SSC & Railway Exam 2019: General Science CAPSULE For

General Science CAPSULE for
SSC & Railway Exam 2019

{General Science: Physics | Chemistry | Biology}
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SSC & Railway CAPSULE 2019 |General Science
Contents of SSC & Railway Capsule 2019
General Science Capsule for Railway 2019 .......................................................................................................... 2
PHYSICS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2
CHEMISTRY ...................................................................................................................................................................23
BIOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................43
General Science Capsule for SSC & Railway 2019
PHYSICS
Physics- It is scientific study of matter and energy and Supplementary
the effect that they have on each other. Units
Plane Angles Radian Rad
MECHANICS Solid Angles Steradian Sr
Physical Quantity – Quantities expressed in terms of (ii) Derived Units – All those units which are expressed
laws of physics are called Physical Quantities. in terms of two or more fundamental units is
There are two types of Physical quantities. They are: called Derived Units. For e.g. velocity (m/s),
(i) Scalars – The physical quatities which has only Accelaration, Force etc.
magnitude and does not depend on direction is
called Scalar quatities. For e.g. length, volume, Dimensions of Physical Quantities – The dimensions of
speed, mass, density, temperature etc. a physical quatity are expressed in terms of powers of
(ii) Vectors – Vector quantities has both magnitude Fundamental quantities. For e.g.Velocity=L/T=[LT -
and direction. For e.g. Displacement, velocity, 1]=[M0LT-1].
Accelaration, Momentum etc.
NOTE: A physical quantity which has both magnitude

and direction but doesn’t obey vector law of addition
or subtraction is not a vector quantity. For e.g. Electric
current, pressure, work etc.
Unit of measurement – A quantity which is used as a

standard of measurement is called Unit of
measurement.
There are usually two types of units –
(i) Fundamental unit – All those units which are
independent of any other unit are called
Fundamental units.
There are seven fundamental units. They are:
Fundamental S I Unit Symbol

Unit
Length Metre m KINEMATICS
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s Kinematics
Kinematics is branch of mechanics which deals with
Temperature Kelvin k
the study of motion of the objects without taking into
Amount of Mole mol
account the cause of their motion.
substance
Electric Current Ampere A
Rest and Motion
Luminuous Candela Cd
Intensity
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An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its • If acceleration does not change with time, it is
position which respect to its surroundings with time said to be constant acceleration.
and said to be in motion if it changes its position with
respect to its surrounding with time. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion (Along
• Rectilinear motion moving car on horizontal road, straight line)
motion under gravity etc. If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and
• Angular motion such as particle going on a circle, attains final velocity v in the interval t. The
projectile motion, rotation of machine shaft etc. acceleration assumed to be uniform in motion is a
• Rotational motion such as motion of a fan. and the distance travelled is s, then equations of
• It an object travels equal distances in equal motion:
intervals of time, then it is said to be in uniform• 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
motion. •
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
• It an object travels unequal distances in equal • 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
intervals of time, then it is said to be in non- • If any body is falling freely under gravity, then a is
uniform motion. replaced by g in above equations.
• If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in
Speed above equations of motion a is replaced by (–g).
• The distance covered by a moving body in a unit • For a body with zero acceleration or constant
time interval is called its speed. speed, graph between velocity and time will be a
Distance travelled
• Speed = Time taken line parallel to time axis.
• When a body travels equal distances with speed • Velocity–Time Graph For accelerating or
𝑣1 and𝑣2, then average speed is the harmonic decelerating body the graph will be a straight line
mean of the two speeds. inclined to time axis and velocity axis.
2 1 1
• 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑣 +𝑣
2𝑣1 𝑣2
• Graph between position (distance)-time for an
1 2 1 2
accelerating or decelerating body is always a
• When a body travels for equal times with speeds
parabola.
𝑣1 and 𝑣2, then average speed is the arithmetic
• Acceleration-time graph for uniformly
mean of the two speeds.
𝑣 +𝑣 accelerating body is a line parallel to time axis.
• 𝑣 = 12 2 • In case of uniform accelerated, the graph
between position and velocity is always
Velocity parabola.
• The time rate of change of displacement of a • In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the
body is called its velocity. graph between velocity and time is always a
Displacement
• Velocity = straight line.
Time
• An object is said to be moving with uniform • Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity
velocity if it undergoes equal displacements in and slope of velocity-time graph gives
equal intervals of time. acceleration.
• An object is said to be moving with non-uniform
or variable velocity if it undergoes unequal Projectile Motion
displacement in equal intervals of time. • When a body is thrown from horizontal making an
Time displacement angle (θ) except 90°, then its motion under gravity
• Average velocity = Total time taken
is a curved parabolic path, called trajectory and
its motion is called projectile motion.
Acceleration Examples:
• The time rate of change of velocity of a body is • The motion of a bullet shot from the gun
called its acceleration. • The motion of a rocket after burn-out
Change in velocity
• Acceleration = Time taken • The motion of a bomb dropped from a aeroplane
• It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 𝑚𝑠 −2. etc.
• Acceleration at an instant of time is known as
instantaneous acceleration. Properties of Projectile Motion
• When the velocity of a body increases with time, If we drop a ball from a height and at the same time
then its acceleration is positive and if velocity thrown another ball in a horizontal direction, then
decreases with time, then its acceleration is both the balls would strike the earth simultaneously at
negative called deceleration or retardation. different places.

Circular Motion Applications of centripetal and centrifugal forces
• The motion of an object along a circular path is • Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain
called circular motion. required centripetal force. To take a safe turn
• Circular motion with a constant speed is called cyclist slower down his speed and moves on a
uniform circular motion. path of larger radius.
• The direction of motion at any point in circular • Roads are banked at turns to provide required
motion is given by the tangent to the circle at centripetal force for taking a turn.
that point. • For taking turn on a curved road, the frictional
• In uniform circular motion, the velocity and force is acting between the tyres of the vehicle
acceleration both changes. and the road acts as centripetal force.
• In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed • If a bucket containing water is revolved fast in a
changes from point to point on the circular track. vertical plane, the water may not fall even when
• Angular Displacement – Angular displacement of bucket is completely inverted because a
a body is the angle in radians through which centrifugal force equal or greater than the weight
body revolves. It is represented by θ.its S.I. unit is of water pushes the water to the bottom of the
radian. bucket.
• Angular Velocity – If a body describes an angular • For orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus
displacement in a particular time period, than electrostatic force of attraction is acting between
rate of velocity s known as Angular velocity. It is the electrons and the nucleus as centripetal
represented by ω. ω = θ/t. force.
• Projectile Motion – If a body is projected upward • Cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in
with a certain velocity, then the body describes a a vessel about the same axis. During rotation
path called trajectory path which is parabolic lighter particles of cream experience a lesser
and the motion is known as Projectile motion. A force than the heavier particles of milk.
projectile motion is influenced by downward • For revolution of the earth around the sun,
force of gravity. gravitational force of attraction between the
earth and the sun acts as centripetal force.
Centripetal Acceleration
During circular motion an acceleration acts on the Newton’s Laws of Motion:
body towards the centre, called centripetal Newton’s First Law
acceleration. A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
The direction of centripetal acceleration is always motion in a straight line unless an external force acts
towards the centre of the circular path. on it. It is based on law of inertia.
Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which is
Force opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform
It is an external push or pull with can change or tries motion in a straight line.
to change the state of rest or of uniform motion. SI
unit is newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 Inertia of Rest
dyne. • When a bus or train at rest starts, to move
If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then suddenly, the passangers sitting in it jerk in
body is said to be in equilibrium. backward direction due to their inertia of rest.
• The dust particles come out from a carpet when it
Centripetal Force is beaten with a stick due to their inertia of rest.
During circular motion a force always acts on the • A passenger jumping out from a rapidly moving
body towards the centre of the circular path, called bus or train is advised to jump in forward direction
centripetal force. and run forward for a short mile due to inertia of
F=mv2/r=mω2r. rest.
Inertia of Motion
Centrifugal Force When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the
In circular motion we experience that a force is passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to
acting on us in opposite to the direction of inertia of motion
centripetal force called centrifugal force. This is an
apparent force or imaginary force and also called a Momentum
pseudo force. The momentum of a moving body is equal to the
product of its mass and its velocity.

reduce rotational friction and to support loads
Conservation of Linear Momentum (weight).
The linear momentum of a system of particles remains • Friction is necessary for walking, to apply brakes in
conserved if the external force acting on the system is vehicles, for holding nuts and bolts in a machinery
zero. etc.
• Rocket propulsion and engine of jet aeroplane • Friction can be decreases by polishing the
works on principle of conservation of linear surfaces by using lubricants or by using ball
momentum. In rocket, ejecting gas exerts a bearings.
forward force which helps in accelerating the • Tyres are made of synthetic rubber because its
rocket upward. coefficient or friction with road is larger and
therefore, large force of friction acts on it, which
Newton’s Second Law stops sliding at turns.
The rate of change of momentum of a body is • The tyres are threading which also increases the
directly proportional to the force applied on it and friction between the tyres and the road.
change in momentum takes place in the direction of • When pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of
applied force. friction on rear wheel is in forward direction and
∆𝑝 𝑚∆𝑣 on front wheel is in the backward direction.
𝐹= = = 𝑚𝑎
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 Loses due to Friction
• Too much Loss of Energy in machines and then
Newton’s Third Law ultimately the machines are damaged.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction and both act on two interacting objects. Machine–
Rocket is propelled by the principle of Newton’s third • Lever - It is a simple machine in which a straight or
law of motion. inclined rod is made to turn or rotate at a point
freely or independently. There are three points
Impulse related to lever namely load, effort and fulcrum.
• A large force which acts on a body for a very • Load - The weight carried by the lever is called
short interval of time and produces a large load.
change in its momentum is called an impulsive • Effort - To operate lever, the force applied
force. externally is called effort.
• Its unit is newton-second. • Fulcrum - The fixed point about which the rod of
• A fielder lowers its hand when catching a cricket lever moves independently is called fulcrum.
ball because by lowering his hands, he increases
the time of contact for stopping the ball and OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
therefore fielder has to apply lesser force to stop Periodic Motion
the ball. The ball will also exert lesser force on the • A motion which repeats itself identically after a
hands of the fielder and the fielder will not get fixed interval of time, is called a periodic motion.
hurt. For example
• Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers to - Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of the
increase the time of impact during jerks and earth around the sun, motion of a simple
therefore, decreases the damage. The vehicles pendulum etc.
like scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are provided with Oscillatory Motion
shockers. • A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back
and forth about a fixed point is called oscillatory
Friction motion.
Friction is a force which opposes the relative motion For example
of the two bodies when one body actually moves or - Motion of a simple pendulum.
tries to move over the surface of another body. - Motion of a loaded spring etc.
The cause of friction is the strong atomic or molecular • If a particle oscillates with its own natural
forces of attraction acting on the two surfaces at the frequency without help of any external periodic
point of actual contact. force. The oscillation is then called damped
oscillation.
Uses of Friction • When a body oscillates with the help of an
• A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element that external periodic force with a frequency different
uses balls to maintain the separation between the
bearing races. The purpose of a ball bearing is to
from natural frequency of the body, then Resonant Oscillations
oscillation is called forced oscillation. • When a body oscillates with its own natural
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) frequency (V0) with the help of an external
• An oscillatory motion of constant amplitude and periodic force also called forced harmonic
of single frequency under a restoring force whose motion. And if the frequency (v) provided by the
magnitude is proportional to the displacement external agent is equal to the natural frequency
and always acts towards mean position, is called of the body, the oscillations of the body are
Simple Harmonic Motion. called resonant oscillations.
Characteristics of SHM Wave

When a particle executing SHM passes through the A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy
mean position: from one place to the other without the transport of
1. No force acts on the particle. matter.
2. Acceleration of the particle is zero. Waves are broadly of two types:
3. Velocity is maximum. 1. Mechanical Wave
4. Kinetic energy is maximum. 2. Non-mechanical wave
5. Potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, Mechanical Wave: The waves which required
then: material medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their
1. Acceleration of the particle is maximum. propagation are called mechanical wave or elastic
2. Restoring force acting on particle is maximum. wave. Mechanical waves are of two types.
3. Velocity of particle is zero. 1. Longitudinal wave: If the particles of the medium
4. Kinetic energy of particle is zero. vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave, the
5. Potential energy is maximum. wave is called longitudinal wave.
2. Transverse Wave: If the particles of the medium
Simple Pendulum vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation
• A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid of wave, the wave is called transverse wave.
support by means of an elastic inextensible string, Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface
is called a simple pendulum. of water are examples of transverse waves.
• Time period of a simple pendulum is given by 𝑇 =
𝑙 Non-mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves:
2𝜋√𝑔
The waves which do not require medium for their
• The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite propagation i.e. which can propagate even through
length is 84.6 min. The time period of a second’s the vacuum are called non mechanical wave.
pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the earth is nearly Light, heat is the examples of non-mechanical wave.
100 cm. In fact all the electromagnetic waves are non-
• Acceleration due to gravity decreases with mechanical.
altitude (height) and therefore time period of a All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
pendulum clock will increase and clock becomes The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is
slow. 10−14 m to 104 m.
• If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended
from a metallic wire, then the length of the Properties of electromagnetic waves
pendulum increases with increase in temperature 1. They are neutral (uncharged).
and therefore its time period also increases. 2. They propagate as transverse wave.
• A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up 3. They propagate with the velocity of light.
over the swing, then the effective length of the 4. They contain energy and momentum.
swing decreases and therefore, the time period of 5. Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.
oscillations decreases. Following waves are not electromagnetic
• A pendulum clock cannot be used in a space- 1. Cathode rays
ship. 2. Canal rays
Damped Harmonic Motion 3. α rays
• When there is friction or any other force acting 4. β rays
within an oscillating system, the amplitudes of the 5. Sound wave
oscillation decreases over time to this damping 6. Ultrasonic wave
force. This is called damped harmonic motion.

Some Important Electromagnetic Waves & their • The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound
discoverer waves, is called an echo.
γ-Rays - Henry Becqueral •
1
The persistence of hearing on human ear is 10th of
X-Rays - W. Rontgen a second.
Ultra-violet rays - Ritter • The minimum distance from a sound reflecting
Visible radiation - Newton surface to hear an echo is nearly is nearly 17 m.
Infra-red rays - Hershel • Sound proof rooms are made of two layers of
Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves - Heinrich Hertz walls having vacuum between them.
Long Radio Waves - Marconi • Reverberation arises due to multiple reflection of
sound.
Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range • While designing an auditorium for speech or
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 m to 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 m are called microwaves. musical concerts, one has to take proper care for
the absorption and reflection of sound.
Amplitude: Amplitude is defined as the maximum • Time taken by reverberant sound to decrease its
displacent of the vibrating particle on either side from intensity by a factor of 106 is called reverberation
the equilibrium position. time.
Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between
any two nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in
the same phase. It is denoted by the Greek letter
lambda. (λ)
In transverse wave distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs and in longitudinal
wave, distance between two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions is equal to wavelength.
Velocity of wave = frequency × wavelength.
Time period – The time taken by the vibration of the

particles of the medium in completing one oscillation
is called Time period.
Frequency – The number of oscillations executed by

the particles of the medium in one second is called
frequency of wave. Its SI unit is Hertz.
Refraction
• When a sound wave moves from one mechanical
Sound medium to another mechanical medium, it shows
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves and deviation from the original path of the incident
require medium for their propagation. It cannot wave. The phenomenon is called refraction. It is
propagate through vacuum. when propagated due to difference is speed of sound in media.
speed and wavelength changes but frequency Diffraction
remains constant. It is of three types: • When sound waves originated by a vibrating
Infrasonic waves – (0 to 20,000 Hz) source, they spread in the medium and if the
Audible waves – (20 to 20,000 Hz) medium is homogeneous, this leads to bending of
Ultrasonic waves – (>20,000 Hz) sound waves around the edges. Which is known
as diffraction.
Properties of Sound Wave • The sound waves diffracted broadly and one can
Reflection easily hears the voice of the another person.
• The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard Musical Scale
surface, is called reflection of sound. • In theory of music, a musical scale is a set of
• The laws of reflection of light are also obeyed musical notes by the frequencies of which are in
during reflection of sound. simple ratios to one another. Sa, re, ga, ma, pa,
• The working of megaphone, sound boards and dha, ni is one such scale called the diatonic
ear trumpet is based on reflection of sound. scale. The frequencies of these notes are: sa
(256), re (288), go (320), ma (341.3), pa (384), dha

(426.7) and ni (480). The next note denoted by sa • In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned
has a frequency 512, twice that of sa. The interval into electrical signals by the cochlea. These
sa-sa is called an octave (8). electrical signals are sent to the brain via the
Noise Reduction in Recording Media auditory nerve and the brain interprets them as
• Five types of noise reduction system exists in sound.
recording media as discussed below
- Dolby A noise reduction system, intended for use HEAT
in professional recording studios. It provided Heat
about 10 dB of broadband noise reduction. • Heat is the form of energy which produces the
- Dolby B was developed to achieve about 9 dB sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and other unit
noise reduction primarily for cassettes. It was calorie (1 cal = 4.2 Joule) .
much simpler than Dolby A and therefore less • The transfer of heat is always from hotter to colder
expensive to implement in consumer products. body.
- Dolby C provides about 15 dB noise reduction.
- Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) system is much Temperature
more aggressive noise reduction approach than • Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of a
Dolby A. Dolby SR is much more expensive to body.
implement than Dolby B or C, but it is capable of • The heat flows from one body to another due to the
providing upto 25 dB noise reduction in the high difference in their body temperature.
frequency range.
- Dolby S is found on some Hi-Fi and semi- Scale of Temperature
professional recording equipment. It is capable of • To measure the temperature of a body following
10 dB of noise reduction at low frequencies and temperature scales are used.
upto 24 dB of noise reduction at high frequencies. — Celsius scale of temperature freezing point is 0°C
Doppler’s Effect Boiling point of water is 100°C
The apparent change in the frequency of source — Fahrenheit scale of temperature ice point or
due to relative motion between the source and freezing of water = 32° F
observer is called Doppler’s effect. Boiling point of water = 212° F
Applications of Doppler’s Effect — Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature ice point
The measurement of Doppler shift (based on of water = 273° K
Doppler’s effect) has been used Boiling point of water = 373° K
• By police to check over speeding of vehicles. — Reaumur scale of temperature ice point of water is
• At airports to guide the aircraft. 0° R,
• To study heart and blood flow in different Boiling point of water = 80°R
parts of the body. — Rankine scale of temperature ice point /freezing
• By astrophysicist to measure the velocities of point of water
planets and stars. = 491.67°R Boiling point of water
= 671.641° R
SONAR
• SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. Relation between Different Scales of Temperature
It is used to measure the depth of a sea, to locate Different scales of temperature are related as follows:
the enemy submarines and shipwrecks. C F − 32 R K − 273
= = =
• The transmitter of sonar produces pulses of 100 180 80 100
ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of about K =273+ °C
50000 Hz. The reflected sound waves are received • At temperature – 40°C = – 40°F, Clesius scale is
by the receiver. equal to Fahrenheit
Human Ear • The temperature at which the three phases of
• We are able to hear with the help of an extremely water remains at equilibrium is called triple point of
sensitive organ of our body called the ear. There water (273.16 K)
are three parts of human ear
- The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the
sound from the surroundings. The middle ear Thermometers
transmits the amplified pressure variations • The instruments used to measure temperature of a
received from the sound wave to the inner ear. body is called thermometer.
Thermometers are of following three types

