r s
pattern could be e f u
s
t i g
heavily marked t t g
o
at corresponding i e
n
1) positions . n i s
Se g n t
This condition r
e i
normally occurs o
Da c t n
l
ma on the external l
o h g
ge surfaces of the r e
i
an r a
bearing outer n
d o h n
g
lim ring with a s o
its clearance fit in i u u
e
of o s n
acc its housing . It l
n i e
e
ept can also occur n v
m
abi on the side faces m g e
lity e
a . n
on of the inner n
r N
pa rings where axle t
k o l
ge bending causes s t o
12 d
the parts to e a
6. i
o d
For move s
n t
ad t
microscopically in a
h a
diti t
on contact with each n
a c
h t t
al other . c
e i
inf e
t n
or
ma Limits of o h g
s
tio acceptability1) u e
As a e
t o
n, Fretting corrosion v
ref result of e c n
e
er the fretting might be r
r o
to acceptable on n t
corrosion, a
r
the the outside l
t h
ch the i a e
apt bearing diameter of the n c
s
er rings may outer ring if the g t a
e
Ser . x
not be bearing steel has t
m l
vic s
es, evenly not been worn T a e
sec supported away to a depth h r b
d
tio e k o
n and this of more than u
s x
Re has a 0,100 mm . e
o
ma detrimenta Bearing inner t
u a h
nuf t r o
act l effect on rings might be o
e e u
uri the load reused if the r s
s
ng distribution fretting marks n i
(† t
in the on the locating r o n
pa o
i t g
ge bearings . side faces are p
n .
19 Corroded not deeper than g e
2) a
wh areas also 0,100 mm . n
v
h e
ere act as Deep fretting d
a n F
diff marks may need
fracture s r
ere g
nt notches . to be removed o
o e
sta by grinding if a r t
Appeara
nd t
nce: Areas they are deeper c i
ard i

129
ng corrosion on a extends b ding on onFalse brinelling
rear seal and rear the e
the surTBU outer ring
inner ring. The service a occurs at
grease is discoloured life of ri intensity of acceptable
roller spacing a
brown due to the the n the c felt with a fingernail.
fretting debris. grease g vibrations, away
The SKF polymer and .
washer eliminates therefor the abr
this problem and e the lubrication and/
P condition felt 6
and load, .
o ment
a
s be
s combinatio
units
i n of Avoid
with
b corrosion vibra
poly
l and wear eq
e
e occurs, t
betwe
forming standstill
the
a shallow
backing
c depression
ring
t s in the
the
i raceway .
inner
o In the
n ring
case of a
face
U stationary
case
s bearing,
a
e the
used
s depression
before
p s appear
(
e at rolling
80
ci element
al pitch and
Vibr
a can often
c
n - be
ti brinell discoloure
- False d (reddish)
fr brinellin or shiny
e g (lines for
tt in roller
in el bearings) .
g -
p r
Limits of
a contact
acceptabili
st ty1)
areas
e due If the
o micr damage
n moveme to the
t nts surfaces
h and/ can be felt
e resil with a
s e fingernail,
u elas then the
rf c bearing
a under should be
c cyclic scrapped .
e vibration Light
s s vibration
. markings
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .

130
Electrical erosion Heavy cratering on a
spherical roller due to
excessive voltage
Excessive voltage
When an electric current passes through
a bearing, i .e . proceeds from one ring to
the other via the rolling elements,
damage will occur . At the contact
surfaces, the process is similar to electric
arc welding (high current density over a
small contact surface) . TBU outer ring with
The material is heated to temperatures a large area full of
craters
ranging from tempering to melting levels .
The bearing should be
This leads to the appearance of scrapped.
discoloured areas, varying in size, where
the material has been tempered, re-
hardened or melted . Craters are formed
where the material has been melted .
Appearance: Craters in raceways and
rollers . Sometimes zigzag burns in ball
bearing raceways . Localized burns in Washboarding in a
raceways and on rolling elements . TBU outer ring
The bearing should be
scrapped.
Limits of acceptability1)
Any bearing with craters should be Plastic rings, r
elemenr
scrapped . defor seals T
Possible action matio 6 c
Limits l
Make sure earth return devices (brushes) n ac c
work properly († page 40) .
An p
When welding, make sure the earth Overloa
d with p
connection is properly done . leading to poor lubrication conditions and notice t
consequently to surface distress and Overload
Current leakage plas d
spalling . is
def h
Where current flows continually through by
shoul H
the bearing in service, even at low Limits of acceptability1) or
scra
intensity, the raceway surfaces become Any bearing with electrical erosion loads,
heat effected and eroded as many (craters or washboarding) should be leading Pos
thousands of mini-craters are formed, scrapped . t
Use d
mostly on the surface . They are closely def
tools d
positioned to one another and small in Possible action ion mounth
diameter compared to the damage from Make sure earthing devices (brushes) be c
excessive voltage . Flutes (washboarding) work properly († page 40) . r T
will develop from craters over time, where c Indentt
they are found on the raceways of rings ar f c
and rollers . inc For t
The extent of damage depends on a mounting particle
a
number of factors: current intensity, (f (c i
duration, bearing load, speed and a ) t
lubricant . thr gaineda
Also, check the grease . In addition to the int l
bearing damage, the grease close to the roll be s
damage will be carbonized, eventually el c
), indentaL
bl when a
the int O
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .

