PHYSICS ......................................................................................................................................................................

2
CHEMISTRY .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
BIOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................................. 55

Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com


PHYSICS
Physical Quantities
• Descriptions of the laws of physics that
are measurable are termed physical
quantities.
• Fundamental quantities are those
physical quantities that are independent
of other physical quantities.
• Derived quantities, e.g., speed,
acceleration, and force, depend on
fundamental quantities.
Units
• The unit of a physical quantity serves as
the reference standard for measurement.
Types of Units
1. Fundamental Units
a. Units defined for fundamental
quantities mass (M), length (L),
time (T), temperature (K), electric
current (I), luminous intensity,
and amount of substance.
b. Corresponding fundamental units
Kilogram (Kg), Metre (m), Second
(s), Kelvin (K), Ampere (A),
Candela (C(d)), Mole (mol).
2. Derived Units
a. Units defined for derived
quantities, e.g., speed (metre per
second), acceleration (metre per
second²).
Rest and Motion
• An object is at rest when it doesn't
change its position with respect to
surroundings over time; it's in motion
when it changes position over time.
• Types of motion include rectilinear
(e.g., moving car on a horizontal road,
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
motion under gravity), angular (e.g.,
particle going in a circle, projectile
motion, rotation of machine shaft),
and rotational (e.g., motion of a fan).
• Uniform motion occurs when an
object travels equal distances in equal
intervals of time.
• Non-uniform motion occurs when an
object travels unequal distances in
equal intervals of time.
Speed
• Speed is defined as the distance
covered by a moving body in a unit
time interval.
• The formula for speed is given by
Distance traveled divided by Time
taken.
• For a scenario where a body travels
equal distances with speeds 𝑣₁ and 𝑣₂,
the average speed is calculated using
the harmonic mean 2.v1.v2/ (v1 + v2)
• If a body travels for equal times with
speeds 𝑣₁ and 𝑣₂, the average speed is
determined by the arithmetic mean 𝑣
= (𝑣₁ + 𝑣₂) / 2.
Velocity
• Velocity is the time rate of change of
displacement of a body.
• The formula for velocity is given by
Displacement divided by Time.
• An object is considered to be moving with
uniform velocity if it experiences equal
displacements in equal intervals of time.
• If an object undergoes unequal
displacement in equal intervals of time, it
is said to be moving with non-uniform or
variable velocity.
• Average velocity is calculated as Time
displacement divided by Total time taken.
Acceleration
• Acceleration is defined as the time rate of
change of velocity of a body.
• The formula for acceleration is given by
Change in velocity divided by Time taken.
2
 • Acceleration is a vector quantity, and its
SI unit is 𝑚/s².
• Instantaneous acceleration refers to the
acceleration at a specific instant in time.
• If the velocity of a body increases with
time, its acceleration is positive; if
velocity decreases, it's negative, referred
to as deceleration or retardation.
• Constant acceleration occurs when
acceleration does not change with time.
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated
Motion (Along straight line)
If a body starts its motion with initial velocity
u and attains final velocity v in the interval t,
assuming uniform acceleration a and
traveling a distance s, the equations of motion
are as follows
o v = u + at
o S = ut + ½ at2
o V2 = u2 + 2as
o For free fall under gravity, replace a
with g in the equations.
o When an object is thrown vertically
upward, replace a with g in the
equations.
❖ Velocity–Time Graph For an
accelerating or decelerating body, the
graph is a straight line inclined to both
the time axis and velocity axis.
❖ Position (Distance)–Time Graph The
graph for an accelerating or decelerating
body is always a parabola.
❖ Acceleration–Time Graph For a
uniformly accelerating body, the graph is
a line parallel to the time axis.
❖ Position–Velocity Graph In the case of
uniformly accelerated motion, the graph
between position and velocity is always a
parabola.
❖ Velocity–Time Graph In the case of
uniformly accelerated motion, the graph
between velocity and time is always a
straight line.
❖ Graph Interpretations
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
o The slope of the displacement-
time graph gives velocity.
o The slope of the velocity-time
graph gives acceleration.
Projectile Motion
• Projectile motion occurs when a body is
thrown at an angle (θ) from the
horizontal, excluding 90°. In this motion,
the body follows a curved parabolic path
known as a trajectory due to the influence
of gravity.
❖ Examples of Projectile Motion
• The motion of a bullet shot from a
gun.
• The motion of a rocket after burn-out.
• The motion of a bomb dropped from
an airplane, etc.
❖ Properties of Projectile Motion
• Simultaneous Impact If we drop a
ball from a height and simultaneously
throw another ball horizontally, both
balls will strike the earth
simultaneously, even though they
follow different paths.