1. Clinical thermometer It is used to measure human • In laying a railway line, a small gap is left in
body temperatures and ranges from 96° F to 110°F or between two iron rails otherwise railway line will
35°C to 43°C. become curved on heating in summer.
2. Electronic thermometer Basic components of an • Telephone wires are not tighten on poles because
electronic thermometer are thermistors or in winter, wires get contract and can break.
thermoresistors. Range of electronic thermometer is –
40° to 450°F. Thermal Expansion of Liquids
3. Other thermometers these include constant volume • In liquids, only expansion in volume takes place on
gas thermometer, platinum resistance thermometer heating.
etc.
• Clinical thermometer measures temperature in Expansion of liquid is of two types:
degree fahrenheit (°F). • When expansion of the container, containing liquid,
• In thermometer, mercury is commonly used on heating, is not taken into account, then observed
through a wide range from –30°C to 300°C. expansion is called apparent expansion of liquids.
• Thermometer was developed by Galileo who • When expansion of the container, containing liquid,
found that the gases expand on heating. on heating, is also taken into account, then observed
expansion is called real expansion of liquids.
Thermal Expansion γr = γa + γg
• The expansion of a body caused by heat is where, γr and γa , are coefficients of real and
known as thermal expansion. apparent expansion of liquids and γg = coefficient of
cubical expansion of the container.
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Thermal expansion of solids is of three types Anomalous Expansion of Water
1. Expansion in length on heating is called linear When temperature of water is increased from 0°C,
expansion. The increase in length of a rod of unit then its volume decreases up to 4°C, becomes
length of a substance due to increase in its minimum at 4° C and then increases. This behavior of
temperature by 1°C is called the coefficient of linear water expansion around 4°C is called, anomalous
expansion of the substance of that rod. It is expansion of water.
represented by α.
Increase in length ∆L Thermal Expansion of Gases
α= =
Initial length × Rise in temperature L × ∆t There are two types of coefficient of expansion in
— Its unit is °C–1. gases
— At constant pressure, the change in volume per
2. Expansion in area on heating, is called superficial unit volume per degree celsius is called volume
expansion. Coefficient of superficial expansion is coefficient (γv ).
given as — At constant volume, the change in pressure per
Increase in area ∆A unit, pressure per degree celsius, is called pressure
β= =
Initial area × Rise in temperature A × ∆t coefficient (yp ).
— Its unit is °C–1.
Calorimetry
3. Expansion in volume on heating, is called volume • Amount of heat required to raise the temperature
expansion or cubical expansion. of 1 g of water by 1°C is called 1 calorie.
Coefficient of volume or cubical expansion is given • Calorimetry states that heat lost by hotter body
as equals the heat gained by colder body.
Increase in volume ∆V
γ= =
Original volume × Rise in temperature V × ∆t Specific Heat
— Its unit is °C-1 • The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass (m) of a substance
Relation between Coefficients of Expansions through 1°C, is called its specific heat (s).
• Coefficients of thermal expansions are related as • It is denoted by s and its unit is ‘cal/g°C or
β = 2α and γ = 3α Joule/g°/C.
and α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3 • The specific heat of water is 4200 J/kg1/°C or 1000
cal/ g1/° C–, which is high compared with most
other substances. Therefore, water is used as

coolant in radiator in vehicle and hot water is • Entropy measures the molecular disorder of a
used for the fermentation. system and is a thermodynamic function depending
• Heat energy given or taken to change the only on the temperature of the system.
temperature of a body is given by • Evaporation is a process in which molecules escape
Q = ms∆θ slowly from the surface of a liquid.
Where, m = mass of the body • For a given liquid the rate of evaporation
and ∆θ = change in temperature. demands on the temperature and area of
• The amount of heat required to raise the evaporating surface.
temperature of 1 mole of a gas by 1°C is called • Refrigerator is a device used for cooling things by
molar specific heat. the evaporation and compression of a volatile
liquid inside a copper coil.
Latent Heat
• The heat energy absorbed or released at Humidity
constant temperature per unit mass for change of • The presence of moisture in the atmosphere is
state, is called latent heat. called humidity.
• It is denoted by L and its SI unit is cal/g or kcal/kg. • The amount of water vapour present in the unit
• Heat energy absorbed or released during change volume of atmosphere is called absolute
of state is given by humidity.
Q = mL • The relative humidity of air at a given
where, m = mass of the substance. temperature is the ratio of mass of water vapour
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. present in a certain volume of air to the mass of
• Latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 536 cal/g. water vapour required to saturate the same
volume of air at the same temperature, multiplied
Thermodynamics by 100.
• The branch of physics which deals with the study • Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer.
of relation of heat energy with different types of • Relative humidity of about 50% is considered
energy is called thermodynamics. comfortable at temperature 22° – 25° C.
• If the relative humidity is very low in air, then lips
Zeroth Law become dry and cracks appear in them.
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics tells about thermal • If relative humidity is very high in air then the
equilibrium. sweat from our body does not evaporate readily
and therefore we feel uncomfortable.
First Law • Air conditioning provides comfortable conditions
• As per first law about energy, heat given to a by regulating temperature and humidity.
substance is equal to sum of change in internal
energy and work done. Transmission of Heat
Second Law • Heat can be transferred from one place to
• In second law work can be converted into heat another by process of transmission.
and vice-versa but conversion is not possible with • There are three methods of transmission of heat.
100% efficience.
• It is impossible for a machine operating in a cyclic Conduction
process to convert heat completely into work, it is • The mode of transmission of heat in solids from
kelvin’s statement. higher temperature part to lower temperature
• Heat by itself can not transfer from a colder to a part without actual movement of the particles, is
hotter body. It is clausius statement. Refrigerator is called conduction.
based on this statement. • Transmission of heat in solids takes place mainly
• Heat engine is a device which converts heat into through conduction.
mechanical work. Internal combustion and • Metals are good conductors of heat.
external combustion heat engine are two types of • Wood, cotton, wool, glass are bad conductors of
heat engine. heat, dry air is also a bad conductor of heat.
• Car engine uses coolant added with water to • Woollen clothes do not allow the heat of our
reduce harmful effects like corrosion, rusting etc. Such body to escape and therefore we feel warm.
as ethylene glycol, polossium dichromate etc, • On a cold night two thin blankets give more
• Carnot’s theorem tells about maximum efficiency of warmth than a single thick blanket because the
heat engine. It refers to Carnot cycle.

layer of air between the two blankets works as a • Ratio of heat absorbed (radiation) to total
better insulator. incident radiation for a body is called absorptive
• Refrigerators and ice-boxes have double walls power (a) of body. It has no unit.
having thermocol between them which minimise • Amount of heat radiation per unit area of the
heat gain by conduction. surface at a given temperature is called emissive
Convection power of the surface.
• The mode of transmission of heat in fluids (liquids • Its unit is J/m2 – s.
and gases) due to actual movement of the • The ratio of emissive power and absorptive power
particles, is called convection. of a body is always same. It is equal to emissive
• In liquids and gases, heat is transmitted by power of a black body. This is known as Kirchhoff’s
convection. law.
• When a liquid in a vessel is heated at the bottom, • White colour is a bad absorbers and good
the liquid at bottom gets heated and expands. reflectors of heat radiations while black colour is
• Due to its lower density, hot liquid rises and its good absorbers and bad reflectors of heat.
place is taken by cold liquid from above. Therefore, clothes of light colours give better
Convection currents are set up in the liquid until feeling in summer and clothes of dark colours give
the temperature of the whole liquid becomes better feeling in winter.
same.
• The cooling unit in a refrigerator is fitted near the Stefan’s Law
top as cold air move downward and keeps cool • It states that “The amount of heat energy (E)
the whole interior. radiated per second by unit area of perfectly
• Radiator in a motor car works on the principle of black body is directly proportional to the fourth
convection. power of absolute temperature (T) of the body.”
E ∝ T4
Newton’s Law of Cooling • Good absorbers are good emitters and poor
The rate of loss of heat from a body is directly absorbers are poor emitters.
proportional to the difference in temperatures of the
body and its surroundings. MATTER
If we take hot water and fresh water and put it in a Matter
refrigerator, then rate of cooling of hot water will be Matter is considered as any thing which has weight
faster than the fresh tap-water. and occupies space.
• Sea Breeze During day time, the seashore warms It exists in three states: Solid, liquid and gas.
up much faster than sea water. Hot air over the In solid, molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
seashore rises and cooler air from sea water In liquid, molecules also vibrate but simultaneously
moves towards seashore to take its place resulting they move freely throughout the material. In gas, the
in a sea breeze. molecules are much farther apart than in solids and
• Land Breeze At night, land cools faster than sea liquids and move at high velocities.
water. Now hot air over sea water rises and cooler
air from land moves towards sea to take its place Interatomic Forces
and resulting in a land breeze. The electrostatic force of interaction acting between
• Cloudy nights are warmer than clear night the two or more atoms is called interatomic forces.
because clouds reflect the radiations emitted by The range of interatomic forces is equal to the order
the earth at night and keep it warm. of atomic size, i.e. 10−10 m.
A force which changes the configuration of a body is
Radiation called a deforming force.
• The process of heat transmission in the form of
electromagnetic waves is called radiation. Solid
• Radiation does not require any medium for It is that, state of matter which has definite shape and
propagation and it propagates without heating definite volume. In this state molecules are very
the intervening medium. closely packed.
Black Body
• A body that absorbs the entire radiation incident Properties of Solids
on it is called perfectly black body. Elasticity

The property of a body by virtue of which it regain its If large deformation takes place between the elastic
original configuration after the removal of deforming limit and the fracture point, the material is called
force, is called elasticity. ductile.
Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly If the wire breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed,
elastic bodies. it is called brittle.
Plasticity Elastic Fatigue

The property of a body by virtue of which it doesn’t It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which
regain its original configuration after the removal of its behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of
deforming force, is called plasticity. repeated alternating deforming force. Due to elastic
fatigue, the bridges become less elastic after a use of
Strain long time and therefore are declared unsafe.
The fraction I change in configuration i.e. length,
volume and shape, is called strain. Strain has no unit. Fluid
On the basis of change in configuration, strain is of A substance which begins to flow under an external
three types force is called a fluid. Liquids and gases are fluids.
∆𝐼
- Longitudinal strain = 𝐼
∆𝑉 Fluid Density
- Volume strain =
𝑉 The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its
- Shearing strain = θ density. (i.e. mass present in its unit volume). It is a
Stress scalar quantity having SI unit kg/𝑚3.
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of The density of water is 1000 kg/𝑚3.
cross-section of a deformed body is called stress. The density of water is maximum at 4°C.
Stress is of two types Hydrometer It is an instrument used to measure
- Normal stress density or relative density of liquid. Its working is based
- Tangential stress on law of floatation.
The maximum deforming force upto which a body
retains its property of elasticity is called the limit of Pressure – Pressure is defined as the force applied per
elasticity of the material body. unit surface area. It is a scalar quantity.
The minimum stress required to break a wire is called Pressure= Force applied/Area of Surface
breaking stress. The SI unit of Pressure is N/m2 which is called Pascal.
The torque required to produce a given twist in a
hollow cylinder is greater than that required to Fluid Pressure
produce the same twist in a solid cylinder. Therefore, Thrust (the normal force) exerted by a liquid per unit
hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft. area of the surface in contact at rest, is called fluid
Springs are made of steel, not of copper as Young's pressure.
modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that of 𝐹
Fluid pressure (p) = 𝐴
copper.
Its unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 or Pascal (Pa).
Elastic Limit
Atmospheric Pressure
It is the limit of stress and strain upto which a wire
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called
remains elastic.
atmospheric pressure.
Plastic Behaviour Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric
If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the pressure and height of a place.
strain increases much more rapidly. If the stretching Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr and bar.
force is removed, the wire does not come back to its
natural length. Pascal’s Law
The pressure exerted anywhere at a point of confined
fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished, in all
Fracture Point
directions throughout the liquid.
If the deformation is increased further the plastic
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press hydraulic brakes works
behaviour, the wire breaks at a point known as
on the basis of Pascal’s law.
fracture point.
Ductile and Brittle Materials

The density of human body is less than the density of
water but the density of human head is greater than
the density of water. Therefore, during swimming a
person displaces the liquid with hands and legs and
total weight of displaced liquid becomes equal to
the weight of the body.
Surface Tension
The property of a liquid by virtue of which it tries to
minimise its free surface area is called surface tension.
The minimum surface area of a given amount of
liquid is for spherical shape. Therefore, rain drops are
spherical.
Surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical
temperature.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension

• Temperature The surface tension of a liquid
Buoyancy decreases with increase in temperature.
When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a • Soluble Impurities If the impurities are less soluble
liquid, an upward force acts on it, which is called in liquid, then its surface tension decreases. If
buoyant force or upthrust and this property of fluids is impurities are highly soluble in liquid, then its
called buoyancy. surface tension increases.
Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the submerged part of the body. Applications of Surface Tension
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the • When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl etc.,
liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body, are mixed in water then its surface tension
which is called ‘centre of buoyancy’. decreases.
• When salt is added in water, its surface tension
Archimedes Principle increases.
When a body is partially or completely immersed in a • When oil spreads over the surface of water, its
liquid, it loses some of its weight. The loss in weight is surface tension decreases.
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the • When kerosene oil is sprinkled on water, its
submerged part of the body. surface tension decreases. As a result, the
larva of mosquitoes floating on the surface of
Law of Floatation water dies due to sinking.
A body will float in a liquid if weight of the body is • Warm soup is tasty because at high
equal weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed temperature its surface tension is low and
part of the body. consequently the soup spreads on all parts of
In floating condition, the centre of gravity (g) and the the tongue.
centre of buoyancy (B) of the floating body must lie • Antiseptics like dettol have low surface tension
on the same straight line. and therefore it reaches in the tiny cracks of
Ice and large icebergs float on water surface as its the wound and cleans the germs and
density (0.92 g/cm3) is lesser than the density of bacteria.
water. • The surface tension of soap solution in water is
11
When a piece of ice floats on water, its (12) 𝑡ℎ part less than the surface tension of pure water.
submerged in water and (1/12) th part is outside the Therefore, soap solution cleans greasy strains
water. of clothes better than pure water.
In sea water, (8/ 9) th part of icebergs is submerged
and (1/9) th part is outside the water during floating. Capillarity
It is easier to swim in sea water than in a river as The phenomenon of rising or falling of liquid column in
density of sea water is greater than the density of river a capillary tube (glass tube of very fine bore) is called
water. In sea water, buoyant force is greater than capillarity.
that in river water. Illustrations of capillarity

1. A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the Stoke’s Law
pores of the blotting paper serve as capillary According to this law, the viscous force depends
tubes. upon the coefficient of viscosity, velocity of the
2. The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary moving object and its size.
action of threads in the wick.
3. The root hairs of plants draw water from the soil Terminal Velocity
through capillary action. When a small spherical body falls through a long
4. To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, liquid column its velocity increases gradually but later
the soil is loosened and split into pieces by the on it becomes constant, called terminal velocity.
farmers. The radius of spherical rain drops is very small
5. If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial therefore their terminal velocity is also small, with
satellite, water rises up to other end of tube which they strike the earth’s surface. When a liquid
because of its zero apparent weight, how long flow through a pipe, its speed is maximum near axis
the tube may be. and minimum near the walls of the pipe.
6. Action of towel in soaking up water from the
body is due to capillary action of cotton in the Equation of Continuity
towel. When a non-viscous liquid flows through a pipe of
7. Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick by non-uniform cross-sectional area in stream-lined flow,
capillary action. (i.e. velocity at every point in the fluid remains
constant) then at each section of the tube, the
Cohesive and Adhesive Forces product of area of cross-section of the pipe and
The intermolecular force of attraction acting velocity of liquid remains constant, i.e. A × v =
between the molecules of same substance is called constant.
cohesive force. Therefore speed (v) of fluid flow becomes faster in
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting narrower pipe.
between the molecules of water, mercury etc.
The intermolecular force of attraction acting
between the molecules of different substance is
called adhesive force.
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting
between the molecules of paper and gum, paper
and ink, etc.
Viscous force: The force which opposes the relative

motion between different layers of liquid or gases is
called viscous force.
Viscosity: Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue
of which it opposes the relative motion between its
different layers.
• Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases
both.
• The viscosity of a liquid is due to cohesive
force between its molecules.
• The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its Bernoulli’s Theorem
molecules from one layer to other layer. If a non-viscous and incompressible liquid is flowing in
• Viscosity of gases is much less than that of stream-lined flow then total energy, i.e., sum of
liquids. There is no viscosity in solids. pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy,
• Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero. per unit volume of the liquid remains constant.
• With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids Venturi tube and aspirator pump works on Bernoulli’s
decreases and that for gases increases. theorem.
• Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its According to Bernoulli's theorem, with increase in
coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is decapoise velocity of quid its pressure decreases and vice-versa.
(kg/ms) or pascal second. It is generally During storms or cyclones, the roofs of the huts or
denoted by η. tinned roofs blown off because wind blows with very
high speed over the top of the roof and therefore
pressure of air decreases. Due to the pressure
difference of air above and below the roof, a lifting given colour and for the given pair of media. This law
force acts on the roof. If it is sufficient to balance the is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
weight of the roof it starts to fly off. If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
Magnus Effect: Motion of a Spinning Ball refraction, then,
When swing bowlers deliver the ball, the ball changes Sin i/Sin r = constant
its plane of motion in air.
The one with the larger refractive index is optically
LIGHT denser medium than the other. The other medium of
REFLECTION OF LIGHT (Law of Reflection) lower refractive index is optically rarer. The speed of
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of light is higher in a rarer medium than a denser
reflection medium
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the The light from the Sun constitutes parallel rays of light.
point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the These rays were converged by the lens at the sharp
same plane bright spot formed on the paper. In fact, the bright
spot you got on the paper is a real image of the Sun.
Spherical Mirrors & their Uses The concentration of the sunlight at a point
generated heat. This caused the paper to burn.
Uses of concave mirrors
Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
search-lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
parallel beams of light.
They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger The prism has probably split the incident white light
image of the face. The dentists use concave mirrors into a band of colours. The sequence of colours
to see large images of the teeth of patients. VIBGYOR. The splitting of light into its component
Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate colours is called dispersion.
sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
Different colours of light bend through different
Uses of convex mirrors angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass
Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view through a prism. The red light bends the least while
(wing) mirrors in vehicles, enabling the driver to see the violet the most. Thus the rays of each colour
traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. They emerge along different paths and thus become
always give an erect, though diminished, image. distinct.It is the band of distinct colours that we see in
Also, they have a wider field of view as they are a spectrum.
curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the
driver to view much larger area than would be A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky
possible with a plane mirror. after a rain shower. It is caused by dispersion of
sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the
REFRACTION OF LIGHT atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed in a
when a thick glass slab is placed over some printed direction opposite to that of the Sun. The water
matter, the letters appear raised when viewed droplets act like small prisms. They refract and
through the glass slab the bottom of a tank or a pond disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally,
containing water appears to be raised seen a pencil and finally refract it again when it comes out of the
partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler. It appears raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal
to be displaced at the interface of air and water reflection, different colours reach the observer’s eye.
A lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to
be bigger than its actual size, when viewed from the ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
sides. The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air
further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the
The following are the laws of refraction of light. cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal less than that of the cooler air.Since the physical
to the interface of two transparent media at the conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. stationary, the apparent position of the object, as
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine seen through the hot air, fluctuate. This wavering is
of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a thus an effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction of
light by the earth’s atmosphere) .

there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light
Twinkling of stars signal.
The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction
of starlight. Tyndall Effect
The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of
undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches minute particles like smoke, tiny water droplets,
the earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a suspended particles of dust and molecules of
medium of gradually changing refractive index. Since air.When a beam of light strikes such fine particles,
the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the path of the beam becomes visible.
the apparent position of the star is slightly different
from its actual position. As the path of rays of light When a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled
coming from the star goes on varying slightly, room through a small hole. Tyndall effect can also be
thestarlight entering the eye flickers – the star observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of
sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time, a dense forest.
fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset of the scattering particles. Very fine particles scatter
The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the mainly blue light while particles of larger size scatter
actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual light of longer wavelengths.
sunset because of atmospheric refraction. The time
difference between actual sunset and the apparent MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
sunset is about 2 minutes. Electricity — Flow of Electrons is called Electricity
• The electricity produced by friction between two
SCATTERING OF LIGHT appropriate bodies, is called static electricity, it is
The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep also called frictional electricity.
sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the Coulomb’s law:-
sunset. • The electrostatic force of interaction acting
between two stationary point charges is directly
Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue? proportional to the product of magnitude of
The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times charges and inversely proportional to the square
greater than blue light. Thus, when sunlight passes of the distance between them.
through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air F=(Kqa-qb)/r2
scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more
strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our Electric Field
eyes. If the earth had no atmosphere, there would • The space in the surrounding of any charge in
not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would which its influence can be experience by other
have looked dark. The sky appears dark to charge, is called electric field.
passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering
is not prominent at such heights. • Electric field intensity (E) at any point is defined as
the electrostatic force (F) acting per unit positive
Total Internal Reflection test charge (q) at the point.
a)mirage – Desert e.g. • 𝑬=𝑞
𝑭
Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive

• Its unit is newton/coulomb.
index than the cooler air. On hot summer days, the air
• Therefore, electric field intensity is inversely
near the ground becomes hotter than the air at
proportional to the square of the distance r from
higher levels noticed that while moving in a bus or a
the point charge.
car during a hot summer day, a distant patch of
road, especially on a highway, appears to be wet.
Electric Field Lines
This is also due to mirage.
• An electric field line is an imaginary line, so that its
b) Diamonds - Their brilliance is mainly due to the
tangent at any point is in the direction of the
total internal reflection of light inside them.
electric field vector at that point.
c) Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of
• Two lines can never intersect. Electric field lines
total internal reflection.Light undergoes repeated
always begin on a positive charge and end on a
total internal reflections along the length of the fibre
negative charge and do not start or stop in mid-
space.
well as electrons and in semiconductors due to
Electric Potential flow of electrons and holes.
• Electric potential at a point in an electric field is • Its S.I. unit is Ampere
equal to the work done per unit charge in
carrying a test charge from infinity to that point. Resistance
Its unit is joule/coulomb. • Resistance is the opposition that a substance
𝑊
• Electric potential, V = 𝑞 . offers to the flow of electric current.
• It is represented by R.
• Potential difference is that physical quantity
• Its S.I. unit is ohm.
which decides the direction of flow of charge
between two points in electric field.
• Positive charge always tends to move from higher
Conductance
potential towards lower potential.
• Conductance and conductivity is the reciprocal
of resistance and the resistivity of the material
Electric Dipole and Capacitor
respectively. The SI unit of conductance is Ω−1 i.e.,
• An electric dipole consists of two equal and
mho and to that of conductivity is Ω−1 m−1.
opposite point charges separated by a very small
Resistivity
distance.
• Resistivity of a material depends on the
• Electric dipole moment of the dipole is product of
temperature and nature of the material depends
charge and the separation between the charges.
on temperature and nature of the material. It is
• A capacitor or condenser is a device over which
independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e.,
a large amount of charge can be stored without
length, area of cross-section etc.
changing its dimensions.
• Resistivity of metals increases with increase in
• The capacitance of a conductor is equal to the
temperature.
ratio of the charge (q) given to the conductor to
𝑞
change in its potential (V) is given by C = 𝑉
Combination of Resistances
• Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad. Farad (F) is a • It resistance 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are connected in series,
large unit of capacitance. Its practical unit is then their equivalent resistance is given by 𝑅 =
microfarad (𝜇𝐹). 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
• 1𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹 • In series combination, equal current flows through
each resistors but Voltage vauies
Type of Materials • If resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 are connected in parallel,
• Conductors are those type of materials which then their equivalent resistance is given by
have number of free electrons to conduct the 1 1
• 𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
1 1
electricity. The metals are good conductors of 1 2 3
electricity. • In parallel combination, potential difference

• Insulators are that type of materials which do not across each resistor remains same but current
have the free electrons in its volume and hence, it varies.
does not conduct the electricity at all.
• Semiconductor is that type of materials which do Ohm’s law
not have free electrons at the normal • It states that if physical conditions of any
temperature, but has the free electrons at the conductor such as temperature, pressure etc.,
increased temperature and hence, behaves like remain unchanged, then electric current (l)
a conductor. The materials such as silicon, flowing through it is directly proportional to the
germanium etc., are the semiconductor. potential difference (V) applied across its ends,
i.e.,
Electric Current • I ∝ V or V = IR where, R is the electrical resistance
• An electric current whose magnitude and of the conductor.
direction do not change with time is called direct
current, and whose magnitude changes Electric Cell
continuously and direction changes periodically is • An electric cell is a device which converts
called alternating current. chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Inverter is a device which converts DC to AC. • Electric cell are of two types
• In solid conductors, electric current flows due to —Primary cell cannot be charged. Voltaic,
flow of electrons, in liquids due to flow of ions as Daniell and Leclanche cells are primary cells.