131
 indent sensitiv Impact during one corre n
ation e to mounting or sid ctly W
damag shock standstill Plastic e of seat
deformation at the h
e is loads roller distance. TBU outer rac ed e
not from Spalling is starting. ring with ew and n
accept handling heavy ay the
indentation (to
able if . damage p). adjac m
widesp Spalling has ent o
read started on com u
throug Fr o , pone n
hout stressing the nts,
the
act ar such
t
i
bearin ur most siz as n
g as es common backi g
shown cause c ng
in the
an r Never rings a
photo . d tr hammer and
(impact) a
It cr end T
might when c caps, B
be
cki be are U
accept ng ar Fatigue free ,
Indentation by fracture
mount Thermal
able if to
only handling For or F cracking turn m
slightly Handling is dismount f Thermal beca a
damag sometimes critical, frac d when cracking use k
ed and be it during tur f can they e
not transport, stocking, Forc inc str occur in are
presen mounting or ed t exceeded
a not s
assembl t
t overhaul .
Inappropriate
f
ure g
bearing
str inner or
locke 6u
across d in r
the handling is is axle A outer positi e
entire characterized by caus journals initiat ring on .
racewa localized ed that will where
a
y. overloading, which by a pr sliding Limit l
creates ‘nicks’ . s shape F causes s of l
Possible ss and whol high acce
action Limits of conc inc cage frictional ptabi
c
Check acceptability1) entr siz heating . lity1)
o
seal Bearings with atio c LimitsCracks Any
ac usually m
conditi indentations from n f bea p
ons handling might be exce An occur ring o
and acceptable if the s Limits with perpendi wit n
make damage only the ac shoul cular to ha e
sure occurs in isolated mat ty scrapped
the ther n
to use areas and not erial An direction mal t
approp deeper than 0,05 tensi be of crac s
riate mm into the le that moveme k
and surface of any str exhibits Make nt of the sho a
clean component . ngth f bearing
contactin uld
are g r
grease by shoul be e
during Possible action loc scrapped surfaces . scra
overha Always treat o It can ppe l
ul . bearings with care loadi Pos happen d. o
. Bearings can ng when a c
endure heavy or P bearing Possi
k
loads, but are very by mounting is not ble
actio e
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .

132
d correctly . Cracked
a c might
Discolouration
n
inner ring u necThe tapered roller (left)
d
The r det had lubricant
fr
bearing contamination.
was
a r c The spherical roller
ct e disc(right) had passage from
fitted on
u
an
r n electric current (craters
oversized in the surface).
journal.
e t Limits
d ac
al
l . Lubrication
t C stains
h o acceptable
e
n other
w
a s present
y e
t q disc
Due to h
heavy r u c
spalls and o e is
continuous u
loading, n on
g
the h t c
material . l
became
fatigued y
,
Other damage
unit
i
bec
Discolouration n
disc
T s
This
h p
of
e e
c
when
c t
anal
o i
col
m o
Col
p n
some
o
is
n b
temper
e y
dependent,
n
but
t h
depends
s i
the
g
opera
w h
c
i
(presence
t m
air)
h a
i g
disc
n n
n
i
c
a f
residue
i
the
b c
the
e a
or
a t
It
r i
however,
i o
also
n n
by
g
pass
1) See Damage and limits of acceptability on
page 126 . For additional information, refer
to the chapter Services, section
Remanufacturing († page 192) where
different standards are described .

133
 Damage and The damage and failure matrix shown

failure matrix below can help .

When looking at a damaged bearing,
often the damage can be classified in
one of the ISO damage modes .
The difficulty might be to trace back
this damage to its root cause .
It shows the links between the damage
(sub)modes and operating conditions and
whether or not one of the operating
conditions might be a root cause .

Failure matrix
Possible causes Operating Environ- Lu
conditions mental
factor

Temperature too high/low

Overload
Overspeed
Excessive freq . of load/speed changes

Water ingress
Electrical leakage
Vibrations
Shaft/housing deflection

Dust and dirt ingress

6
Failure modes with characteristics

Fatigue Flaking, spalling, peeling • • • •

Burnishing, microcracks • • • • • • • •

Wear Abrasive Excessive wear • • • • • • • • •

Scratches, scores • • •

Adhesive Seizing marks, smearing • • • • •

Hot runners • • • • • •

Corrosion Moisture corrosion •

Fretting corrosion • • • •

False brinelling • •

Electrical erosion Craters, fluting •

Plastic deformation Depressions • • •

Debris indentation •

Nicks, gouges

Fracture & cracking Forced fracture • • •

Fatigue fracture • • • • •

Thermal cracking • • • • •
 The Power of Knowledge Engineering
BearingsLubrication Drawing on five areas of competence and application-specific expertise amassed over more than 100
Seals
and unitssystems years, SKF brings innovative solutions to OEMs and production facilities in every major industry
world- wide. These five competence areas include bearings and units, seals, lubrication systems,
mechatronics (combining mechanics and electronics into intelligent systems), and a wide range of
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services, from 3-D computer modelling to advanced condition monitoring and reliability and asset
management systems. A global presence provides SKF customers uniform quality standards and
worldwide product availability.

References
[26] Kerry, M., Peterson, L., Cagnasso, R.: An Atlas of railway axle bearing defects
including guidelines on how to examine bearings and overhaul practice. SKF (2008).

® SKF, AMPEP, @PTITUDE, AXLETRONIC, EASYRAIL, INSOCOAT, MRC, MULTILOG are registered trademarks of the SKF
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The contents of this publication are the copyright of the publisher and may not be reproduced (even extracts) unless prior
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