Circular Motion
Circular motion refers to the motion of an
object along a circular path.
❖ Uniform Circular Motion
o Circular motion with a constant
speed is termed uniform circular
motion.
o The direction of motion at any
point in circular motion is given
by the tangent to the circle at that
point.
❖ Uniform Circular Motion
Characteristics
o In uniform circular motion, both
velocity and acceleration change.
❖ Non-uniform Circular Motion
3
 o In the case of non-uniform
circular motion, the speed varies
from point to point on the circular
track.
Centripetal Acceleration
• During circular motion, an acceleration
acts on the body towards the center,
known as centripetal acceleration.
• The direction of centripetal acceleration
is always towards the center of the
circular path.
Force
• Force is an external push or pull that
can change or attempt to change the
state of rest or uniform motion.
• The SI unit of force is the newton (N),
and the CGS unit is dyne, where 1 N =
10^5 dyne.
• If the sum of all the forces acting on a
body is zero, the body is said to be in
equilibrium.
Centripetal Force
• During circular motion, a force always
acts on the body towards the center of
the circular path, called centripetal
force.
Centrifugal Force
• In circular motion, we experience a
force acting on us opposite to the
direction of centripetal force, known
as centrifugal force.
• Centrifugal force is an apparent or
imaginary force, also called a pseudo
force.
Applications of Centripetal and
Centrifugal Forces
a) Cyclist Taking a Turn
i) A cyclist inclines their body from the
vertical to obtain the required
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
centripetal force. Slowing down speed
and moving on a path of a larger
radius ensures a safe turn.
b) Banked Roads
i) Roads are often banked at turns to
provide the necessary centripetal
force for vehicles taking a turn.
c) Frictional Force in Turns
i) When a vehicle takes a turn on a
curved road, the frictional force
between the tires and the road acts as
the centripetal force.
d) Bucket of Water
i) If a bucket containing water is
revolved fast in a vertical plane, the
water may not fall even when the
bucket is completely inverted. The
centrifugal force, equal or greater
than the weight of water, pushes the
water to the bottom of the bucket.
e) Orbital Motion of Electrons
i) In the orbital motion of electrons
around the nucleus, the electrostatic
force of attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus acts as the
centripetal force.
f) Cream Separation
i) When a vessel containing milk is
rotated about the same axis, cream is
separated from milk. Lighter particles
of cream experience a lesser force
than the heavier particles of milk
during rotation.
g) Earth's Orbit around the Sun
i) For the revolution of the Earth around
the Sun, the gravitational force of
attraction between the Earth and the
Sun acts as the centripetal force.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Newton’s First Law of Motion
o A body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line unless
an external force acts on it.
o This law is based on the concept of
inertia, the property of a body resisting
changes in its state of rest or uniform
4
 motion.
• Inertia of Rest
o When a bus or train at rest starts
suddenly, passengers jerk backward due
to their inertia of rest.
o Dust particles come out from a carpet
when beaten with a stick due to their
inertia of rest.
o A passenger jumping out from a rapidly
moving bus or train is advised to jump in
the forward direction and run forward for
a short distance due to inertia of rest.
Inertia of Motion When a running bus or train
stops suddenly, passengers jerk forward due to
inertia of motion.
Momentum The momentum of a moving body is
equal to the product of its mass and its velocity.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
• The linear momentum of a system of
particles remains conserved if the
external force acting on the system is
zero.
• Rocket propulsion and the engine of a
jet aeroplane work on the principle of
conservation of linear momentum. In
a rocket, the ejecting gas exerts a
forward force, helping in accelerating
the rocket upward.
• Newton's Second Law of Motion
Newton's second law of motion states that the
acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting upon it
and inversely proportional to its mass. In
mathematical terms, it is expressed as F=ma
where
• F is the net force acting on the
object,
• m is the mass of the object,
• a is the acceleration of the object.
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
This law describes how the velocity of an
object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. It quantifies the relationship
between force, mass, and acceleration,
indicating that the greater the force applied to
an object, the greater its acceleration, and the
greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration
for the same force.
• Newton's Third Law of Motion
Newton's third law of motion states that for
every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. This means that whenever one
object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object exerts an equal force in the
opposite direction back on the first object.
Both forces act on two interacting objects.
Application - Rocket Propulsion
• The propulsion of a rocket is a practical
application of Newton's third law of
motion.
• In a rocket, as gases are expelled from the
rocket engine in one direction (action), an
equal and opposite force is exerted on the
rocket in the opposite direction
(reaction). This propels the rocket
forward.
• The principle of action and reaction is
crucial for the functioning of various
propulsion systems, including rockets.