—Secondary cell can be charged again and • The electric discharge occurring between two
again. Acid and alkali accumulators are charged clouds or between a charged cloud
secondary cells. and earth can damage the houses or buildings.
• Working of electric cells is based on chemical To protect this lightning conductors are used.
effect of electric current.
Magnetism
Emf of a Cell • Magnet
• The work done by the cell to bring a (+)ve charge • A magnet is a material which can attract iron
from its own terminal to the other is known as its objects.
emf (electromotive force). Electromotive force is • A natural magnet is an ore of iron (𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4) called
work but not a force. magnetite or lodestone.
• A magnet which is prepared artificially is called
Joule’s Law of Heating an artificial magnet.
• Current can produce three effects: heating • A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself
effect, magnetic effect and chemical effect. into North-South direction. Like magnetic poles
• Heat is produced in conductor in time t is given repel and unlike magnetic poles attract each
by other.
V2 • A current-carrying coil containing a soft iron core
H = I 2 Rt = t = VIt
R is called an electromagnet.
• This is known as Joule’s law of heating. • An electromagnet is utilised in electric bell,
• Electric bulb, electric kettle, heater etc., devices telegraph receiver, telephone diaphragm,
work on the basis of heating effect of electric transformer, dynamo etc.
current. • Permanent magnets are made of steel and
• To protect the domestic appliances from sudden temporary magnet or electromagnets are made
change in electricity, fuses are used. It is made of of soft iron because steel cannot magnetised
tin, lead, alloy (63% + 37%). easily but when it is magnetised one time, cannot
• It should have high resistance and low melting be demagnetised easily. The soft iron can be
point always connected in series. magnetised or demagnetised easily.
Electric power Properties of Magnet

• The electrical energy produced or consumed per • Attractive property A magnet can attract small
unit time is called electric power. pieces of magnetic substances like iron, steel,
𝑉2 cobalt, nickel etc. The attraction is maximum at
• Electric power, P = VI = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅
poles. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
• 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
• Directive property A magnet, when suspended
freely, aligns itself approximately along
Chemical Effect of Electric Current
geographical N-S line.
• When an electric current is passed through an
• Magnetic poles exist in pairs If a magnet is cut
acidic or basic solution, it decomposes into its
into two equal parts transverse to its length, then
positive and negative ions. The positive ions
N and S-poles of the magnet do not get
collect at negative electrode (cathode) and the
separated.
negative ions collect at positive electrode
(anode).
Magnetic Field
• This phenomenon is called electrolysis. It is
• The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a
chemical effect of current. The process of coating
current carrying conductor, in which its magnetic
of a base metal with a layer of more expensive
effect can be experienced, is called magnetic
metal, is called electroplating.
field.
• Magnetic lines of force is an imaginary line drawn
Domestic Electrification
in magnetic field at which a magnetic North pole
• From the distribution, the two terminals are
will move, if it is free to do so.
supplied to the houses named as live and neutral
• A tangent drawn at any point of a magnetic line
(neutral is earthed at local substation). The third
of force represents the direction of magnetic field
terminal is introduced as the earth for the safety in
at that point.
the building.
• The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to
the total number of magnetic lines of force
Lightning Appliance
passing through that surface normally. Its unit is
weber.
Earth’s Magnetism
• The earth has its own magnetic field. The pole
near the geographic North of the earth is called
the magnetic North pole. Similarly, the pole near
the geographic South pole is called the magnetic
South pole.
• The Earth's magnetic field diverts charged particle
coming from space towards its poles and saves
living beings from being severely harmed.
• Magnetic compass A magnetic needle which
always direct in North-South (N-S) direction.
Magnetic storm
• Local disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field
which can damage telecommunication which
are probably caused by lump of charged Magnetic Substances
particles emanating from the sun are known as • There are three types of magnetic substances
magnetic storm. Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic.
• Paramagnetic Substances
Example: In the Arctic Circle, they are known as • Those substances which are feebly magnetised in
aurora borealis or the northern lights, while in the the direction of magnetic field when placed in
Antarctic Circle they are called aurora australis or the strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic
southern lights. Moving Coil Galvanometer substances.
• A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect the • For examples—Aluminium, platinum, chromium,
presence of current and the direction of current manganese, solutions of salts of iron, nickel,
in any circuit. oxygen etc.
• These substances are attracted towards strong
Ammeter and Voltmeter magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
• An ammeter is an instrument used to measure • The magnetism of these substances decreases
electric current. It is always connected in series. with increase in temperature.
The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
• A galvanometer can be converted into an Diamagnetic Substances
ammeter by connecting a low resistance in • Those substances which are feebly magnetised in
parallel. the opposite direction of magnetic field when
• A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential placed in strong magnetic field are called
difference between two points in an electric diamagnetic substances.
circuit. • For examples— Gold, silver, zinc, copper,
• The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. It is mercury, water, alcohol, air, hydrogen etc.
always connected in parallel. • These substances are attracted towards weak
• A galvanometer can be converted into a magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in • The magnetism produced in these substances
series. does not change with increase or decrease in
• A small resistance connected in parallel with the temperature.
load resistance to reduce amount of electric
current through resistor is called shunt. Ferromagnetic Substances
• Those substances which are strongly magnetised
in the direction of magnetic field when placed in
it, are called ferromagnetic substances.
• For examples —Iron, nickel, cobalt etc.
• The magnetism produced in these substances
decreases with increase in temperature and at a
particular temperature, called Curie temperature.

• At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic • Root mean square value of AC is given by
substance becomes diamagnetic. •
𝐼
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0
√2
• Curie temperature for iron is 770°C and for nickel
• An AC ammeter and AC voltmeter read root
is 358°C.
mean square value of alternating current and
alternating voltage respectively.
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an
AC Generator or Dynamo
electric circuit changes, an emf is induced in the
• It is a device which Inverts mechanical energy
circuit. This phenomenon is called into alternating current.
electromagnetic induction.
• Its working is based on electromagnetic
induction.
Faraday’s Laws of EMI
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit
DC Motor
changes, an induced emf is produced in it.
• It is a device which converts electrical energy into
• The induced emf loses as long as the change in
mechanical energy.
magnetic flux continues.
• Its working is based on the fact that when a
current carrying coil is placed in uniform
Lenz’s Law
magnetic field, a torque acts on it.
• The direction of induced emf or induced current is
always in such a way that it opposes the cause Transformer
due to which it is produced.
• It is a device which can change a low voltage
current into a high voltage current and vice-
Eddy Current
versa.
• If a piece of metal is placed in a varying
• Its working is based on mutual induction.
magnetic field or rotated with high speed in a
uniform magnetic field, then induced current set
Step-up Transformer
up in the piece is like whirlpool of air, called eddy
• It converts a low voltage current into a high
current, also known as foucault’s current.
voltage current.
• The main energy losses in a transformer are given
Uses
below
• Eddy currents are used in dead beat
• —Iron loss —Flux loss
galvanometer, induction furnaces, induction
• —Hysteresis loss —Humming loss (ohmic loss)
motor, speedometers of automobiles etc.
• Eddy currents are used in diathermy for deep
Step–down Transformer
heat treatment of the human body.
• It converts a high voltage current into a low
voltage current.
Self and Mutual Induction
• The phenomenon of production of induced emf
NUCLEAR REACTOR
in a circuit due to change in current flowing in its
A nuclear reactor is a device that contains and
own, is called self induction.
controls sustained nuclear chain reactions.In nuclear
• The unit of self induction is Henry (H).
reactors, the nuclear fission is controlled by controlling
• The phenomenon of production of induced emf
the number of neutrons released during the fission.The
in a circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its
energy liberated in a controlled manner is used to
neighbouring circuit, is called mutual induction. produce steam, which can run turbines and produce
• Its unit is Henry (H). electricity.
Alternating Current
Fuel - (uranium 235, Plutonium-239)
• An electric current whose magnitude and
The fissionable material is used in the reactor along
direction changes continuously is called
with a small neutron source.The solid fuel is made into
alternating current.
rods and is called fuel rods.
• The frequency of alternating current in India is 50
Hz.
Role of extra neutron -
These neutrons in turn can initiate fission processes,
Mean or average value of AC is zero for one
producing still more neutrons, and so on. This starts a
complete cycle. chain reaction. Slow neutrons (thermal neutrons) are
much more likely to cause fission in 235U92 than fast where, m = mass of the body,
neutrons. Fast neutrons liberated in fission would g = acceleration due to gravity and
escape instead of causing another fission reaction. h = height through which the ball is raised.
If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to
explosive energy output, as in a nuclear bomb or The centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular
Atom bomb. Each time an atom splits, it releases to the direction of motion. Therefore, work done by or
large amounts of energy in the form of heat. against centripetal force in circular motion is zero.
If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving
Moderators -(water, heavy water (D2O) and on a horizontal platform, then work done by force of
graphite) gravity is zero as displacement is perpendicular to the
Light nuclei called moderators are provided along direction of force of gravity.
with the fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast
neutrons. Power- The rate at which work is done is called
Power.
Core - The core of the reactor is the site of Power (P) = Work done/ time interval = W/t.
nuclearfission. It contains the fuel elements in suitably The SI unit of Power is Watt. The Power of machines is
fabricated form. expressed in Horse power (HP).
Reflector-The core is surrounded by a reflector to Energy

reduce leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a
is continuously removed by a suitable coolant. scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa
Coolant - (water, heavy-water, liquid sodium, helium, with the help of some mechanical device.
Liquid oxygen) There are two types of Mechanical Energy, which are
The coolant transfers heat produced during fission to as follows
a working fluid which in turn may produce steam. The
steam drives turbines and generates electricity. Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
Control rods- (cadmium, Boron) motion is called its kinetic energy.
The reactor can be shut down by means of rods Kinetic energy of the body of mass m moving with
(made of, for example, cadmium, Boron) that have 1
velocity v is given by K = 2 𝑚𝑣 2.
high absorption of capacity of neutrons.cadmium
and boron can absorb neutrons to form the Potential Energy
corresponding isotopes, which are not radioactive. The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its
position or configuration is called its potential-energy.
Shield - The whole assembly is shielded with heavy Gravitational potential energy, U = mgh
steel or concrete to check harmful radiation from
coming out. Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation
According to this relation, the mass can be
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY transformed into energy and vice-versa.
When ∆m mass is disappeared, then produced
Work, Energy and Power energy
Work- The work done by the force is defined as the E= ∆𝑚𝑐 2
product of magnitude of force and distance through where, c = speed of light in vacuum.
which particles moves.
Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule and CGS Conservative and Non-conservative forces
unit is erg. 1 joule = 107 erg. Conservative forces are non-dissipative forces like
Work done by a force is zero when gravitational force, electrostatic force etc.
-Body is not displace actually, i.e. s = 0 For the conservative forces, work done during a
-Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of round trip is always zero.
force i.e. θ = 90°. Non-conservative forces are dissipative in nature like
frictional force, viscous force etc.
Work done by a variable force
If we throw a ball upward, work done against gravity
is given by, W = mgh

Law of Conservation of Energy Each and every massive body attracts each other by
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; virtue of their masses. This phenomenon is called
only one type of energy can be transformed into gravitation.
other form of energy.
Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical Newton’s Law of Gravitation
energy) The gravitational force acting between two point
initially = (total mechanical energy) finally objects is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of
Some Equipments used to Transform Energy the distance between them.
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
S. Equipment Energy Transformed Gravitational force (F) = 12 2
𝑟
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into where, G is universal gravitational constant.
electrical energy Its value is 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 – 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔 −2.
2. Candle Chemical energy into light Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative
and heat energy. force.
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth
energy. The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling
4. Loud Electrical energy into sound body due to the earth’s gravitational pull, is called
Speaker energy. acceleration due to gravity, g = 𝑅2
𝐺𝑀
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical

where, M = mass of the earth, R = radius of the earth.
energy.
The value of g changes slightly from place to place
6. Tube light Electrical energy into light
but its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
energy.
Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is
7. Electric Bulb Electrical energy into light 1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and 1038
and heat energy. times smaller than nuclear force.
8. Battery Chemical energy into
electrical energy. Factors Affecting Acceleration due to Gravity
9. Electric Electrical energy into Shape of Earth Earth is not completely spherical its
motor mechanical energy. radius at equator is approximately 42 km greater than
10. Sitar Mechanical energy into its radius at poles.
sound energy. The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at
equator.
Collision There is no effect of rotation of the earth at poles and
Collision between two or more particles is the maximum at equator.
interaction for a very short interval of time in which Effect of Altitude Therefore, g decreases with altitude.
they apply relatively strong forces on each other. For Effect of Depth g decreases with depth and becomes
a collision, physical contact of two bodies is not zero at centre of the earth.
necessary.
Mass and Weight
A collision, in which momentum of the system as well The mass of a body is the quantity of matter
as kinetic energy of the system remains conserved, is contained in it. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is
called an elastic collision. In an elastic collision, all kg.
involved forces are conservative forces. Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance.
Mass of a body does not change from place to
A collision in which only momentum remains place and remains constant.
conserved but kinetic energy of the system does not The weight of a body is the force with which it is
remain conserved, is called an inelastic collision. attracted towards the centre of the earth. Weight of
a body (w) = mg
If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which
each other and moves with a common velocity, then the whole weight of the body appears to act.
collision is said to be perfectly inelastic. The centre of gravity of a body can be inside the
In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss of kinetic energy material of the body or outside it.
during collision does not recover at all and two It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). It is
bodies stick together after collision. measured by a spring balance.
Weight of a body is not constant; it changes from
Gravitation place to place.
Time Period of a Satellite
Weight of a Body in a Lift It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one
When lift is rest or in uniform motion The weight revolution.
recorded in spring balance (i.e. apparent weight) is 𝑅
If satellite is near the earth's surface, then T = 2π√𝑔 ≈
equal to the real weight of the body w = mg.
When lift is accelerating upward The weight recorded 84.6 min.
in spring balance is greater than then real weight of Escape Velocity
the body w’ = m(g + a) Escape velocity: Escape velocity is that minimum
When lift is accelerating downward The weight velocity with which a body should be projected from
recorded in spring balance is smaller than the real the surface of earth so as it goes out of gravitational
weight of the body w’ = m(g – a). field of earth and never return to earth.
When lift is falling freely under gravity The apparent
weight of the body Escape velocity is independent of the mass, shape
w' = m (g – g) (∵ a = g) and size of the body and its direction of projection.
w’ = 0 Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity.
Therefore, bodies will experiences weightlessness. For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
Weight of a Body at the Moon For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.
As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth,
so the force of gravity at the moon is also less than
𝑔
that of the earth. It’s value at the moon’s surface is 6 . Orbital Velocity
Satellite Orbital velocity of a satellite 𝑉0 = √𝑔𝑅 and escape
A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an velocity 𝑉𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅 where R = Radius of earth. i.e. 𝑉𝑒 =
orbit is called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of √2𝑉0 i.e. escape velocity is √2 times the orbital
the earth. The satellite may be artificial. Artificial velocity.
satellites are of two types. There if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to
√2 times (increased by 41%), the satellite will leave
Geostationary Satellites the orbit and escape.
It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which
is also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit. Kepler’s Law of Planetary motion – Kepler gave three
The time period of these satellites is 24 hour. laws regarding motion of the planets. They are:
• First Law- Also known as Law of Orbits.
Polar Satellites According to this law “Each planet move in
These satellites revolve around the earth in polar an elliptical orbit around the sun, the sun
orbits at a height of approximately 800 km. being at one of the foci of the ellipse”.
Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of • Second Law – According to this law “A line
information about moisture present in air, that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out
atmospheric pressure etc, obtained through a polar equal areas in equal times. This law is also
satellite. known as law of areas”.
We are able to see a live telecast of cricket world • Third Law – It states that “the square of the
cup match or other programme with the help of a period of any planet is proportional to the
communication satellite which is a geostationary cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit”.
satellite.
Launching vehicles – PSLV & GSLV
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY- Chemistry is the study of the structure of • Element – An element is a substance which is
substances and of the way that they react with other formed by two or more identical molecules. For
substances. e.g. Hydrogen, Copper etc.
They can be classified into – Metal, Non-metal
MATTER AND ITS NATURE and Metalloids.
On the basis of Chemical composition, matter is • Compound – A compound is a
divided into: substancecomposed of the atoms of two or more
elements combined in a definite proportion by
weight. For e.g. Water, Sugar etc.
• Mixture – A mixture is a substance composed of deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc
two or more compounds or elements in any on iron. This process of depositing a layer of zinc
proportion by weight. For e.g. Milk, Cement etc. on iron is called galvanisation.
• Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon
Types of mixture: and metals like chromium, nickel and
➢ Homogenous Mixture – When a mixture has same manganese. It does not rust.
composition throughout than it is known as
Homogenous Mixture. For e.g. Alloys and PROPERTIES OF GASES
Solutions. 1. Properties of Gases
➢ Hetrogenous Mixture – A mixture which does not • Gas has no definite volume or shape.
have uniform properties and composition. It can • The other outstanding characteristic of gases is
be clearly separated by boundaries. For e.g. their low densities, compared with those of liquids
Colloids, Emulsions or Suspensions. and solids.
Separation of mixture: Various methods used for • All gases expand equally due to equal
separation of components of mixture are as follows: temperature difference.
➢ Crystallization • Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon in which a
➢ Sublimation substance mixes with another because of
➢ Distillation molecular motion, even against gravity- is called
• Matter can exist in three states- diffusion.
I. Solid • The pressure of a gas: The molecules of a gas,
II. Liquid being in continuous motion, frequently strike the
III. Gas. inner walls of their container
• The forces of attraction between the particles • Temperature and Temperature Scales:
(inter-molecular force) are maximum in solids, Temperature is defined as the measure of
intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases. The average heat. Temperature is independent of the
spaces in between the constituent particles and number of particles or size and shape of the
kinetic energy of the particles are minimum in the object.
case of solids, in liquids and maximum in gases. • Compressibility: Particles of a gas have large
• The states of matter are inter-convertible. The intermolecular spaces among them. By the
state of matter can be changed by changing application of pressure much of this space can
temperature or pressure. be reduced and the particles be brought closer.
• The process of melting, that is, change of solid Hence the volume of a gas can be greatly
state into liquid state is also known as fusion. reduced. This is called compressing the gas.
• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles
from the surface gain enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction present in the
liquid and change into the vapour state. The rate
of evaporation depends upon the surface area
exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the
humidity and the wind speed. Evaporation causes
cooling.
• Burning of coal, wood or leaves is a chemical
change. Explosion of a firework is a chemical
change. If you leave a piece of iron in the open
for some time, it acquires a film of brownish
substance. This substance is called rust and the
process is called rusting. The process of rusting
can be represented by the following equation:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air)water (H2O)
rust (iron oxide-Fe2O3) For rusting, the presence of
both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is
essential. It is a chemical change.
• Prevent iron articles from coming in contact with
oxygen, or water, or both. One simple way is to
apply a coat of paint or grease. Another way is to

gases, measured at the same temperature and
pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.
Avogadro’s law thus predicts a directly
proportional relation between the number of
moles of a gas and its volume.
• Gay-Lussac’s Law: When different gases react
with each other chemically to produce gaseous
substances, then under the same condition of
temperature and pressure, the volume of the
reacting gases and product gases bear a simple
ration among one another.
• Avogadro Number: From Avogadro’s hypothesis,

we know equal volume of all gases contain equal
number of molecules at normal temperature and
pressure.
The number is known as Avogadro Number and is
equal to6.06X1023.
• The ideal gas equation of state: If the variables P,
V, T and n (the number of moles) have known
values, then a gas is said to be in a definite state,
meaning that all other physical properties of the
gas are also defined. The relation between these
state variables is known as an equation of state.
• An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that follows the
gas laws and has 0 volume at 0 K i.e., the gas
does not exist.
Gas Laws
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
• All gases, irrespective of their chemical
The atomic theory of matter was first proposed by
composition, obey certain laws that govern the
John Dalton.Fundamental particles of an atom are
relationship between the volume, temperature
and pressure of the gases. A given mass of a gas, Electron, Proton and Neutron.
under definite conditions of temperature and
pressure, occupies a definite volume. 1. Proton (p): Discovered by E. Goldstein.
When any of the three variables is altered, then • Protons are positively charged.
the other variables get altered. Thus these Gas • The absolute charge on the electron to be + 1.6 ×
laws establish relationships between the three 10–19 C.
variables of volume, pressure and temperature of
2. Electron (e): Discovered by J.J. Thomson when he
a gas.
was studying the properties of cathode ray.
• Boyle’s Law: “The product of the volume and
• Irish physicist George Johnstone
pressure of a given mass of dry gas is constant, at
Stoney named this charge 'electron' in 1891.
constant temperature”.
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• Charles’ Law: “At constant pressure, the volume
• The absolute charge on the electron to be – 1.6 ×
of a given mass of gas increases or decreases by
1/273 of its original volume at 32˚F, for each 10–19 C.
degree centigrade rise or lowering in • e/me as: = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
temperature.” • The charge of an electron was measured by R.
• Pressure Law: Volume remaining constant, the Millikan in Oil drop experiment.
pressure of a given mass of gas increases or
decreases by a constant fraction (=1/273) of its 3. Neutrons (n) - J. Chadwick
pressure at 0˚C for each degree Celsius rise or fall • It has no charge and a mass nearly equal to that
of a proton.
of temperature.
• Avogadro’s Law: This is quite intuitive: the volume • The mass of a neutron is taken as one unit each.
of a gas confined by a fixed pressure varies
directly with the quantity of gas. Equal volumes of 4. Atomic nucleus – Rutherford

• The fast moving alpha (α)-particles (doubly- Cobalt–60 → Treat of cancer
charged helium ions) were made to fall on a thin 10. ISOBARS- Atoms of different elements with
gold foil. different atomic numbers, which have the same mass
• The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of number, are known as isobars.
protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. 11. Isotones – atoms having same number of
neutrons.
5. Valency 12. Isoelectronics – atoms/molecules/ions containing
• The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so sae number of electrons.
as to make the octet of electrons in the outermost 13. Mass defect - The mass defect is the difference
shell, is called valency. between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of
• The atoms of elements, having a completely filled the rest masses of its constituent nucleons.
outermost shell show little chemical activity,their
valency is zero. 14. Binding Energy
• An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons is • The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy
said to possess an octet. Atoms would thus react, required to separate a nucleus into its constituent
so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell. parts.
• The chemical behavior of an atom depends • For heavier nuclei, energy is released when they
upon the number of electrons orbiting around the break up (fission).
nucleus. • For lighter nuclei, energy is released when they
fuse together (fusion).
6. Atomic Number • Nuclear particles are held together by a nuclear
The atomic number is defined as the total number of strong force.A stable nucleus remains forever, but
protons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is as the ratio of N/Z gets larger, the atoms decay.
denoted by "Z". Elements with Z > 82 are all unstable.
• As the heavier atoms become more unstable,
7. Mass number particles and photons are emitted from the
The mass number is defined as the sum of the total nucleus and it is said to be radioactive. All
number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) present in elements with A > 82 are radioactive.
the nucleus of an atom.
Examples are:
8. Mole and Avagadro number – According to new Alpha particles - (2 proton and 2 neutron) least
definition of Mole given by IUPAC “One mole penetrating
contains exactly 6.03×1023 elemetary entities. Thus, beta-minus particles - (electron) penetrating
avagadro number or avagadro constant, is the beta- plus particles - (positron) penetrating
no. of particles found in one mole of a substance Gamma rays - most penetrating, high
i.e. 6.023×1023 particles per mole. electromagnetic radiation.
9. Isotopes Half-Life period - The half half-life of an isotope is the

• Atoms which have the same atomic number but time in which one one- half of its unstable nuclei will
different mass numbers.The chemical properties decay.
of isotopes are similar but their physical properties N = N₀(1/2)n , Where n is number of half-lives
are different.But some isotopes have special
properties which find them useful in various fields.
Some of them are : ACID, BASE AND SALTS
• (i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in
nuclear reactors. 1. Acid
• (ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of • An acid is a compound, produce hydrogen ions,
cancer. H+(aq), in solution, which are responsible for their
• (iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of acidic properties.
goiter • According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is
any species that can donate a proton to another
Radioactive isotopes species.
Arsenic–74 → detect tumors • Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist
Sodiun–24 → Blood clot after combining with water molecules.so, on
Iodine–131 → Activity of thyroid gland

dissolving in water yields hydronium ions (H 3O+) as Sulphuric acid H2 SO4 2-Dibasic
the only positive ions. Phosphorous H3PO3 2-Dibasic
• The presence of hydrogen ions makes acids acid
strong and good electrolytes.
Phosphoric acid H3 PO4 3-Tribasic
Strong Acid:
• Examples of strong acids are: hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid etc. For the acid containing the carboxylic acid, we do
not count the number of hydrogen atoms but the
Weak Acid: number of carboxyl group (i.e.) -COOH
Examples are: acetic acid, formic acid, carbonic
acid etc. ACIDS USED IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE
• Acids are generally sour in taste and corrosive. Acids are obtained from two different sources. They
• Indicators: Test whether a substance is acidic or can be organic or mineral acids. All acids have some
basic. common characteristic properties.
Eg: Turmeric, litmus, China rose petals (Gudhal),
etc., are some of the naturally occurring Sources of the acid Name of the acid
indicators. Vinegar acetic acid
• Litmus is extracted from lichens a plant belonging Citrus fruits citric acid
to the division Thallophyta. It has a purple colour Grapes, tamarind, tartaric acid
in distilled water. When added to an acidic gooseberries.
solution, it turns red and when added to a basic Sour milk lactic acid
solution, it turns blue. Apples malic acid
• The solutions which do not change the colour of
Curd butyric acid
either red or blue litmus are known as neutral
solutions. These substances are neither acidic nor Tea, tomatoes oxalic acid
basic. Sting of red ants and bees formic acid
• Olfactory indicators: There are some substances Proteins amino acids
whose odour changes in acidic or basic media. Guava, oranges ascorbic acid
Uses of Acids Note: The process of dissolving an acid or a base in

• (i) Hydrochloric acid present in our stomach helps water is a highly exothermic one. The acid must
in the digestion of food. always be added slowly to water with constant
• (ii) Vitamin C or ascorbic acid gives the needed stirring.
nutrients for body.
• (iii) Carbonic acid is used in making carbonated 2. Bases and Alkalis
beverages and fertilizers. • A Base is a substance that gives OH-ions when
• (iv) Vinegar a preservative is a dilute form of dissolved in water. Bases are usually metal
acetic acid. hydroxides (MOH).
• (v) Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of • According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, a base is a
fertilizers, paints, synthetic fibres etc. proton acceptor.
• (vi) Nitric acid is used in the preparation of aqua • Bases are soapy substances with a bitter taste .
regia, used in the purification of precious metals • The strength of a base depends on the
like gold and silver. concentration of the hydroxyl ions when it is
• (vii) Boric acid is used to wash eyes. dissolved in water.
• (viii) Phosphoric acid is used in making fertilizers • Bases soluble in water are called alkalies. All
and detergents. alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
• Basicity of an acid is defined as the no of
ionizable hydrogen (H+) ions present in one Strong Base:
molecule of an acid Examples:
Acids Formulae Basicity Sodium hydroxide: NaOH (caustic soda),, Potassium
Hydrochloric HCL 1-Monobasic hydroxide: KOH(caustic potash), Calcium hydroxide:
acid Ca(OH)2.
Nitric acid HNO3 1-Monobasic
Carbonic acid H2 CO3 2-Dibasic Weak Base:

Examples: Magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH)2, • Sodium hydroxide solution - 14
Ammonium hydroxide: NH4OH. • Note - The atmosphere of Venus is made up of
thick white and yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
SALT CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Potash alum (potassium aluminum sulfate KAl(SO₄)₂) Mendeleef’s Periodic Table (1869)
(i) It is used in dyeing industries to fix the dye to the States that, “the physical and chemical properties of
fabric. elements are the periodic function of their atomic
(ii) It is used for cleaning teeth. masses.”
USES OF SALTS IN INDUSTRIES: Modern Periodic Law

(i) Sodium chloride is used in the manufacture of “The physical and chemical properties of the
chlorine, caustic soda, washing soda and baking elements are periodic function of their atomic
soda. numbers.”
(ii) Ammonium salts are used as fertilizers.
(iii) Potassium nitrate is used in the manufacture of Long Form of Periodic Table
gun powder and fire works. Long form of periodic table or Bohr’s table is based
(iv) Silver bromide is used in photography. on Bohr-Burry concept of electronic configuration. It
(v) Potassium chlorate is used in the match industry. contains 7 periods (horizontal rows) and 18 groups.
(vi) Aluminium sulphate is used in preparing alums.
Periodic Properties
3. pH SCALE The properties which are repeated at regular intervals
The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning are known as periodic properties, i.e. periodic
power. properties show a regular order along a group and
• The scale that measures the strength of an acid or period. Some important periodic properties are
a base is called the pH scale. This value lies
between 0 and 14. Ionisation enthalpy
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is It is the minimum energy required to remove an
the pH value. electron from an isolated gaseous atom of an
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 element to form a positive ion.
on the pH scale represent an acidic solution. As
the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents Electron gain enthalpy
an increase in OH– ion concentration in the It is the energy released by an element when an
solution, that is, increase in the strength of alkali. extra electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom.
• Most food crops grow best at a PH of 7-7.8.If the
soil is too acidic then its pH can be raised by Electronegativity
adding lime (or slaked lime) which neutralizes the It is the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair
excess acid in the soil.Similarly, if the soil is too of electrons towards it.
alkaline then its pH can be lowered by adding
gypsum or some other substance which can Metallic character
neutralize the excess alkali present in the soil. It is the tendency of an element to form cation by the
• The medium in our stomach is highly acidic and loss of electrons.
has pH around 1.2. Our stomach produces
hydrochloric acid which helps in digestion of CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATION
food. Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a Physical Change
mild base, is an antacid which neutralises the • The changes that only affect physical properties,
excess acid. but the chemical compositions remains
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is unchanged, are called physical change.
lower than 5.5. • These can be reversed by changing the
• Acid Rain- When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it conditions of temperature and pressure, boiling,
is called acid rain. cutting of trees, dissolving common salt in water
• Gastric juice - 1.2 burning of wax.
• Lemon Juice - 2.2
• Pure water - 7.4 Chemical Change
• Milk of mgnesia - 10

• The change which affects the composition as well • Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
as chemical properties of matter and result in the • A simple electrolytic cell consists of two copper
formation of a new substance is called a strips dipping in an aqueous solution of copper
chemical change. sulphate.
• Chemical changes are generally irreversible. • On applying DC voltage to the two electrodes,
Some examples of chemical changes are burning copper metal is deposited on cathode and
of candle (gases), photosynthesis, ripening of copper is dissolved at anode.
fruits, electrolysis of water. • Used In the purification of impure metals.
• A chemical reaction involves bond breaking or • In the extraction of metals
bond formation between any two atoms to • The blocks used in typing industries are prepared
produce new substances. by electrolysis.
Types of Chemical Reactions: • Steel is coated with zinc metal during the process
of galvanization.
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Reactions, in which heat is released along with the
formation of products, are called exothermic Batteries
reactions. Burning of fuel is an example of exothermic These convert chemical energy into electrical
reaction. energy. Mainly two types of batteries are used, i.e.
Reactions, in which heat is absorbed, are known as primary and secondary.
endothermic reactions.
Primary Batteries
Oxidation and Reduction In the primary batteries, reaction occurs only once
➢ Oxidation is removal of electrons. and after a period of time battery becomes dead.
➢ Reduction is the addition of electrons.
➢ Oxidation means Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell
(a) addition of oxygen It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode and
(b) Removal of hydrogen. the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded
➢ Reductions means by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon.
(a) Removal of oxygen. A moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH4 CI) and zinc
(b) Addition of hydrogen. chloride (ZnCI2 ) is used as an electrolyte. Dry cell is
➢ The substance that causes oxidation is called the commonly used in our transistors and clocks.
oxidizing agent.
➢ The substance that causes reduction is called the Mercury Cell
reducing agent. It is commonly used in low current devices such as
hearing aids, watches etc.
Oxidising agent The electrolyte is a past of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
1. Acceptors of electrons. and zinc oxide (ZnO).
2. It is a substance which removes the electron from
an atom. Secondary Batteries
3. It brings about oxidation.
Lead Storage Battery
Reducing agent It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead
1. Donors of electrons. packed with lead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode.
2. It is a substance which adds electrons to an atom. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an
3. It brings about reduction. electrolyte. On charging the battery, the reaction is
reversed and lead sulphate gives lead on anode and
REDOX REACTION cathode is converted into lead dioxide respectively.
A reaction which involves oxidation and reduction
occurring simultaneously together are called redox
reaction. Photosynthesis in plants digestion of food in Nickel Cadmium Cell
animals; dry and wet batteries and corrosion of It has longer life that the lead storage cell. It consists
metals are diverse examples of oxidation and of a cadmium as anode and nickel dioxide as
reduction reactions. cathode. The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide
(KOH) solution.
Electrolysis

Fuel Cells
Fuel cells convert energy from the combustion of fuels
such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane
directly into electrical energy
A fuel cell with hydrogen and oxygen has been used
for electric power in Apollo Space Programme.
Corrosion
• When iron is exposed to moist air for a long period
of time, its surface acquires a coating of brown
flaky substance called rust.
• Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide
(Fe2 O3 . xH2 O).
• In corrosion, a metal is oxidized by the loss of
electrons to oxygen and form oxide.
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting,
oiling and greasing, galvanizing (by coating iron
objects with zinc), chrome plating etc.
Catalysis
• A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of
reaction.
• The catalyst itself does not alter during the
reaction.
• The phenomenon in which the rate of reaction is
altered by the presence of a substance (catalyst)
is known as catalysis.
• Catalysts are specific in their action.
Applications of Catalysts in Industrial Processes
• A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state
• Haber process for ammonia—Iron is used as a
of a reversible reaction, only brings it quickly.
catalyst and molybdenum is used as a promoter
• The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to
of catalyst iron.
decrease the activation energy. • Contact process for sulphuric acid—Vanadium
pentoxide is used as a catalyst.
• Ostwald process for nitric acid—Platinum gauze is
used as a catalyst.
• Deacon process for chlorine—cupric chloride is
used as a catalyst.
• Synthesis of petrol—Nickel, iron, cobalt and
alumina is used as a catalyst.
Enzyme Catalysis
The increase in the rate of reaction by the enzymes is
known as enzyme catalysis. They are biocatalysts, all
are proteins in nature.
The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much
affected by pH change.
Some important enzyme catalysis reactions are as
follows
Diastase
• Starch → Maltose
H2 O
Maltase
• Maltose → Glucose
H2 O
Zymase
• Glucose → Ethyl alcohol
Invertase
• Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
Urease
Ammonia NH3 N and H
• Urea → Ammonia + Carbon dioxide
H2 O Acetylene C 2 H2 C and H
(Ethyne)
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical Bonding Coordinate or Dative Bond
Constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) of different The bond is formed by one sided sharing of one pair
elements except noble gases, do not have complete of electrons between two atoms. The necessary
octet so they combine with other constituent atoms condition for the formation of coordinate bond is that
by chemical bonds to achieve complete (stable) octet of one atom should be complete; having
octet. The process of their combination is called atleast one lone pair of electrons and other atom
chemical bonding. Chemical bonding depends should have a deficiency of atleast one pair of
upon the valency of atoms. electrons.
The atom having complete octet which provides the
Types of Chemical Bond electron pair for sharing, is known as donor. The other
They are divided in the following types depending atom which accepts the electron pair is called the
upon the mode electron transferred or shared acceptor.
electrons or forces of attraction
- Electrovalent or ionic bond - Covalent bond Bonding between A and B is predominantly
- Coordinate or dative covalent bond - – lonic if there is large difference in electronegativity.
Hydrogen bond – Covalent if both A and B have approximately same
- van der Waals’ forces value of electronegativity.
– Coordinate if lone pair on A (or B) is donated to
Electrovalent Bond electron deficient B (or A).
The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from
one atom to another is called electrovalent bond Compounds Containing lonic and Covalent Bonds
and the compound is called electrovalent Name Formula
compound or ionic compound. These bonds are Potassium KCN
formed between metals and non-metals. cyanide
These conduct electricity when dissolved in water Sodium hydroxide NaOH
and also soluble in water. These are insoluble in Calcium CaCO3
organic solvents like alcohol etc. carbonate
Some Electrovalent Compounds (lonic Compounds) Compounds Containing Covalent and Coordinate
Name Formula lons present Bonds
Aluminium oxide AI2 O3 AI 3+ and O2− Name Formula
(Alumina) Carbon CO
Ammonium NH4 CI NH4+ and CI − monoxide
chloride Ozone O3
Calcium chloride CaCI2 Ca2+ and CI − Dinitrogen oxide N2 O
Dinitrogen trioxide N2 O3
Covalent Bond Nitric acid HNO3
The bond is formed by the sharing of electrons
between two atoms of same (or different) elements, Compounds Containing Electrovalent, Covalent and
is called covalent bond. Coordinate Bonds
Covalent bond may be single, double or triple Name Formula
depends upon the number of sharing pairs of Ammonium chloride NH4 CI
electrons. Ammonium bromide NH4 Br
Covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases
having low melting point and boiling point. These do Hydrogen Bond
not conduct electricity and are insoluble in water but The electrostatic force of attraction between
dissolve in organic solvent. hydrogen atom (which is covalently bonded to a
highly electronegative atom) and any other
Some Covalent Compounds electronegative atom which is present in the same or
Name Formula Element's part different molecules, is known as hydrogen bond.
Alcohol (Ethanol) C2 H5OH C, H and O
It is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the extinguishers and it is also used in the form of
gaseous state. sesquicarbonate. It is used for wool washing.
o Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g. HF, water (𝐻20) • Sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3 . 10H2 O) washing soda
molecule) It occurs between different molecules is used in the manufacturing of glass, soap,
of a compound and results in increasing solubility washing powder and for softening hard water.
in water and high boiling point. • Mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium
o Intramolecular H-bonding (e.g. o -nitrophenol) It carbonate is known as fusion mixture.
occurs within different parts of a same molecule • Sodium sulphate (Na 2SO4 . 10H2 O) is Glauber’s salt.
and results in decreasing solubility in water and It is used as purgative.
low boiling point. • Sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S2 O3. 5H2 O) or Hypo It is
o Molecules having O—H, N—H or H—F bond show used in the photography as a fixing agent.
abnormal properties due to H-bond formation. For • Potassium superoxide (KO2 ) used in space
example capsules, submarines and breathing masks as it
o Glycerol is viscous and has very high boiling point produces oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
due to the presence of intermolecular H-bonding. and carbon monoxide.
o H-bonding also plays an important role in • Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used in the extraction
biological system and stability of proteins and of silver, gold and as a germicide in agriculture.
nucleic acids. KCN is more poisonous than sodium cyanide.
• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is known as caustic
Van der Waals’ Forces potash used in the preparation of soft soap. Its
The ability of geckos (lizard) which can hang on a aqueous solution is known as potash lye.
glass surface using only one toe to climb on sheer • Potassium carbonate (K 2 CO3) is potash or pearl
surfaces had been attributed to the van der Waals’ ash.
forces between these surfaces and their foot-pads.
De-icing of Roads after snowfall
Metals & Nonmetals De-icing in the process of removing ice from a
• Metals are generally good conductors of heat surface by using salts on the surface. Now-a-days,
and electricity. liquid CaCI2 and MgCI2 are also used for this purpose.
• Silver is the best conductor of heat followed by
copper. Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds
• Mercury offers a very high resistance to the Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and
passage of electric current. radium are collectively known as alkaline earth
• Metals are generally hard but sodium and metals. Be (OH)2 is amphoteric in nature. Mg (OH)2 is
potassium are so soft that they can be easily cut called milk of magnesia and used as an antacid.
with a knife.
• Metals are malleable and ductile. Gold and silver Calcium oxide (CaO) is also called quick lime. It is
are most malleable and best ductile metals. used in the manufacturing of glass, calcium chloride,
• Metals are solids at room temperature except cement, bleaching power, calcium carbide, slaked
mercury (mp – 39°C) which is liquid, caesium (mp lime, in the extraction of iron and as a drying agent
28.4°C) and gallium (mp 29.8°C) are liquid above for ammonia and alcohol.
30°C.
• Metals are electropositive in nature, they ionize by Calcium hydroxide, slaked lime [Ca(OH2)] is used in
the loss of electrons and form positive ions. the manufacturing of caustic soda, sodalime and for
• Almost all the metal oxides are basic in nature but softening of hard water.
zinc oxide and aluminium oxide are amphoteric.
• Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium Calcium sulphate, gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2 O) loses a part
are alkali metals. Alkali metals are stored under of its water of crystallization when heated upto 120°C
kerosene or liquid paraffins to protect them from to from [CaSO4 ]2 . H2 O which is known as plaster of Paris.
action of air.
• Metallic sodium is prepared by the electrolysis of Plaster of Paris is a white powder, which sets into hard
molten mixture of 40% sodium chloride and 60% mass on wetting with water and it is used in making
calcium chloride in a Down’s cell. statues, toys, etc., in medical applications of setting
• Sodium bicarbonate(NaHCO3), baking soda is fractured bones in right positions and indentistry.
used in effervescent drinks and fruit salts in fire
Some Important Metals and their Uses

Boron (B)
It is a semimetal (metalloids). In the nature, it occurs in Wrought iron or Malleable iron is the most purest form
combined state as borax. of iron and contains minimum amount of carbon
Boron and boron carbide rods are used to control the (0.12–0.5%)
nuclear reactions. Iron (II) is present in haemoglobin (blood).
Boron carbide (B4 C) is hardest, known as an artificial
substance after diamond and is known as Norbia. Mild steel contain 0.25%–0.5% carbon while hard
Orthoboric acid (H3 BO3 ) is used as an antiseptic and steels contains 0.5%–1.5% carbon. Soft steels contain
eye wash under the name boric lotion. carbon upto 0.25%.
Aluminium (Al) Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr)

It is a third most abundant element of Earth’s crust. It and nickel (Ni). Ferric chloride (FeCI3) is used as stypic
is extracted from bauxite (AI2 O3. 2H2 O). Aluminium to stop bleeding from a cut. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4 )
powder is used in fireworks, flash light powder, is used in making blue black ink.
thermite welding.
Ammonal (a mixture of aluminium powder and Copper, Silver and Gold (Cu, Ag and Au)
ammonium nitrate) is used as an explosive. These are called coinage metals. Silver is used as
Ruby and sapphire are essentially AI2 O3 . Ruby is red amalgam for filling teeth and in silvering mirrors. Silver
due to the presence of Cr and sapphire is blue due to bromide (AgBr) is used in photography. AgNO3 is
Fe and Ti. Emerald is green, it contains Ca/Cr and called lunar caustic used in preparing marking inks
aluminium silicates (AI2 SiO3 ). and hair dyes.
CuSO4 . 5H2 O is called blue vitriol or nila thotha and
Tin (Sn) CuFeS2 is called fool’s gold.
The important ore of tin is cassiterite (SnO2 ) or tin
stone. In cold countries, white tin is converted to grey Mercury (Hg)
tin (powder), the process is known as tin disease or tin Mercuric sulphide (HgS) is used as a cosmetic in
plague. Tin plating is done to prevent the rusting of Ayurvedic medicine as Makardhwaja.
iron. Tin amalgam is used in making mirrors.
Pentahydrate of stannic chloride (SnCI4 . 5H2 O), is Zinc (Zn)
called butter of tin used as mordant in dyeing. It is used in galvanization to prevent rusting of iron.
Zinc sulphide is used in the preparation of X-ray
Lead (Pb) screens.
Lead is mainly found in the form of sulphide ore Zinc oxide is known as philosopher’s wool. Zinc
called galena (PbS). Red lead (minium or sindhur) is sulphate (ZnSO4 . 7H2 O) is white vitriol.
Pb3 O4 used for making protective paint for iron and in
match industry. Metallurgy
The process of extraction of metals from their ores is
Zirconium (Zr) called metallurgy.
It is used for making core of nuclear reactors and for
making pumps, valves and heat exchangers. Minerals, Ores and Gangue
The natural substance in which metals and other
Vanadium (V) impurities found in combined state, are called
Vanadium pentoxide (V2 O5 ) is a very good catalyst minerals.
for manufacturing of sulphuric acid by contact The minerals from which metal can be extracted
process. conveniently and beneficially, are called ores.
Gangue or matrix are the impurities associated with
Tungsten the ore.
Tungsten filaments are used in electric bulbs. Calcium
tungstate is used in X-ray tube. Metal Ores Chemical
composition
Iron (Fe) Sodium Rock salt NaCI
It is extracted from its haematite ore. Chile salt petre NaNO3
Borax Na 2B4O7 . 10H2 O
Cast iron It is the most impure form of iron and
contains 2.5–4% carbon. Potassium Carnallita KCI. MgCI2 . 6H2 O

Sylvine KCI Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and
Magnesium Carnallite KCI.MgCI2 . 6H2 O cannot be separated into their components by
Magnesite MgCO3 physical methods.
Pure metals have poor mechanical properties.
Asbestos CaSiO3 . 3MgSiO3
Hence, they are not used in their pure form in
Calcium Lima stone CaCO3 industry. Their properties are modified by adding
Gypsum CaSO4 . 2H2 O other elements.
Fluorspar CaF2
Aluminium Bauxite AI2 O3 . 2H2 O Characteristics of alloys:
Cryolite Na 3AIF6 Alloys are harder and tougher than the base metal
Feldspar KAISi3 O8 and are resistant to corrosion.
They are inert to commonly used chemicals and are
Manganese Pyrolusite MnO2
magnetisable and ductile.
Manganite Mn2 O3 . H2 O
Alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the
Manganese MnS
properties of its constituents and can have variable
blende composition.
Iron Haematite Fe2 O3
Magnetite Fe3 O4 Amalgams:
Iron pyrites FeS2 Alloys of mercury with other metals like sodium,
Siderite FeCO3 potassium,gold and zinc...etc are called amalgams.
Copper Copper glance Cu2 S Amalgams stored in iron bottles as iron cannot form
Copper pyrites CuFeS2 amalgam with mercury.
Malachite Cu(OH)2 . CuCO3
Rold Gold is a metal, such as brass, coated with a thin
Azurite 2CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2
layer of gold, usually of above 9 carat purity.
Silver Silver glance Ag 2 S
Horn silver AgCI Brass
Ruby Silver Ag 2 S. Sb2 S3 Composition- zinc 30%, copper 70%
Gold Calverite AuTe2 uses- In making of utensils, pipes and radiator statues
Sylvanite AuAgTe4 etc.
Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
Yellow Brass
Calamine ZnCO3
composition - Cu 67%, Zn 33%
Zincite ZnO uses - Hardware items
Franklinite ZnO.Fe2 O3
Mercury Cinnabar HgS Bronze
Tin Cassiterite SnO2 Composition - Copper 90%, Tin 10%
Lead Galena PbS uses - In making of coins, ornaments, utensils and
statues.
Cerrusite PbCO3
Anglesite PbSO4
Stainless steel
Some Important Alloys and their Uses composition - Fe 82%,(Ni + Cr) 18
Non-Metals uses - In making of surgical instruments, watches and
These may be solid, liquid or gas (bromine is the only utensils etc.
liquid non-metal).
These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous and Magnalium
non-conductor of heat and electricity. These have composition- Al 95% ,Mg 5%
low melting and boiling points. These from oxides with uses - In making light articles and physical balance
oxygen which are generally acidic. Their examples etc.
include noble gases, i.e. helium (He), neon (Ne),
argon (Ar), krpton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and some other p- Duralumin
block elements like chlorine (CI2 ), bromine (Br2 ) and composition- Al 95%, Cu 4% ,Mn 0.5%
phosphorus (P) etc. uses -In making parts of aeroplane and ship etc.
Alnico

composition - Al 8-12% , Ni 15-26% , Co 5-24% ,Cu 6% • Diamond is one of the allotropic forms of carbon
Remaining: Fe, Tl and is the purest form of natural carbon. It is the
uses - It is useful in making of magnets. hardest natural substance.
• Graphite is also an allotropic form of carbon,
German silver which is very soft and slippery. Graphite is
composition - Cu 60% ,Zn 20%, Ni 20% prepared artificially by Acheson process.
uses - It is useful in electroplating and making of • Fullerene (C60) looks like a soccer ball. It contains
utensils. 20 six membered and 12 five membered rings of
carbon atoms.
sterling Silver • Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. It is a strong
composition - silver 92.5%, copper 7.5% substance and used as a conducting material for
uses - jewelry, art object touch screen, LCD and LED
Gun metal 2. Compounds of Carbon

composition - Cu 88%, Sn 10%,Zn 2% Carbon monoxide (CO)
uses - It is useful in making of guns, machine parts and • Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with
canons.etc haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin
which is not able to absorb oxygen and as a result
Solder metal of this, suffocation takes place (Asphyxia).
composition - Pb 50%, Sn 50% • The death of persons in closed rooms with wood,
uses - It is mainly useful to join electric wires. coal or coke fires and in closed bathrooms with
gas geyser is due to the formation of carbon
Bell Metal- monoxide.
composition - copper - 77%, tin - 23%
uses- casting of bells Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• 0.03-0.05 percent in atmosphere.
coin metal - • Solid CO2 is known as dry ice. It is used in
composition - copper 75%, nickel 25% refrigerators under the name drikold. It is used in
uses - U.S coins transport of perishable food materials as it
provides cold as well as the inert atmosphere.
wood's metal
composition - Bi 50%, Pb 25%, Sn 12.5%, Cd 12.5%
uses - fuse plugs, automatic sprinklers.
Monel
composition - Ni 67%,and copper, with small amounts
of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon.
uses - It is resistant to corrosion and acids and thus
used for making valves, pumps, shafts, fittings,
fasteners, and heat exchangers.
Plumber's solder
composition - Pb 67%, sn 33%
uses- soldering joints.
SOME COMMON ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
1. Carbon:
The three states of carbon are diamond, amorphous,
and graphite. Carbides
• Carbon exhibits allotropy and shows maximum They are the compounds of carbon with metals or
catenation. electronegative elements.
• Carbon occurs both in Free State as diamond,
coal etc. and also in the combined form as CO 2. • Destructive distillation of coal gives products like
coal gas, gas carbon, coal tar and ammonical
liquor.

• Lamp Black is also known as Soot. remove undecomposed silver halide on
photographic paper or film.
3. Nitrogen:
• Nitrogen is a neutral gas and is neither Halogens:
combustible nor a supporter of combustion. Halogens are highly reactive elements and therefore,
• In air (79% by volume). In combined state, they do not exist in Free State but exist only in
nitrogen is found as nitrates (Chile salt petre— combined form.
sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Indian salt petre— Halogens have highest electron affinity so they act as
potassium nitrate (KNO3) strong oxidizing agent.
Their oxidizing power decreases from fluorine to
4. Compounds of Nitrogen iodine.
Ammonia
• It is prepared from nitrogen and hydrogen by Chlorine:
Haber’s process. It has pungent odour. Chlorine was first discovered by Scheele (1774)
• Ammonia is used in manufacturing fertilizers and Chlorine is used as a germicide, disinfactant, oxidizing
explosives etc. agent, bleaching agent in paper and textile industry.
• Nitrogen fixation involves the fixation of Chlorine being an acidic gas turns moist blue litmus
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate by lightning and paper to red and then bleaches it.
by nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobia.
Iodine (I 2)
Oxygen: Chile saltpeter or caliche contains iodine as sodium
• Oxygen is an important constituent of iodate (5-20%).
atmosphere (21% by volume). Supporter of It turns starch solution blue. Solution of KI/l 2 is used in
combustion. the treatment of goiter. It is used as an antiseptic as
• Liquid oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon, tincture of iodine.
is used in place of dynamite in coal mining.
• Ozone (O3) - It protects the life on the earth by Noble Gases
not allowing UV rays to reach the Earth.The • Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
common refrigerants, chlorofluorocarbons xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) are known as inert
deplete this ozone layer. gases or noble gases or rare gases.
• Its bleaching action is due to its oxidizing action. • These elements have completely filled valence
• Ozone is also used as a germicide and shell.
disinfectant, for sterilizing water. • It atmosphere, argon is most abundant noble gas
but in universe, helium is most abundant gas.
Phosphorus (P): • Natural gas in the most important source of
• It is highly reactive non-metal, so it occurs only in helium.
combined state. • The mixture of helium and oxygen is used for
• Phosphorus is an essential constituent of bones, artificial breathing of asthama patients.
teeth, and blood and nerve tissues. Bone ash • 85% helium + 15% hydrogen is used for filling in
contains about 80% of phosphorus. balloons and airships.
• Mixture of helium and oxygen is used for
Sulphur (S): respiration by sea divers.
• It occurs in Free State in volcanic region. • Helium is used as pressuring agent in rockets to
• Rhombic sulphur is the most stable form at expel liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
ordinary temperature and all other forms • Xe is also known as stranger gas and Xe-Kr is used
gradually change into this form. in high intensity photographic flash tubes.
• Radon is used in the preparation of ointment for
Compounds of Sulphur the treatment of cancer.
• Sulphuric acid is also known as oil of vitriol or king
of chemicals. It has a great affinity for water and Water (H2O):
thus it acts as a powerful dehydrating agent. • Water is called the “Universal Solvent”.
Corrosive action of sulphuric is due to its • Hardness of water –
dehydrating action. Temporary hardness - Water is said to be
• Hypo (Sodium thiosulphate) It is mainly used in temporarily hard when it contains bicarbonates of
photography as a fixing agent. It is used to calcium and magnesium (or hydrogen

carbonates). This type of hardness can be easily raises the dough. The sodium carbonate
removed by boiling. produced on heating the baking soda gives a
Permanent hardness - Water is said to be bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using the baking
permanently hard when it contains sulphates and soda alone, baking powder is used. The tartaric
chlorides of calcium and magensium. acid present in it neutralises the sodium
This hardness cannot be removed by boiling. carbonate to avoid its bitter taste.
• Degree of Hardness - It is defined as the number 3. In medicines Being a mild and non-corrosive
of parts of CaCO3 or equivalent to various base, baking soda is used in medicines
calcium or magnesium salts present in 106 parts of to neutralise the excessive acid in the
water by mass. stomach and provide relief. Mixed with solid
• Heavy water is prepared either by prolonged edible acids such as citric or tartaric acid, it is
electrolysis or by fractional distillation of ordinary used in effervescent drinks to cure indigestion.
water. Heavy water (D2O) is colourless, tasteless 4. In soda acid fire extinguishers.
and odourless liquid. Fission in uranium-235 is
brought by slow speed neutron. Heavy water is WASHING SODA
used for this purpose in nuclear reactors as • Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate
moderators. decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O.
• Washing soda is manufacturing by Solvey’s
Hydrochloric Acid (HCL): process.
• Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving
hydrogen chloride gas in water. USES
It reacts with metals to form their respective chlorides 1. It is used in the manufacture of caustic soda,
and liberates hydrogen. glass, soap powders, borex and in paper industry.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the production of dyes, 2. For removing permanent hardness of water.
drugs, paints, photographic chemicals and in the 3. As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.
preparation of aqua-regia. Aqua regia is a mixture of
nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar PLASTER OF PARIS
ratio of 1:3. Aqua regia is a yellow-orange fuming • Plaster of paris, also called POP.
liquid because it can dissolve the noble metals gold • Chemically, it is 2CaSO4.H2O or
and platinum CaSO4.1/2H2O (calcium sulphate hemi hydrate)
• Gypsum, (CaSO4.H2O) is used as the raw material
Nitric Acid (HNO3):
It is manufactured by the Ostwald’s Process by the USES
reaction of ammonia and air in presence of platinum 4. In making casts for manufacture of toys and
as catalyst. statues.
• Nitric acid is colourless in pure form. Commercial 5. In hospitals for making plaster casts to hold
nitric acid is yellowish due to the presence of fractured bones in place while they set. It is also
dissolved nitrogen dioxide. used for making casts in dentistry.
• Nitric acid is a strong monobasic acid. It ionizes in 6. For making the surface of walls and ceiling
water readily. smooth.
• Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. When it 7. For making ‘chalk’ for writing on blackboard.
undergoes thermal decomposition, it yields 8. For making fire proof materials.
nascent oxygen.
BLEACHING POWDER
BAKING SODA • Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a
• Chemically Baking soda is sodium hydrogen cloth to make it whiter.
carbonate, NaHCO3. • Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride,CaOCl2.
• Baking soda is manufactured by Solvey’s process • It is manufactured by Hasen-Clever Method.
USES USES
1. Used for cooking of certain foods. 1. For bleaching of cotton, linen and wood pulp.
2. For making baking power (a mixture of sodium 2. In making wool unshrinkable.
hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid). On 3. Used as disinfactant and germicide for sterilization
heating during baking, baking soda gives of water.
off carbon dioxide. It is this carbon dioxide which 4. For the manufacture of chloroform.

5. Used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industry. Ferric oxide Brown
Manganese dioxide Light pink, in excess black
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE Cobalt oxide Blue
Gold chloride Ruby
Synthetic Materials Cadmium Yellow
The materials created by man using the natural Carbon Amber colour
materials, are known as synthetic materials.
Variety of glass and Uses
Cement • Soft glass - It is a mixture of sodium or calcium
• It was discovered by an English Mason, Joseph silicates. It is used in making window glass, mirrors
Aspdin in 1824. He called it Portland cement and common glass wares etc.
because he thought that it resembled the • Hard glass - It is a mixture of potassium and
limestone found in Portland. calcium silicates. It is more resistant to the action
• Approximate Composition of Portland cement of acids for making hard glass apparatus.
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70% • Flint glass - It is mainly a mixture of sodium,
Silica (Si𝑂2 ) 20-25% potassium and lead silicates. It is used in making
Alumina (𝐴𝐼2 𝑂3 ) 5-10% bulbs and optical instruments.
Ferric oxide (𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ) 2-3% • Pyrex glass (Borosilicate glass) - It is used in
• Raw materials are limestone (provides lime), clay making pharmaceutical containers, lab
(provides alumina and silica), gypsum (reduces apparatus and over ware.
the setting time of cement). • Quartz glass (Silica glass) - It is used in the
• When water is mixed with cement and left as such preparation of chemical apparatus and optical
for sometime, it becomes a hard mass. This is instrument.
known as setting of cement. It is an exothermic • Crookes glass - It is used for making lenses for
process; therefore cement structures have to be spectacles.
cooled upto 7 days by sprinkling water. • Photochromatic glass - On exposure to bright
• Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water. It light, photochromatic glass darkens temporarily.
is used for plastering walls and binding bricks and So, it is very useful as a Sun shield.
stones. • Safety glass - The three layers are joined together
• Concrete is a mixtures of cement, sand, gravel or by the action of heat and pressure. It does not
small pieces of stone and water. It is used for the break easily under impact and is used in auto
construction of floors. vehicle wind shield.
• The structure having iron rods embedded in wet • Optical glass - It is used for making lenses for
concrete, is known as reinforced concrete. microscope, telescope and spectacles.
• Glass fibres - used as insulating material in oven,
Glass (𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑶. 𝑪𝒂𝑶. 𝟔𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟐) refrigerator etc.
• It is a supercooled liquid of silicates. • Optical fibres - are extensively used in
• Raw materials used for the formation of glass are telecommunication surgical operations etc.
sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and sand. Optical fibres can transmit images round corners.
• Finely powdered mixture known as batch is mixed • Lead crystal glass - Lead glass has a high
with cullet (broken glass pieces) and then fused in refractive index. So, it is used for making
a tank furnace at 1673 K. After few hours, molten expensive glass ware.
glass is obtained. • Etching of glass - Glass is attacked by hydrofluoric
• Molten glass is cooled slowly and uniformly. The acid (HF), therefore it is used in the etching of
process of slow and uniform cooling is known as glass.
Annealing
• Different addition may produce different
coloured glasses.
Substance used Colour of glass

Cuprous oxide Red
Cupric oxide Peacock blue
Potassium Green or Greenish yellow
dichromate
Ferrous oxide Green
structural units derived from the corresponding
monomers.
• Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for
example, is a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is
made up of a large number of glucose units.
On the basis of intermolecular forces Polymers are

classified as:
1. Elastomers- rubber, buna-S, buna-N, neoprene etc.
2. Fibres – polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters
(Terylene), etc.
3. Thermoplastic polymers - Such plastic which gets
deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily
are known as thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC,
Polythene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyls, etc.
4. Thermosetting Polymers - some plastics which when
moulded once, can not be softened by heating.
These are called thermosetting plastics.eg: bakelite,
CHEMICALS IN AGRICULTURE melamine etc.
Fertilizers
• Urea is the best fertilizer as it leaves only carbon Few important polymers are:
dioxide after ammonia, has been assimilated by
plants. (a)Polythene
• It has 46.6% mitrogen and it does not alter the pH (i)Low density polythene-polymerisation of ethene
of the soil. under high pressure in the presence of traces of
• Mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim. dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst).
Commerically, calcium nitrate is known as (ii)High density Polythene - polymerisation of ethene
Norvegian salt petre. in the presence of a catalyst such as
• The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic and triethylaluminium and titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-
potash fertilizers in suitable amounts, is called NPK Natta catalyst).
fertilizers. (b)Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)- Teflon is
manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a
Pesticides free radical or persulphate catalyst at high pressures.
Pesticides are the chemicals which are applied to (c)Polyacrylonitrile - polymer of acrylonitrile in
crops, e.g. DDT and Malathion. presence of a peroxide catalyst.
Difethialone Condensation Polymerisation
Vitamin K has been suggested and successfully used, (a)Polyamides - possess amide linkages
as antidote for pets or humans accidentally or (i) Nylon 6, 6 - prepared by the condensation
intentionally exposed to anticoagulant poisons. polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with adipic
acid under high pressure and at high temperature
ii) Nylon 6 - obtained by heating caprolactum with
Chemicals in medicines water at a high temperature.
Analgesics (Pain relievers) (b)Polyesters - polycondensation products of
These reduce pain. Aspirin and paracetamol are non- dicarboxylic acids and diols. Polyester is another
narcotic analgesics. Aspirin reduces fever, prevents synthetic fibre. Fabric made from this fibre does not
platelet coagulation. get wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is easy to
Narcotic analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of wash. So, it is quite suitable for making dress material.
post operative pain, cardiac pain and pains of Eg: Terylene is the best known example of polyesters.
terminal cancer and in child birth. It is prepared by ethylene glycol and terephthalic
acid.It can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be
Polymerization woven like any other yarn.
• Polymers are defined as high molecular mass
macromolecules, which consist of repeating

(c)Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and Isomers Compounds having the same molecular
related polymers) formula but different structures, e.g. C2H6O can have
Prepared by the condensation reaction of phenol the structure, i.e. CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) and
with formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid C2H5OH (ethanol).
or a base catalyst.
The initial product could be a linear product – Hydrocarbons
Novolac used in paints. Novolac on heating with These are the compounds of only carbon and
formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to form an hydrogen.
infusible solid mass called bakelite. It is used for Saturated hydrocarbons They contain only single
making combs, phonograph records, electrical bonds. These are also called alkanes or paraffins and
switches and handles of various utensils. have general formula 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 . Methane is the first
member of this group.
Eg. Melamine – Melamine formaldehyde polymer is
formed by the condensation polymerisation of Unsaturated hydrocarbons They have general
melamine and formaldehyde. Melamine is a versatile formula 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 for alkene and 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛−2 for alkynes.
material. It resists fire and can tolerate heat better These have atleast one double (=) or triple (≡) bond
than other plastics. It is used for making floor tiles, and are called alkenes and alkynes respectively.
kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire. It is used in Aromatic hydrocarbons They have ring structure with
the manufacture of unbreakable crockery. alternate double bonds and (4n + 2) 𝜋𝑒 – (Huckel’s
rule) e.g. benzene.
Copolymerisation.
Natural rubber - Natural rubber may be considered Important Hydrocarbons and their Uses
as a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3- Methane (CH4) It is also known as marsh gas or damp
butadiene) and is also called as cis - 1, 4 - fire. Natural gas contains mainly 90% methane along
polyisoprene. with ethane, propane, butane etc. Rice agriculture is
a big source of atmospheric methane.
Vulcanisation of rubber-This process consists of • It is the cause of occurrence of the explosions in
heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an mines.
appropriate additive at a temperature range • It is used as a fuel gas in making carbon black.
between 373 K to 415 K so that rubber gets stiffened.
Biogas
Synthetic Rubbers - Produced during decay of biomass in the absence of
(i) Neoprene - by the free radical polymerisation of oxygen. Methane (75%) is the main constituent of
chloroprene. biogas).
Rayon - rayon or artificial silk. Although rayon is Ethane (𝐶2 𝐻6)
obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a Natural gas contains approx. 10% ethane. Its
man-made fibre. hexachloro derivative 𝐶2 𝐶𝐼6 is used as an artificial
Nylon - Nylon is also used for making parachutes and camphor.
ropes for rock climbing. A nylon thread is actually Butane (𝐶4 𝐻10)
stronger than a steel wire. It is the main constituent of LPG (liquefied petroleum
gas).
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Ethylene (𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2)
Organic chemistry is defined as the study of In World war | (1914-18), it was used for the
hydrocarbons and their derivatives. Most atoms are manufacturing of mustard gas (poisonous gas). It is
only capable of forming small molecules. However used as an anesthetic for the preservation and
one or two can form larger molecules. artificial ripening of green fruits.
Urea was the first organic compound prepared in Acetylene (CH ≡ CH)
laboratory. It was prepared by Wohler (1828) from
inorganic compound i.e. ammonium cyanate. Benzene (𝐶6 𝐻6 )
Acetic acid was the first organic compound It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It was
synthesized from the elements by Kolbe. discovered by Faraday in 1825. It is also used as a
Functional group is responsible for the chemical motor fuel under the name benzol.
properties of the molecules ex. OH is alcoholic group
Toluene (𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝐻3 )

It is used as a commercial solvent in the Leakage of this gas is responsible for Bhopal gas
manufacturing of explosive (TNT), drugs (chloramines- tragedy.
T) and dyestuffs. Used in the manufacturing of Coal
saccharin and printing inks. toluene is used as • It is believed that is was formed by
antifreeze. (carbonization). Different varieties of coal are
Naphthalene (𝐶10 𝐻8 ) anthracite (90% carbon), bituminous (70%
It is used for preventing moths in clothes, as an carbon), lignite (40% carbon) and peat (10-15%
insecticide. carbon).
• On heating at 1270-1675 K in the absence of air,
Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons coal decomposes and gives the following
Chloroform (𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3 ) products.
• It was discovered by Sir James Young Simpson. • Coke is the solid residue left after the distillation.
• It is stored in closed dark coloured bottles • Coal tar It is a mixture of about 700 substances.
completely filled because it is oxidized by air in • Now-a-days bitumen, a petroleum product, is
the presence of sunlight to an extremely used in place of coal tar for metalling the roads.
poisonous gas phosgene (𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙2 ). • The most significant characteristics of Indian coal
• It reacts with conc. 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 and form chloropicrin are its high ash content, entrained gasifires and
(𝐶𝐼3 𝐶 − 𝑁𝑂2 ). Chloropicrin is an insecticide and low sulphur content.
also used as poisonous gas at the time of war. • The process of separation of various constituents/
• The major use of chloroform today is in the fractions of petroleum is known as refining.
production of the Freon refrigerant, R-22. • Knocking - In a petrol engine, vapours of petrol
Iodoform (𝐶𝐻𝐼3 ) and air are first compressed to a small volume
It is used as an antiseptic due to liberation of free and then ignited by a spark. If the quality of petrol
iodine. is not good, it leads to the pre-ignition of fuel in
the cylinder. This gives rise to a metallic sound
Carbon tetrachloride (𝐶𝐶𝐼4 ) known as knocking. Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and
used as a fire extinguishers under the name pyrene. Benzene – Toluene – Xylene (BTX) are common
Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane (DDT) antiknock compounds.
It was the first chlorinated organic insecticides and • Octane number - The antiknocking property of
originally prepared in 1873. petrol is measured in terms of octane number.
Higher the octane number, better is the quality of
Alcohols fuel. Gasoline used in automobiles has an octane
Methyl alcohol (𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻) number 80 or higher while in aeroplane, it has an
• It is also known as wood spirit or wood naphtha. octane number 100 or over higher.
• Methyl alcohol is poisonous in nature and when Fuels:
taken internally it can cause blindness and even • Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide
death. and nitrogen. Water gas in mixture of carbon
• It is used for denaturing alcohol (methylated spirit monoxide and hydrogen.
is denatured ethyl alcohol). • Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane,
carbon monoxide, ethane, acetylene, carbon
Ethyl alcohol (𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻) dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen.
It is simply known as alcohol, spirit of wine or grain • Oil gas and petrol gas is a mixture of methane,
alcohol. ethylene and acetylene etc., and is obtained by
cracking of kerosene.
Glycerol (𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻. 𝐶𝐻𝑂𝐻. 𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻) • LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) the mixtures of
• It is an important trihydric alcohol known as hydrocarbons such as propane, propene, n-
glycerine. butane, isobutene and various butane with small
• It is sweet in taste and very hygroscopic in nature. amount of ethane.The major sources of LPG are
It is used in the manufacturing of cosmetics and natural gas.
transparent soaps. • CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) It is highly
Phenol (𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻) compressed from of natural gas, octane rating of
It is a monohydric benzene derivative. It is commonly CNG is 130.
known as carbolic acid or benzenol. • Gasohol+ It is a mixture of ethyl alcohol (10%) and
petrol (90%).
Methyl isocyanate (𝐶𝐻3 𝑁𝐶𝑂)

Flame: In the presence of oxygen, NO2 reacts with water or
It is the hot part of fire and has three parts. moisture and produces nitric acid (HNO3 ) which is an
• Innermost region of flame It is black because of important factor for making acid rain.
the presence of unburned carbon particles.
• Middle region It is yellow luminous due to partial Carbon monoxide (CO)
combustion of fuel. From more stable carboxyhaemoglobin complex with
• Outermost region It is blue (non-luminous) due to haemoglobin due to which the delivery of oxygen to
complete combustion of fuel. It is the hottest part the organs and tissues is blocked.
of flame and is used by the Goldsmith to heat the
gold. Hydrocarbons
Rocket Fuel: Out of the hydrocarbons, methane (CH4 ) is the most
• The fuel used in rockets is called rocket abundant hydrocarbon pollutant. Higher
propellant. concentrations of hydrocarbons given carcinogenic
• Liquid propellants are alcohol, liquid hydrogen, effect, i.e. are cancer producing. They cause ageing
liquid ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 ), kerosene oil etc. of plants, breakdown of plant tissues and shedding of
• Solid propellants are polybutadiene and acrylic leaves.
acid used along with oxidizers such as aluminium
per chlorate, nitrate or chlorate. Consequences of Atmospheric Pollution
Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION and water vapours trap the heat radiated from Earth.
Atmospheric pollution This leads to an increase in Earth’s temperature. This
The substance which causes pollution is known as heating up of Earth and its objects due to the
pollutant. trapping of infrared radiation by green house gases in
Pollutants are of two types the atmosphere, is called green house effect.
— Primary pollutants persist in the environment in the Green house effect is very essential for the existence
form, they are produced, e.g. sulphur dioxide (SO2), of life because in its absence, Earth would be
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) etc. converted into extremely cold planet. When
— Secondary pollutants are the products of reaction concentration of green house gases increases, green
of primary pollutants, e.g. peroxyacetye nitrate house effect also increases. This is known as global
(PAN), ozone (O3 ), aldehyde etc. warming.
Acid rain
Major Gaseous Air Pollutants It is caused by the presence of oxides of nitrogen and
Major gaseous air pollutants are oxides of sulphur, sulphur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water
nitrogen, carbon and hydrocarbons. and from nitric acid and sulphuric acid respectively.
The rain carrying acids, is called acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2 )
It is highly toxic for both animals and plants, Particulates
bronchitis, asthma, emphysema. It also causes eye Diseases caused by particulate
and throat irritation and breathlessness. Diseases Cause
Sulphur dioxide reduces the rate of formation of Pneumoconiosis Due to inhalation of coal dust
chloroplast and thus, causes chlorosis. SO2 is highly Silicosis Due to inhalation of free silica
corrosive and damage buildings, marbles (Taj Mahal) (SiO2)
and textiles. Black lung Found in workers of coal mines
SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which reacts with water to give disease
H2 SO4 . H2 SO4 remains suspended in the air as droplets White lung Found in textile workers
or come down in the form of acid rain. disease
Byssinosis Due to inhalation of cotton
Oxides of nitrogen fibre dust
Among the oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide (NO), a Smog
colourless, odourless gas and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), It is two types:
a brown gas with pungent odour act as tropospheric Classical smog
pollutants. These occur in cool, humid climate. Sulphur dioxide
NO2 is highly toxic for living tissues causes leaf fall. It is (SO2 ) and particulate matter from fuel combustion
a corrosive oxide and helps in the formation of smog. are the main components of classical smog.

Photochemical smog In water, some dissolved Oxygen (DO) is also
These occur in warm, dry and sunny climate. It present. For a healthy aquatic life, the optimum
consists of a mixture of primary pollutants (nitrogen value of DO is 5-6 ppm. If DO is below 5 ppm, the
oxides and carbon monoxides) and secondary growth of fishes is inhibited.
pollutants (ozone, formaldehyde).
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and aldehydes present in Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the total
smog causes irritation in eyes. PAN has the highest amount of oxygen (in mg) required by microbes to
toxicity to plants. It attacks younger leaves and decompose the organic matter present in 1L of
causes bronzing and glazing of their surfaces. water sample while Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) refers to the total amount of oxygen (in ppm)
Stratospheric Pollution consumed by the pollutants in a water sample.
In stratosphere, ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet Amount of oxygen required (in mg)
BOD = Volume of water sample (in L)
radiation of the Sun which are harmful to living
For clean water, BOD is less than 5 ppm while for
organisms.
highly polluted water; it is 17 ppm or more.
Depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer and
cataract in human and reduction of planktons in
ocean and depletion of plants.
Depletion of ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro
carbons which are used in refrigeration, fire
extinguishers and aerosol sprayers.
In stratosphere, the depletion of ozone layer leading
to ozone hole has been mainly observed in the
stratosphere of Antarctica.
The formation of this hole occurs due to the
accumulation of special clouds in the region called
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) and inflow of
chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs).
Water pollution
In some part of India, drinking water is contaminated
by the impurities of arsenic, fluoride, uranium, etc.
BIOLOGY
CELL • chloroplast,lysosome,mitochondria found in
these cells
Cell: It is the basic structural unit of life. • Eg: Other than Bacteria & Blue-green Algae
Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke.
Note: The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in Cellular components-
bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 • Cell membrane: It is Outer layer of the
mm, is the egg of an ostrich. cell.Compounds called proteins and
Amoeba acquires its food through endocytosis. phospholipids make up most of the cell
• Endocytosis is a type of active transport that membrane.
moves particles, such as large molecules, • Cell Wall: It is only found in the plant cells. It ‘s
parts of cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. function is to protect nucleoplasm and cell
Types of cell- membrane from external invasion.
1. Prokaryotes cells • Nucleoplasm: It is the protoplasm of the inside
• cells that have no defined nucleus or any nucleus of the cell.
other membrane-bound organelle • Cytoplasm: It is the fluid that fills a cell. Scientists
• It lacks chloroplast,lysosome,mitochondria used to call the fluid protoplasm.
• Eg: Bacteria & Blue-green Algae • Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a round body located
inside the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
2. Eukaryote The nucleolus makes ribosomal subunits from
• cells which have definite nucleus and is proteins and ribosomal RNA, also known as rRNA.
surrounded by nuclear membrane
SSC & Railway CAPSULE 2019 | General Science
Cell nucleus: The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the Lysosomes(suicidal bag): It is a kind of waste disposal
cell. It helps control eating, movement and system of the cell.
reproduction. Not all cells have a nucleus.
Mitochondria(power house): The energy required for
The nucleus contain, the following components : various chemical activities headed for life is released
(a) Nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane) - It is by mitochondria in the form of ATP (adenosine-tri-
made up of protein and fat.It is connected through phosphate) molecules.
endoplasmic reticulum of the cell. ➢ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
(b) Chromatin : When the cell is in resting state there ➢ Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense
is something called chromatin in the nucleus. that they have their own DNA and ribosomes,
Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus therefore mitochondria are able to make their
protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus acids inside own protein.
the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the ➢ Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red
chromatin become very compact. It condenses blood cells of mammals and higher animals.
when the chromatin comes together we can see the
chromosomes. Plastids: These are present only in plant cells.
(c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make organisms Types of plastids:-
what they are. They carry all the information used to ➢ Chromoplast(colour plastides) impart colour to
help a cell grow, thrive and reproduce. flowers and fruits.
• Chromosomes are made up of DNA. ➢ Leucoplasts(white or colourless plastids) present
Chromosomes are not always visible. They in which starch, oils and protein are stored.
usually sit around uncoiled and as loose ➢ Plastids are self-replicating. i.e. they have the
shards called chromation. power to divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and
• Chromosomes are usually found in pairs. ribosomes.
• Human Beings probably have 46 ➢ Plastides contains the pigment chlorophyll that is
chromosomes (23 pairs). known as chloroplast. It is the site for photo
• Peas only have 12, a dog has 78 synthesis.
chromosomes. non –living parts with in the cell :-
• The number of chromosomes is not related to
the intelligence or complexity of the creature. Vacuoles: It is semi permeable membrane and its
• Segments of DNA in specific patterns are main function is to collect food stuff in which minerals
called genes. salts,sugar,Co2,organic acids are dissolved.
• In prokaryotes, DNA floats in the cytoplasm in
an area called the nucleoid. Granules: It is not bounded by any membranes. It
store fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
Ribosomes: It synthesis protein, and Endoplasmic

reticulum sent these protein in various part of the cell. Cell Division
Whereas Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum helps in the Organisms grow and reduce through cell division.
manufacture of fats. It a made up of ribonucleic There are two methods of replication mitosis and
acid. meiosis.
(a) Mitosis: It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells
Functions of these proteins and fats: (daughter cells) have the same pieces and generic
• Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell code. There are five steps in this process. You should
membranes. This process is known as membranes remember the term PMATI. It breaks down to :
biogenesis. Prophase,Metaphase,Anaphase,Telophase and
• Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum plays a crucial Interphase.
role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs. (b)Meiosis- It occurs in the reproductive cells and it
produce Gametes. It results in the reduction of
Golgi apparatus : It is another packaging organelle chromosome in the daughter cells by half so it is
like the endoplasmic reticulum functions: called reduction division.
• It is the organelle that builds lysosomes (cells
digestion machines). Centrioles:Centrioles are concerned with cell division.
It initiates cell division.

Diffusion-It is a process of movements of substance ➢ Cuboidal : These are are cube-like cells and its
from a region of high concentration to a region occurrence is in kidney tubules, salivery glands,
where its concentration is low. Water also obeys the inner lining of the cheek. Its main function is to
law of diffusion. give mechanical strength.
Eg: Substances like Co2 and O2 can move across the ➢ Columnar : These are 'column-like cells and its
cell membranes by a process called diffusion. occurrence is in sweat gland, tear gland, salivary
gland its main function is to gives mechanical
Osmosis: The movement of water molecules is called strength concerned with secretions.
osmosis. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion through ➢ Squamous : These are are flattened and scale-like
a selectively permeable membrane. cell and it form inner lining of lung alveoi and
blood vessels.
Types of Osmosis: (b) Compound epithelium: It is consist of more than
1. Hypotonic: more water will come into the cell than one layer of cells.It provide protection to issues
will leave. The cell is likely to swell up. against mechanical,chemical stress
2. Isotonic: the amount going in is the same as the II.Connective Tissue: These tissues are made up of
amount going out of the cell.The cell will stay the fibers forming a frameworak and support structure for
same size. body tissues and organs.It connect and bind different
3. Hypertonic: more water leaves the cell than enters tissues.
it. Therefore the cell will shrink. There are a few types of connective tissue.
When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis
there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of A. Areolar tissue : It fills spaces inside organs found
the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is around muscles, blood vessels and nerves. Its main
known as plasmolysis. function is to joins skin to muscles, support internal
Some important facts regarding cells : organs, help in the repair of tissues. Whereas tendon’s
➢ Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells. main function is to connect muscles to bones and
➢ Smallest human cell is red blood cell. ligament is connects bones to each other.
➢ Largest human cell is female ovum.
➢ The single largest cell in the world is of an ostrich. B. Adipose tissue: Its occurrence is below skin,
➢ The smallest cells are those of the mycoplasma. between internal organs and in the yellow bone
➢ Every minute about 3 million cells in our body die. Marrow. Its main function is to storage of fat and to
➢ Sieve tube in plants and the mature mammalian conserve heat.
red blood cells do not have a nucleus. C. Skeletal tissue: Bone & cartilage occurrences are
➢ The red blood cell carries respiratory gases. in nose, epigotis and in intervertebral disc of
➢ Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients in plants. mammals. Its main function is to provide support and
➢ The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm cells digest flexibility to body part. Whereas bone protects
the limiting membranes of the ovum (egg). Thus internal delicate organs provides attachments for
the sperm is able to enter the ovum. muscles, bone marrow makes blood cells.
D. Fluid tissue: Blood & Lymph blood transport O2
TISSUE nutrients, hormones to tissues and organs. Whereas
leucocytes fight diseases and platelets help in cloting
Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure of blood. Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and
and act together to perform a specific function.There it also forms the defense system of the body.
are mainly four types of tissue which are- E. Ligaments: A ligament is the fibrous connective
tissue that connects bones to other bones.It is made
I.Epithetical Tissue- up of spindle shaped cells called fibrocytes.
It forms a continuous layer over external and internal F. Cartilage: It consists of dense matrix of collagen
free surface of many organs. fibres and elastic fibres embedded in rubbery ground
(i) On the basis of cell layers substance.Example are peak of nose , exterior part of
(a) Simple epithelium: It is formed from a single layer ear.
of cells.It is found on secretory and absorptive III. Muscular Tissue
surface. It is specialized for ability to contract muscle cells. Its
. contraction and relaxations promote the movements
• On the basis of shape of cells simple epithelium is and locomotional activities.
divided - Types of Muscular tissue:

A. Skeletal muscle: It attached primarily to bones. Its embryonic cartilage skeleton progressively
main function is to provide the force for locomotion replaced by bone as they mature and develop.
and all other voluntary movements of the body. ➢ Some areas of the human body, however, retain
B. Cardiac muscle: It occurs only in the heart. The cartilage in the adult: in joints and flexible
contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles help structures such as the ribs, trachea, nose and
to pump the blood and distribute it to the various ears.
parts of the body. ➢ The upper bones of the limbs are single: humerus
C. Smooth muscle: It can be found in stomach, (arm) and femur (leg).
intestines, and blood vessels these muscles cause ➢ Below a joint (elbow or knee), both limbs have a
slow and prolonged contractions which are pair of bones (radius and ulna in the arms; tibia
involuntary. and fibula in legs) that connect to another joint
IV.Nervous tissue: This tissue is specialized with a (wrist or ankle).
capability to conduct electrical impulses and convey ➢ The carpals makeup the wrist joint; the tarsals are
information from one area of the body to another. in the ankle joint.
Most of the nervous tissue (98%) is located in the
central nervous system. The brain and spinal cord. Bone
Parts of Nervous Tissue ➢ Bones have cells embedded in a mineralized
➢ Cyton – It is main part of nerve cell in which (calcium) matrix and collagen fibers.
nucleus and cytoplasm are found. The spongy bone of the femur, humerus, and
➢ Dendron – These are thin fibre passes through the sternum contains red marrow, in which stem cells
cyton,it carries impulses towards the cell body reproduce and form the cellular components of
➢ Axon - Axon, also called nerve fibre, portion of a the blood and immune system. Yellow marrow, at
nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve impulses the center of these bones, is used to store fats.
away from the cell body. A neuron typically has The outer layer of the bones is known as the
one axon that connects it with other neurons or periosteum.
with muscle or gland cells. ➢ When fractures occur, the pain is carried to the
Important facts regarding animal tissue:- brain by nerves running through the periosteum.
➢ Muscles contain special protein called contractile
protein. Which contract and relax to cause Skeletal Muscle Systems
➢ Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin When one muscle flexes (or contracts) the other
and between internal organs. relaxes, a process known as antagonism.
➢ Two bones are connected to each other by a Muscles have both electrical and chemical activity.
tissue called ligament. This tissue is very elastic.
➢ The skin, the living of the mouth, the living blood Contraction of Non-muscular Cells
vessels, kidney tubules are all made up of ➢ Some fish have modified muscles that discharge
epithelial tissue. electricity. These fish have electric organs
➢ Voluntary muscles and cardiac muscles are richly consisting of modified muscles known as
supplied with blood whereas involuntary muscles electroplates. The South American electric eel
are poorly supplied with blood. has more than 6000 plates arranged into 70
columns. Maximum discharge is 100 watts.
MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeletal Systems of Various Animals

Skeletons are a fluid-filled body cavity, exoskeletons,
or internal skeletons.
Types of skeleton-
1. Exoskeleton- It is found on the exterior layer of the
body and it protects and preserves inner organs.
2. Endoskelton- The skelton found inside the body is
called Endoskelton and it orginates from mesoderm.
Note: Spiders use a combination of an exoskeleton for

protection and fluid pressure for movement.
➢ Sharks, and rays have skeletons composed
entirely of cartilage; other vertebrates have an

The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a
diameter of about 2.3 cm.
The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the
object on the retina.
RETINA -> The retina is a delicate membrane having

enormous number of light-sensitive cells.
CORNEA -> Light enters the eye through a thin

membrane called the cornea.It is the eye’s outermost
layer. It is the clear, dome-shaped surface that covers
the front of the eye. It plays an important role in
focusing your vision.
PUPIL -> The pupil is a hole located in the centre of

the iris of the eye that allows light to strike the retina. It
appears black because light rays entering the pupil
are either absorbed by the tissues inside the eye
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM directly, or absorbed after diffuse reflections within
the eye. The pupil regulates and controls the amount
➢ The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the of light entering the eye.
brain and spinal cord. IRIS -> It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls
➢ The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) connects the the size of the pupil and thus the amount of light
CNS to other parts of the body, and is composed reaching the retina.
of nerves(bundles of neurons) CILIARY MUSCLE -> The ciliary muscle is a ring of
smooth muscle in the eye's middle layer that controls
The Neuron accommodation for viewing objects at varying
Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: distances and regulates the flow of aqueous humour
neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit into Schlemm's canal. It changes the shape of the
nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with lens within the eye, not the size of the pupil.
neurons and often surround them.
The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous The light-sensitive cells get activated upon
system. Humans have about 100 billion neurons illumination and generate electrical signals. These
in their brain alone! While variable in size and shape, signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves. The
brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes
Functions of the three parts of a neuron: the information so that we perceive objects as they
▪ Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell are.
body.
▪ Dendrite: It receives information from axon of Note: When the light is very bright, the iris contracts
another cell and conducts the messages towards the pupil to allow less light to enter the eye. However,
the cell body. in dim light the iris expands the pupil to allow more
▪ Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and light to enter the eye. Thus, the pupil opens
other organelles. It is mainly concerned with the completely through the relaxation of the iris.
maintenance and growth. A human being has a horizontal field of view of about
SYNAPSES 150° with one eye and of about 180° with two eyes.
The junction between a nerve cell and another cell is
called a synapse. HUMAN BRAIN
The space between two cells is known as the The brain is the most complex part of the human
synaptic cleft. body. This three-pound organ is the seat of
➢ The function between two neurons is called a intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body
‘ganglion’. movement, and controller of behavior.
HUMAN EYE The brain can be divided into three basic units:
The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms ▪ The forebrain,
an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina. ▪ The midbrain, and

▪ The hindbrain ▪ A major clearinghouse for information going
The forebrain is the largest and main thinking part of to and from the spinal cord and the
the brain. It has regions which receive sensory cerebrum.
impulses from various receptors. Separate areas of ▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery fluid that
the fore-brain are specialised for hearing, smell, sight circulates through the brain's ventricles
and so on. (cavities or hollow spaces) and around the
The Midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain. surface of the brain and spinal cord.
The hindbrain controls the body’s vital functions such ➽SPINAL CORD:
as respiration and heart rate. • The rear part of medulla oblongata forms the
spinal cord.It control the activities of reflex
➽CEREBRUM [Largest part of the human brain] actions.It carry forward the incoming pulse
▪ It sits at the topmost part of the brain. signal of the brain.
▪ It is the source of intellectual activities.
▪ It holds your memories, allows you to plan, THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
enables you to imagine and think. This system is basically composed of various specific
▪ It allows you to recognize friends, read books, and glands that produce and secretes
play games. harmones,chemical substance produced in human
▪ It controls the voluntary motor actions. body.
▪ It is the seat of learning and memory.
▪ It is the site of sensory perceptions; like tactile and Hormones
auditory perceptions. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that
▪ It is divided into two hemispheres; called cerebral secrete chemical messages we call hormones. These
hemispheres. signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a
target organ, which has cells possessing the
➽HYPOTHALAMUS appropriate receptor.
▪ It lies at the base of the cerebrum. Exocrine glands (not part of the endocrine system)
▪ It controls sleep and wake cycle (circadian secrete products that are passed outside the body.
rhythm) of the body. Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands
▪ It also controls the urges for eating and are examples of exocrine glands.
drinking. Hormones are grouped into three classes based on
▪ It gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or their structure:
job interview. 1. steroids 2. Peptides 3. Amines
➽CEREBELLUM Types of gland-

▪ It lies below the cerebrum and at the back of
the whole structure. (a)Exocrine gland-
▪ It coordinates the motor functions. • In this gland secrets fluid are transported through
▪ It is responsible for precision of voluntary duct to various organs outside the body
actions and maintaining the posture and
balance of the body. (b)Endocrine gland-
▪ Example: When you are riding your bicycle; • This is a ductless gland and secretes harmones
the perfect coordination between your are brought through th blood plasma..
pedaling and steering control is achieved by
the cerebellum. ENDOCRINE GLAND OF THE BODY
Adrenal gland
➽MEDULLA The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands)
▪ It forms the brain stem; along with the pons. are endocrine glands that produce a variety of
▪ It lies at the base of the brain and continues hormones including adrenaline.
into the spinal cord. They are found above the kidneys.
▪ It controls various involuntary functions
▪ Example: heartbeat, respiration, size of the Hypothalamus
pupil, blood pressure, salivation and vomiting The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that
etc. contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of
➽THALAMUS functions.

Function: link the nervous system to the endocrine • Somatostatin, and
system via the pituitary gland. • Pancreatic polypeptide which circulate in the
blood.
Pituitary gland
It is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting
weighing 0.5 grams in humans. pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small
control: intestine. These enzymes help to further break
• growth, down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the
• blood pressure, chyme.
• certain functions of the sex organs,
• metabolism, Reduction on the quantity of effective insulin gives
• pregnancy, rise to diabetes mellitus (diabetes, siphon, mellitus of
• childbirth, honey) commonly called simply diabetes.
• nursing,
• water/salt concentration, Saliva: Tylene, Maltase
• temperature regulation Gastric Juice: Pepsin, Renin
• pain relief. Pancreatic Juice: Trypsin, Amylase, Lipase
Intestinal Juice: Erepsin, Maltase, Lactase, Sucrase,
Thyroid Lipase
The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid is one of the
largest endocrine glands in the body. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
It is found in the interior neck, below the Adam's The Lymphatic System
apple. ➢ The spleen serves as a reservoir for blood, and
➢ It secretes two hormones: triodothyro (T3) and filters or purifies the blood and lymph fluid that
tetraiodothysonine (T4), are called tyrosine. Both flows through it.
these hormones contain iodine. ➢ If the spleen is damaged or removed, the
➢ Hypothyroidism (hypo, ‘under’)–diminished thyroid individual is more susceptible to infections.
activity. Hypothyroi-dism in childhood gives rise to
a conditions called cretinism. Immunity
➢ Antibodies: Antibodies are a type of protein
It controls rate of use of energy sources, protein molecule known as immunoglobulins.
synthesis, controls the body's sensitivity to other
hormones. BLOOD
Goiter– is called enlargement of the thyroid gland. It ▪ Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
manifests itself as a swelling in the neck. ▪ The quantity of blood in the human’s body is
A goiter may be associated with increased, normal or 7% of the total weight.
descreased activity of the thyroid gland. ▪ pH value of blood is 7.4.
Government of India launched the Universal salt ▪ There is an average of 5-6 litres of blood in
iodisation programme in 1986. human body.
▪ Female contains half litre of blood less in
Adernal gland comparison to male.
• It produce aderaline and steroid and it is located ▪ It also fights infection and regulates
above the kidney.It is also called as fight harmone.It temperature.
has two components- Cortex and Medulla
Blood cells are produced in BONE MARROW
Pancreas The main functions of blood are to transport oxygen,
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, hormones and
system and endocrine system of vertebrates. waste around the body. Blood also fights infection
In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity and regulates temperature.
behind the stomach. Blood has four components:
1. Plasma
It produce several important hormones 2. Red blood cells
• Including insulin, 3. White blood cells
• Glucagon, 4. Platelets

supplying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and
PLASMA -> Liquid portion of Blood removing carbon dioxide and other wastes.
▪ It constitutes for about 54% of our blood. 92%
of it is water. The human heart has four chambers:
▪ maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure • The right atrium and right ventricle together make
▪ volume to supplying critical proteins for blood up the "right heart,"
clotting and immunity. • the left atrium and left ventricle make up the "left
▪ medium for exchange of vital minerals such as heart."
sodium and potassium • A wall of muscle called the septum separates the
▪ helps to maintain a proper pH (acid-base) two sides of the heart.
balance in the body, which is critical to cell • Valves prevent backflow, keeping the blood
function. flowing in one direction through the heart.
RED BLOOD CELLS -> Carry oxygen A double-walled sac called the pericardium encases
▪ Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells the heart, which serves to protect the heart and
containing haemoglobin, anchor it inside the chest.
▪ haemoglobin (haem=iron-containing) Between the outer layer, the parietal pericardium,
▪ Haemoglobin enables the cells to pick up and and the inner layer, the serous pericardium, runs
deliver oxygen to all parts of the body, then pericardial fluid, which lubricates the heart during
pick up carbon dioxide and remove it from contractions and movements of the lungs and
tissues. diaphragm.
▪ Its life span is from 20 days to 120 days and are
then broken down into pigments called The heart's outer wall consists of three layers:-
bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver. • The outermost wall layer, or epicardium, is the
▪ Its destruction takes place in liver & spleen. inner wall of the pericardium.
Therefore, liver is called grave of RBC. • The middle layer, or myocardium, contains the
▪ they are made in the bone marrow, muscle that contracts.
▪ they have no nucleus, • The inner layer, or endocardium, is the lining that
▪ N.B. oxyhaemoglobin =oxygen rich contacts the blood.
haemoglobin, The sinoatrial node produces the electrical pulses
▪ deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen that drive heart contractions.
haemoglobin
WHITE BLOOD CELLS -> Defend Body (Fighter)

▪ White blood cells, also called leukocytes
▪ White cells are the body's primary defense
against infection.
▪ They can move out of the blood stream and
reach tissues to fight infection.
▪ They are essential for good health.
▪ Its life span is from 1 to 2 days.
▪ White blood cells have nuclei and are also
made in the bone marrow.
PLATELETS-> Responsible for clotting

Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood
and bind together when they recognize damaged
blood vessels.
Study of blood = HEMATOLOGY HUMAN HEART FUNCTION

The heart circulates blood through two pathways:
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. The pulmonary circuit
HUMAN HEART 2. The systemic circuit
The human heart is an organ that pumps blood In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood leaves
throughout the body via the circulatory system, the right ventricle of the heart via the pulmonary
artery and travels to the lungs, then returns as
oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart via One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the
the pulmonary vein. body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from
the body.
In the systemic circuit, oxygenated blood leaves the ➧Myocardium
body via the left ventricle to the aorta, and from The muscular substance of the heart; the middle of
there enters the arteries and capillaries where it the three layers forming the outer wall of the human
supplies the body's tissues with oxygen. heart.
Deoxygenated blood returns via veins to the vena ➧Pulmonary Artery
cava, re-entering the heart's right atrium. The pulmonary artery and its branches deliver blood
rich in carbon dioxide (and lacking in oxygen) to the
The cardiovascular system circulates blood from the capillaries that surround the air sacs.
heart to the lungs and around the body via blood ➧Pulmonary Circulation
vessels. The circulation of the blood through the lungs.
➧Pulmonary Veins
Blockage of any artery can cause a heart attack, or The veins that return the oxygenated blood from the
damage to the muscle of the heart. A heart attack is lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
distinct from cardiac arrest, which is a sudden loss of ➧Superior Vena Cava
heart function that usually occurs as a result of The large vein that carries blood from the head,
electrical disturbances of the heart rhythm. neck, arms, and chest to the heart.
➧Vena Cava
The heart contains electrical "pacemaker" cells, A large vein which returns blood from the head, neck
which cause it to contract — producing a heartbeat. and extremities to the heart.
The aorta is the main artery leaving the heart. ➧Endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels
The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries that consists of just a single layer of cells.
oxygen-poor blood. ➧Veins are blood vessels that carry blood to the
The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to
heart in an even flow. They have thin walls large
the lungs.
lumens and valves.
The veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood
➧ A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation
Blood pressure.
of an artery as blood passes through it.
➧Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls
Important Points:
➧Aorta of blood vessels.
➧A sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood
The largest artery in the body. It carries oxygen-rich
blood away from the heart to vessels that reach the pressure(normally 120/80 mmHg)
➧Atherosclerosis is the hardening of artery walls due
rest of the body.
➧Atria to a build-up of fatty deposits.
➧Smoking causes heart rate and blood pressure to
The chambers of the heart, to which the blood returns
from the circulation. increase. Diet high in saturated fats increase blood
➧Capillaries pressure and atherosclerosis. Exercise helps lower
blood pressure.
The smallest of the body's blood vessels. Oxygen and
glucose pass through capillary walls and enter the
Blood Groupings
cells. Waste products such as carbon dioxide pass
▪ Father of Blood Grouping : Karl Landsteiner
back from the cells into the blood through capillaries.
▪ He discovered A, B and O blood groups
➧Cardiac Valves (Heart Valves)
▪ Decastello and Sturle discovered AB blood
Any of the four heart valves that regulate the flow of
groups
blood through the chambers of the heart.
➧Oxygenated Blood -> Oxygen-rich blood.
RH factor
➧Deoxygenated Blood -> Oxygen-poor blood.
▪ It is a blood antigen found in RBC
➧Heart Ventricles ▪ A person can be Rh+ or Rh- depending upon the
The lower right and left chambers of the heart. presence of Rh factor in RBC
➧Interventricular Septum ▪ Rh+ can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh- but
Interventricular septum is the stout wall separating the Rh- can receive blood only from Rh- only
lower chambers (the ventricles) of the heart from one Blood transfusion techniques was developed by Dr.
another. James Blundell.
➧Lungs
untreated, cause serious symptoms and death.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM However, the disease is curable with antibiotics.
➢ Asexual reproduction allows an organism to Category Three
rapidly produce many offspring without the time This class of STDs includes viral diseases that affect
and resources committed to courtship, finding a organ systems other than those of the reproductive
mate, and mating. system. AIDS and hepatitis B are in this category. Both
➢ The hydra produces buds; starfish can regenerate can be spread by sexual contact or blood. Infectious
an entire body from a fragment of the original individuals may appear symptom-free for years after
body. infection.
The separation of intercourse from pregnancy uses
Sexual Reproduction methods blocking one of the three stages of
➢ In sexual reproduction new individuals are reproduction
produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to ➢ release and transport of gametes
form a diploid zygote. ➢ fertilization
➢ Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum singular) ➢ implantation
are female gametes.
➢ Meiosis produces cells that are genetically distinct PLANT REPRODUCTION
from each other. Flowers
➢ Fertilization is the fusion of two such distinctive Reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen
cells. (male, collectively termed the androecium) and
carpel (often the carpel is referred to as the pistil, the
Human Reproduction and Development female parts collectively termed the gynoecium).
➢ Gonads are sex organs that produce gametes.
Male gonads are the testes, which produce Pollen
sperm and male sex hormones. Female gonads Pollen grains contain the male gametophyte
are the ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and (microgametophyte) phase of the plant. They are
female sex hormones. produced by meiosis of microspore mother cells that
are located along the inner edge of the anther sacs
The Male Reproductive System (microsporangia).
➢ Sperm production begins at puberty and
continues throughout life, with several hundred Pollination
million sperm being produced each day. Once The transfer of pollen from the anther to the female
sperm form they move into the epididymis, where stigma is termed pollination. This is accomplished by a
they mature and are stored. variety of methods:
Entomophyly is the transfer of pollen by an insect.
External Genitals Anemophyly is the transfer of pollen by wind.
➢ The female external genitals are collectively Other pollinators include birds, bats, water, and
known as the vulva. Humans.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases Double Fertilization

STDs can affect the sex partners, fetus, and newborn The process of pollination being accomplished, the
infants. STDs are grouped into three categories. pollen tube grows through the stigma and style
toward the ovules in the ovary.
Category One Fruit
STDs that produce inflammation of the urethra, The ovary wall, after fertilization has occurred,
epididymis, cervix, or oviducts. Gonorrhea and develops into a fruit. Fruits may be fleshy, hard,
chlamydia are the most common STDs in this multiple or single.
category. Both diseases can be treated and cured Note:- Seeds germinate, and the embryo grows into
with antibiotics, once diagnosed. the next generation sporophyte.
Category Two
STDs that produce sores on the external genitals. PLANT HORMONES-
Genital herpes is the most common disease in this
class. Symptoms of herpes can be treated by antiviral HORMONES FUNCTION
drugs, but the infection cannot be cured. Syphilis is a Auxin • Controls growth of
bacterially caused infection, and can, if left plant

• Prevent separation of Chemical breakdown of starch by production
leaves of salivary amylase from the salivary glands into
Gibberellins • It turns dwarf plant into glucose. This mixture of food and saliva is then
long plants pushed into the pharynx and esophagus.
• Break dormancy of
plants The STOMACH
• Help seeds to sprout
Cytokinins • Help in the cell division Gastric juice in stomach contains:
and development. • hydrochloric acid(HCl),
• Break dormancy of • pepsinogen, and
plants • mucus
• Helps in making of RNA
and Protein. Functions of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) :
Abscisic Acid • It is growth against • It kills microorganisms.
harmone. • It lowers the stomach pH to between 1.5 and 2.5.
• Helps seed and bud to • It lowers pH of the stomach so pepsin is
be in the dormant activated.
conditions. Pepsinogen is an enzyme that starts protein digestion
and controls the hydrolysis of proteins into peptides.
Ethylene • Ripening of fruits Chyme, the mix of acid and food in the stomach,
• Increased number of leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine.
female flowers. Alcohol and aspirin are absorbed through the
stomach lining into the blood.
Xylem – It is a conducting tissue which has function of Epithelial cells secrete mucus that forms a protective
conduction of water and minerals barrier between the cells and the stomach acids.
Pholem – It is a conducting tissue whose main ULCERS

function is to conduction of foods prepared by leaves Peptic ulcers result when these protective
to other part of plant. mechanisms fail.
Bleeding ulcers result when tissue damage is so
Transpiration- It is loss of water of plant from its aerial severe that bleeding occurs into the stomach.
part. Perforated ulcers are life-threatening situations where
a hole has formed in the stomach wall.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM At least 90% of all peptic ulcers are caused by
Helicobacter pylori.
Stages in the Digestive Process Other factors, including stress and aspirin, can also
1. MOVEMENT : propels food through the digestive produce ulcers.
system
2. SECRETION : release of digestive juices in response THE SMALL INTESTINE
to a specific stimulus • The small intestine is the major site for digestion
3. DIGESTION : breakdown of food into molecular and absorption of nutrients.
components small enough to cross the plasma • it is about 22 feet (6.7 meters) long.
membrane
4. ABSORPTION: passage of the molecules into the Parts of small intestine:
body’s interior and their passage throughout the 1. Duodenum
body 2. Jejunum
5. ELIMINATION: removal of undigested food and 3. Ileum
wastes
• Sugars and amino acids go into the bloodstream
The human digestive system, is a coiled, muscular via capillaries in each villus.
tube (6-9 meters long when fully extended) stretching • Glycerol and fatty acids go into the lymphatic
from the mouth to the anus. system.
• Starch and glycogen are broken down into
The Mouth and Pharynx maltose by small intestine enzymes.

• Maltose, sucrose, and lactose are the main
carbohydrates present in the small intestine;
they are absorbed by the microvilli.
• Enzymes in the cells convert these disaccharides
into monosaccharides that then leave the cell
and enter the capillary.
• Gluten enteropathy is the inability to absorb
gluten, a protein found in wheat.
• Fat digestion is usually completed by the time the
food reaches the ileum (lower third) of the small
intestine. Bile salts are in turn absorbed in the
ileum and are recycled by the liver and gall
bladder.
LIVER
The liver produces and sends bile to the small
intestine via the hepatic duct.
Bile contains cholesterol, phospholipids, bilirubin, and
a mix of salts.
In addition to digestive functions, the liver plays

several other roles:
(1) detoxification of blood;
(2) synthesis of blood proteins;
(3) destruction of old erythrocytes and conversion of
haemoglobin into a component of bile;
(4) production of bile;
(5) storage of glucose as glycogen, and its release
GALL BLADDER
when blood sugar levels drop; and
It stores excess bile for release at a later time.
(6) production of urea from amino groups and
We can live without our gall bladders, in fact many
ammonia.
people have had theirs removed. The drawback,
however, is a need to be aware of the amount of fats
in the food they eat since the stored bile of the gall
bladder is no longer available.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made of chains of
glucose molecules.
In plants starch stored in the form of glucose, while
animals use glycogen for the same purpose.
Low glucose levels in the blood cause the release of

hormones, such as glucagon, that travel to the liver
and stimulate the breakdown of glycogen into
glucose, which is then released into the blood(raising
blood glucose levels).
When no glucose or glycogen is available, amino
acids are converted into glucose in the liver.The
process of deamination removes the amino groups
from amino acids. Urea is formed and passed through
the blood to the kidney for export from the body.
Conversely, the hormone insulin promotes the take-
up of glucose into liver cells and its formation into
glycogen.
Liver Diseases Jaundice occurs when the
characteristic yellow tint to the skin is caused by

excess hemoglobin breakdown products in the Adults: weakness
blood, a sign that the liver is not properly functioning.
Hepatitis A, B, and C are all viral diseases that can SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
cause liver damage. • Low thyroxine level
Cirrhosis: Cirrhosis of the liver commonly occurs in • Fertility Desease
alcoholics, who place the liver in a stress situation due • Headache, dizziness, fatigue
to the amount of alcohol to be broken down. • Stomach discomfort, poor appetite
Cirrhosis can cause the liver to become unable to
perform its biochemical functions. Chemicals VITAMIN D (Calciferol)=(Sunhine Vitamin)
responsible for blood clotting are synthesized in the SOURCE
liver, as is albumin, the major protein in blood. Egg yolk, liver, cod liver oil, fish. Our skin also produces
(D) The Large Intestine Vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.
The large intestine is made up by the colon, cecum,
appendix, and rectum. FUNCTION
• Helps body absorb and utilize calcium and
VITAMINS phosphorus, so as to maintain bones, teeth and
Vitamins: Vitamins are organic molecules required for brain healthy
metabolic reactions. They usually cannot be made • Maintains normal calcium level in blood
by the body and are needed in trace amounts. SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
Vitamins may act as enzyme cofactors or coenzymes. Children: rickets
Adults: Osteomalacia, Osteoporosis
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
• Calcified cartilage
• High calcium level in the blood causes abnormal
heart beat and damage to organs such as
kidneys
• Vomiting, diarrhea
VITAMIN K (Phylloquinone)
• Sore eyes
SOURCE • Itchy skin
Green leafy vegetables, soya beans. The human
body can also produce Vitamin K through germs in VITAMIN A (Retinol)
the colon(part of small intestine). SOURCE
FUNCTION Dairy products, cod liver oil,liver, dark green and
• Helps blood clotting, prevent over bleeding
yellow vegetables and fruits
• Maintains health of the liver
FUNCTION
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
• Maintains eye health
Uncontrol bleeding from wounds due to clotting • Promotes growth and development, maintains
difficulty healthy bones and teeth
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS • Enhances the protection and regeneration of
Can lead to liver damage cells and mucous membrane
• Maintains healthy respiratory and intestinal tracts
VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)=Beauty Vitamin • Maintain healthy hair, nails and skin
It is also known as Antisterility Vitamin.
SOURCE SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
Green leafy vegetables, whole-wheat cereals, nuts, • Night blindness, dry eyes
sprouts, egg yolk
• Dry skin
• Stomach discomfort
FUNCTION • Poor growth
• Maintains normal conditions of cells, and healthy • Weak bones and teeth
skin and tissues
• Protects red blood cells SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
• Antioxidation • Dry, scaly, peeling, and itchy skin, rash
• Enhance immunity
• Hair loss
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY • Poor appetite, fatigue
New born infants: haemolytic anaemia
• Vomiting, stomach discomfort TYPES OF VITAMINS:
• Liver injury Vitami Chemical Food Deficiency
• Headache, bone pain n Name Sources Diseases
• Nervousness, irritability A Retinol Milk, eggs, Night
VITAMIN B fish, blindness,
butter, Skin dryness.
VITAMIN B1 (Thymine) cheese
SOURCE and liver.
sprouts, yeast B1 Thiamine Legumes, Beri-beri.
Desease whole
Beri-beri grain, nuts.
B2 Riboflavin Egg, milk, Inflammatio
VITAMIN B2 (Ryboflabin) cheese, n of tongue,
SOURCE nuts, sores in the
sprout, present in cow's milk(yellowish) bread corners of
Desease products. the mouth.
Cheilosis, ulceration B3 Niacin or Meat, fish, Skin disease,
Nicotinic acid pea nuts, diarrhoea,
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine) whole depression,
FUNCTION grain. dementia.
It is responsible for rememeber dreams. B5 Pantothenic Eggs, liver, Fatigue,
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY acid dairy muscle
Anaemia products. cramp.
Nervousness, insomnia, depression Pellagra
Muscle cramps B6 Pyridoxine Organ Anaemia,
meats, kidney
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic acid) cereals, stones,
SOURCE corn. nausea,
Citrus fruits (orange, grapefruit, lemon), strawberry, depression.
black current, kiwi fruit, tomato, green leafy B12 Cyanocobalam Meat, fish. pale skin,
vegetables, green pepper in constipation,
fatigue.
FUNCTION C Ascorbic acid Oranges, Scurvy,
• Helps synthesize collagen; promotes the growth tomatoes, anaemia,
and repair of cells, gum, teeth, blood vessels and sweet and ability to
bones white fight
• Helps healing after operation and injury potatoes. infections
• Helps calcium and iron absorption decreases.
• Enhances immunity
D Calciferol Direct Rickets,
sunlight, osteomalaci
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
fish oils, a.
• Scurvy
eggs.
• Gum
E Tocopherol Vegetable Neurological
• inflammation and bleeding, fall of teeth
oils, olives, problems,
• Susceptibility to skin bleeding, burst of capillary
tomatoes, problems of
vessels
almonds, reproductive
• Weakness, fatigue
meat, system.
• Bone pain, swollen and aching joints
eggs.
K Phylloquinone Soyabean Failure to
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
or s, green clot blood.
• Abdominal pain
Naphthoquinon leafy
• Diarrhea
e vegetable
• Kidney stone
s, dairy
In smokers and drinkers vitamin C is absent.
products,
meat.
Minerals: Iron(for hemoglobin), iodine (for thyroxin),
calcium (for bones), and sodium (nerve message Kidney Stones
transmission) are examples of minerals. In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney
stones. They grow and can become a painful irritant
Digestion in Animals Facts from NCERT that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments.
➢ Starfish feeds on animals covered by half shells of
calcium carbonate. Kidney Functions
➢ The saliva breakdown the starch into sugar. 1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
➢ Liver situated in the upper part of the abdomen 2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
on the right side. It is the largest gland in the 3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the
body. extracellular fluid.
➢ In the process of digestion carbohydrates get 4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea,
broken down into simple sugars such as glucose. ammonia, and uric acid.
Fats into fatty acid and glycerol. Proteins into
amino acid. Kidneys, The Fascinating Filters
➢ The grass is rich in cellulose a type of Nephron is the filteration unit of kidney.
carbohydrates human cannot digest cellulose. ➢ Excessive eating (polyphagia), excessive drinking
➢ Amoeba is a microscopic single celled organism (polydipsia) and too much of urine (polyusia) are
found in pond water. When it sense food, it three cardinal symptoms of diabetes. The
pushes out one or more finger like projection ‘hypothesis’ produces a chemical substance
(pseudopodia) around the food particles and called ‘antidivretic hormone (ADH).
engulf it and then the food becomes trapped in ➢ The Adrenal gland maintains the regulating salt in
a food vacuole. the body and is located in an organ lying just over
the kidney. As soon as the salt (sodium)
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM concentration become just a little less than
Excretory Systems in Various Animals normal, it release into the blood stream a
Components of this system in vertebrates include the substance called ‘aldosterone’.
kidneys, liver, lungs, and skin. ➢ Renal transplantation or dialysis (artificial kidney)
are the supportive measure when the damage to
Water and Salt Balance kidney reaches a certain point.
The excretory system is responsible for regulating
water balance in various body fluids. Hormone Control of Water and Salt
Osmoregulation refers to the state aquatic animals Water reabsorption is controlled by the antidiuretic
are in: they are surrounded by freshwater hormone (ADH) in negative feedback.
and must constantly deal with the influx of water. ADH is released from the pituitary gland in the brain.
Dropping levels of fluid in the blood signal the
Excretory System Functions hypothalamus to cause the pituitary to release ADH
1. Collect water and filter body fluids. into the blood. ADH acts to increase water
2. Remove and concentrate waste products from absorption in the kidneys.
body fluids and return other substances to body fluids Aldosterone, a hormone secreted by the kidneys,
as necessary for homeostasis. regulates the transfer of sodium from the nephron to
3. Eliminate excretory products from the body. the blood. When sodium levels in the blood fall,
aldosterone is released into the blood, causing more
The Human Excretory System sodium to pass from the nephron to the blood. This
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, causes water to flow into the blood by osmosis. Renin
bladder, and urethra. The nephron, an evolutionary is released into the blood to control aldosterone.
modification of the nephridium, is the kidney’s
functional unit. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The nephron has three functions: ➢ The raw materials of photosynthesis, water and
1. Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the carbon dioxide, enter the
blood. ➢ cells of the leaf, and the products of
2. Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen leave the leaf.
molecules back into the blood. ➢ Water enters the root and is transported up to the
3. Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products leaves through specialized plant cells known as
from surrounding capillaries into the distal tubule. xylem.

➢ Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the ➢ These are fish. They are cold blooded and their
protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), hearts have only two chambers unlike the four
but it can enter the leaf through an opening that human have.
flanked by two guard cells. ➢ Some with skeletons made entirely of cartilage,
➢ Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis such as shark.
can only pass out of the leaf through the opened ➢ Some with skeleton made of both bones and
stomata. cartilages such as tuna or rohu.
Amphibian
Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments ➢ They have mucus glands in the skin and a three
➢ Chlorophyll, the green pigment common to all chambered heart. Respiration is through either
photosynthetic cells absorbs all wavelengths of gills or lungs.
visible light except green, which it reflects to Eg- frogs, toades, and salamanders.
bedetected by our eyes.
➢ Black pigments absorb all of the wavelengths that Reptilia
strike them. ➢ These animals are cold blooded have scales and
breathe through lungs. While most of them have
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS a three chamber heart while crocodile have four
Differentiation in Plants heart chambers. Eg- snakes, turtles, lizards and
Thallophyta crocodiles.
➢ The plants in this group are commonly called
algae. These plants are predominantly aquatic. Aves
E.g. : Spirogyra, cladophora and chara. ➢ These are warm blooded animals and have a four
chambered heart. They lay eggs. They breathe
Bryophyte through lungs. All birds fall in this category.
➢ These are called the amphibians of the plant
kingdom. There is no specialized tissue for the Mammalia
conduction of water and other substances from ➢ They are warm blooded animals with four
one past of the plant body to another. chambered hearts.
E.g. : moss (fumaria) and marchantia ➢ They have mammary glands for the production of
milk to nourish their young. They produce live
Pteridophyta young ones.
➢ In this group plant body is differentiated into roots, ➢ However a few of them like platypus and the
stem and leaves and has specialized tissue for the echidna(Spiny Anteater) lay eggs.
conduction of water and other substances from
one plant of the plant body to another. Eg- MICRO ORGANISMS
marsilea, ferns, and horse tails. Micro organisms are classified into four major groups.
Gymnosperms These groups are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
➢ The plant of this group bear naked seeds and one algae.
usually perennial and evergreen and woody. Eg- ➢ Viruses: They reproduce only inside the cells of the
pines such as deodar. host organisms which may be bacterium, plants
or animal.
Angiosperms ➢ Common cold, influnenza and most coughs are
➢ The seeds develop inside an organ which is caused by viruses.
modified to become a fruit. These are also called ➢ Serious diseases like polio and chickenpox are
flowering plants. also caused by viruses.
➢ Plant embryos in seeds have structures called ➢ Micro organisms may be single celled like
cotyledons. Cotyledons are called seed leaves bacteria, Some algae and protozoa. Multicellular
because in many instances they emerge and such as algae and fungi.
become green the seed germinates. ➢ Micro organisms like amoeba can live alone,
➢ Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are while fungi and bacteria may live in colonies.
called monocotyledons or monocots. Eg-
paphiopedilum. Advantages of Micro Organisms
➢ Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are ➢ Making of curd and breed:-milk is turned into curd
called dicots. E.g-Egipomoce. by bacteria. The bacterium “lactobacillus”
Pisces promotes the formation of curd.

➢ Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces CO2 ➢ Pasteurized milk : the milk is heated to about 70˚C
during respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled
dough and increase its volume. and stored.
➢ Yeast is used for commercial production of ➢ This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is
alcohol and wine. For this purpose yeast is grown called pasteurisation.
as natural sugars present in grains like barley,
wheat, rice, crushed fruit juice etc. SOME IMPORTANT TABLES
➢ This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is
known as fermentation. Lewis Pasteur discovered CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM
fermentation. NAME FEATURES
A. Phylum Protozoa • Made of only one cell
Medicinal Use of Micro Organisms • All activity take place in
➢ The medicine which kills or stops the growth of unicellular body
diseases causing microorganism is called • Respiration and excretion
antibiotics. take place by diffusion.
➢ Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are • Ex- Amoeba, Euglena
some of the commonly known antibiotics. Which
are made from fungi and bacteria.
➢ Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. B. Phylum Porifera • Muticellular animals
➢ Antibiotics are not effective against cold and flu • Found in marine water
as these are caused by virus. • Skelton is made of calcerous
• Ex- Sycon,Sponge
Vaccine C. Phylum • Animals are aqauatic
➢ Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for small Coelenterate • It is present inside body
pox. • Ex-Hydra,jelly fish,sea
Anemone
Harmful Microorganisms D. Phylum • Body is divided into three
➢ Disease-causing microorganisms are called Arthopoda parts –Head,Thorax and
pathogens. Abdomen
➢ Microbial diseases that can spread from an • Jointed leg
infected person to a healthy person through air • Ex- Cockrach,prawn,crab
water, food, or physical contact are called E. Phylum Annelida • Unisexual and Bisexual
communicable diseases. i.e.- cholera, common • Annulus body
cold, chicken pox and TB. • Ex- Earthworm
➢ Female anopheles mosquito which carries the F. Phylum Mollusca • Body divided into head and
parasite of malaria. muscular foot
➢ Female aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengu • Respiration through Gills
virus. • Blood is colourless
➢ Robert Koch discovered the bacteria (bacillus • Ex- Octopus,Loligo
anthracis) which causes anthrax disease.
Important Facts About Human Body:
Common Methods of Largest and strongest Femur (thigh bone)
Preserving Food in our Homes Bone in the body:
➢ Chemical method: salt and edible oils are the
Smallest Bone in the Stapes in ear
common chemical generally used. body:
➢ Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are
Volume of Blood in the 6 litres (in 70 kg body)
common preservatives. These are also used in the
body:
Jams and squashes to check their spoilage.
Number of Red Blood 1. In male: 5 to 6
Cells(R.B.C.): million/cubic mm
Preservation by sugar :
2. In female: 4 to 5
➢ Sugar reduces the moisture context which inhibits
million/cubic mm
the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
Life span of Red Blood 100 to 120 days
➢ Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles
Cells(R.B.C.):
become bacteria cannot live in such an
environment. Life span of White 3-4 days
Blood Cell(W.B.C.):
Time taken by R.B.C. to 20 seconds Minimum distance for 25 cm
complete proper vision:
one cycle of Pulse rate: 72 per minute
circulation: Thinnest Skin: Eyelids
Other name of Red Erythrocytes Weight of Heart: 200-300 gm
Blood Cell (R.B.C.):
Largest White Blood Monocytes Common Drugs and Their Usage:
Cells: Drugs/Medicine Use
Smallest White Blood Lymphocyte Anaesthetics It is a drug that induces insensitivity
Cells: to pain.
Who discovered Blood Karl Landsteiner Antiflatulent It is a drug that reduces intestinal
Group: gas
Blood Platelets count: 150,000 - 400,000 platelets Antipyretics It is a drug used to lower body
per micro litre temperature.
Haemoglobin (Hb): 1. In male: 14-15 gm/100 Analgesics It is a drug that is used to prevent
c.c. of blood or relieve pain. Eg. Aspirin.
2. In female: 11-14 gm/100 Antibiotics It is a drug that inhibits the growth
c.c. of blood of or destroys micro-organisms. Eg.
Hb content in body: 500-700 gm Penicillin.
pH of Urine: 6.5-8 Antihistamines It is a drug used to relieve
pH of Blood: 7.36-7.41 symptoms of cold and allergies.
Volume of Semen: 2-5 ml/ejaculation Antispasmodic It is a drug used to relieve spasm of
Normal Sperm Count: 250-400 involuntary muscle usually in
million/ejaculation stomach.
Menstrual cycle: 28 days Antacid It is a drug used for preventing or
Menopause age: 45-50 years correcting acidity, especially in the
Blood clotting time: 3-5 minutes stomach.
Weight of Brain: 1300-1400 gm in human Diuretics It is a drug that promotes the
adult production of urine.
Normal Blood Pressure 120/80 mm Hg Laxative It is a drug used to provide relief in
(B.P.): constitpation.
Universal blood donor: O
Universal blood AB TYPES OF DISEASES
recipient: List of Diseases caused by Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa
Average body weight: 70 kg and Worm:
Normal body 37 degree Celsius
temperature: Disease caused by Viruses:
Breathing Rate at rest: 12-16/minute 1. Chicken pox - It is caused by Varicella-zoster
Number of Spinal 31 pairs virus.
Nerves: 2. Small Pox - It is caused by Variola virus.
Largest Endocrine Thyroid gland 3. Common Cold -It is caused by Rhinovirus.
Gland: 4. AIDS (Acquired Immunono Deficiency Syndrome) -
Normal Heart Beat at 72 beats per minute It is caused by Human
rest: Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Largest Gland: Liver 5. Measles -It is caused by Measles virus.
Largest Muscle in the Gluteus Maximus or 6. Mumps -It is caused by Mumps virus.
body: Buttock Muscle 7. Rabies - It is caused by Rabies virus
Smallest Muscle in the Stapedius (Rhabdoviridae family).
body: 8. Dengue fever -It is caused by Dengue virus.
Largest Artery: Aorta 9. Viral encephalitis - It is an inflammation of the
Largest Vein: Inferior Vena Cava brain. It is caused by rabies virus, Herpessimplex, polio
Largest and longest Sciatic Nerve virus, measles virus, and JC virus.
Nerve:
Longest Cell: Neurons (nerve cells) Disease caused by Bacteria:

1. Whooping Cough - It is caused by a bacterium deficiency of mineral Iron.
called Bordetella pertussis. 2. Ariboflavinosis It is caused due to
2.Diphtheria - It is caused by deficiency of Vitamin B2.
Corynebacteriumdiphtheriae. 3. BeriBeri It is caused due to
3. Cholera - It is caused by Vibrio cholerae. deficiency of Vitamin B.
4. Leprosy - It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae. 4. Goitre It is caused due to
5. Pneumonia-It is caused by Streptococcus deficiency of Iodine.
pneumoniae. 5. Impaired clotting It is caused due to
6. Tetanus -It is caused by Clostridium tetani. of the blood deficiency of Vitamin K.
7. Typhoid - It is caused by Salmonella typhi. 6. Kwashiorkor It is caused due to
8. Tuberculosis -It is caused by Mycobacterium deficiency of Protein.
tuberculosis. 7. Night Blindness It is caused due to
9. Plague - It is caused by Yersinia pestis. deficiency of Vitamin A.
8. Osteoporosis It is caused due to
DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS: deficiency of mineral
1. Malaria It is spread by it is a celled Calcium.
Anopheles singl parasite 9. Rickets It is caused due to
mosquitoes. The e that deficiency of Vitamin D.
Plasmodium parasite multiplie 10. Scurvy It is caused due to
that causes malaria is s in red deficiency of Vitamin C.
neither a virus nor a blood
bacteria cells of COMMON HUMAN DISEASES AND AFFECTED BODY
humans. PART:
2.Amoebi It is caused by Disease Affected Body Part
c Entamoebahistolytica AIDS Immune system of the body
dysentery . Arthritis Joints
3.Sleeping It is caused by Asthma Bronchial muscles
sickness Trypanosomabrucei. Bronchitis Lungs
4. Kala It is caused by Carditis Heart
azar Leishmaniadonovani. Cataract Eye
Cystitis Bladder
DISEASE CAUSED BY WORMS: Colitis Intestine
1. They are intestinal Conjunctivitis Eye
Tapewor parasites. It cannot Dermatitis Skin
n live on its own. It Diabetes Pancreas and blood
survives within the Diphtheria Throat
intestine of an Eczema Skin
animal including Goitre Thyroid gland
human.
Glossitis Tongue
2. It is caused by like filarial
Glaucoma Eye
Filariasis thread nematode worms.
Gastritis Stomach
Most cases of filaria
Hepatitis Liver
are caused by the
Jaundice Liver
parasite known as
Wuchereriabancrof Malaria Spleen
ti. Meningitis Brain and spinal cord
3. It is caused by Myelitis Spinal cord
Pinworm small, thin, white Neuritis Nerves
roundworm called Otitis Ear
Enterobiusvermicular Osteomyelitis Bones
is. Paralysis Nerves and limb
Pyorrhoea Teeth
VITAMINS AND MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES: Peritonitis Abdomen
1. Anaemia It is caused due to Pneumonia Lungs

Rhinitis Nose BLOOD GROUP AND ITS CLASSIFICATION :
Rheumatism Joints K.Landsteiner : Classified human beings (1900) in four
Tuberculosis Lungs groups on the basis of the reaction of their
Tonsillitis Tonsils blood:A,B,AB and O.
Trachoma Eye Blood Carries Carries Can Can
group antigen antibody donate receive
blood to blood
from
A A B A,AB A,O
B B A B,AB B,O
AB A,B None Only AB Universal
Accepter
O None A,B Universal Only O
donor


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General Science CAPSULE for

SSC & Railway Exam 2019

General Science Capsule for SSC & Railway 2019

NOTE: A physical quantity which has both magnitude

Unit of measurement – A quantity which is used as a

Fundamental S I Unit Symbol

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Characteristics of SHM Wave

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Time period – The time taken by the vibration of the

Frequency – The number of oscillations executed by

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Plasticity Elastic Fatigue

Ductile and Brittle Materials

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Factors Affecting Surface Tension

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Viscous force: The force which opposes the relative

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Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive

electricity. • In parallel combination, potential difference

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Electric power Properties of Magnet

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Reflector-The core is surrounded by a reflector to Energy

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5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical

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• Avogadro Number: From Avogadro’s hypothesis,

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9. Isotopes Half-Life period - The half half-life of an isotope is the

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Uses of Acids Note: The process of dissolving an acid or a base in

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SALT CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

USES OF SALTS IN INDUSTRIES: Modern Periodic Law

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Aluminium (Al) Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr)

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Gun metal 2. Compounds of Carbon

SOME COMMON ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS

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Substance used Colour of glass

On the basis of intermolecular forces Polymers are

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Ribosomes: It synthesis protein, and Endoplasmic

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Skeletal Systems of Various Animals

Note: Spiders use a combination of an exoskeleton for