Impulse
Impulse refers to a large force acting on a
body for a very short interval of time,
resulting in a significant change in its
momentum.
Key Points
• Unit The unit of impulse is newton-
second (N·s).
Application - Fielder Catching a Cricket
Ball
5
 • A fielder lowers their hand when catching
a cricket ball to increase the time of
contact during the catch.
• By increasing the time of contact, the
force required to stop the ball is reduced.
• This helps the fielder exert a lesser force
on the ball, reducing the force exerted by
the ball on the fielder's hands and
minimizing the risk of injury to the
fielder.
Friction
Friction is a force that opposes the relative
motion of two bodies when one body actually
moves or attempts to move over the surface
of another body.
Causes of Friction
• The cause of friction is the strong atomic
or molecular forces of attraction acting on
the two surfaces at the point of actual
contact.
Uses of Friction
• Ball Bearings
• Ball bearings use balls to reduce
rotational friction and maintain
separation between the bearing races.
• Everyday Applications
• Friction is essential for walking,
applying brakes in vehicles, and
holding nuts and bolts in machinery.
• Decreasing Friction
• Friction can be reduced by polishing
surfaces, using lubricants, or
employing ball bearings.
• Tyres
• Tyres are made of synthetic rubber
with a higher coefficient of friction
with the road to provide better grip
and prevent sliding, especially during
turns.
• Tyre treading increases friction
between tyres and the road.
• Bicycle Pedals
• When a pedal is applied to a bicycle,
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
the force of friction on the rear wheel
is in the forward direction, and on the
front wheel, it is in the backward
direction.
Losses due to Friction
• Too much loss of energy in machines can
lead to damage over time. Frictional
forces in machines can result in energy
dissipation and decreased efficiency.
Laws of limiting friction
The laws of limiting friction describe the behavior
of friction between two surfaces when the
relative motion or tendency of motion is
impending. The laws of limiting friction are
typically stated as follows
1. The Direction of Friction
o The frictional force always acts in a
direction opposite to the direction of
the applied force or the direction of
motion (or impending motion).
2. Magnitude of Friction
o The magnitude of the limiting friction
(friction just before motion starts) is
directly proportional to the normal
reaction force between the two
surfaces. Mathematically, friction
=μ×N, where μ is the coefficient of
friction and N is the normal reaction
force.
3. Independent of Area
o The area of contact between the
two surfaces does not affect the
magnitude of the limiting friction.
The frictional force depends only
on the nature of the surfaces in
contact and the normal force.
4. Independent of Velocity
o The limiting frictional force is
independent of the velocity of the
object. It does not matter if the
object is at rest, in motion, or
approaching motion; the
magnitude of the frictional force
remains constant just before
motion starts.
6
5. Proportional to the Force Tending to
Produce Motion
o The magnitude of the limiting
friction is directly proportional to
the force tending to produce
motion (the applied force). The
frictional force increases if the
applied force trying to move the
object increases.
Oscillations And Waves
• Periodic Motion
o Periodic motion is defined as a motion
that repeats itself identically after a
fixed interval of time.
• Examples of Periodic Motion
o Motion of the arms of a clock.
o Orbital motion of the Earth around
the Sun.
o Motion of a simple pendulum.
• Oscillatory Motion
o Oscillatory motion is a type of
periodic motion that involves
movement to and fro or back and
forth about a fixed point.
• Examples of Oscillatory Motion
o Motion of a simple pendulum.
o Motion of a loaded spring.
• Damped Oscillation
o Damped oscillation occurs when a
particle oscillates with its own natural
frequency without the help of any
external periodic force. However, the
oscillation gradually diminishes in
amplitude over time.
• Forced Oscillation
o Forced oscillation occurs when a body
oscillates with the assistance of an
external periodic force with a
frequency different from the natural
frequency of the body. The external
force drives the oscillation at a
specific frequency.
• Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
o Simple Harmonic Motion is an
oscillatory motion characterized by
constant amplitude and a single
frequency. It occurs under a restoring
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
force that is proportional to the
displacement and always acts toward
the mean position.
Characteristics of SHM
Mean Position
o When a particle executing SHM
passes through the mean position
o No force acts on the particle.
o Acceleration of the particle is
zero.
o Velocity is maximum.
o Kinetic energy is maximum.
o Potential energy is zero.
Extreme Position
o When a particle executing SHM is
at the extreme end
o Acceleration of the particle is
maximum.
o Restoring force acting on the
particle is maximum.
o Velocity of the particle is zero.
o Kinetic energy of the particle is
zero.
o Potential energy is maximum.
Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is a heavy point mass
suspended from a rigid support by means of an
elastic, inextensible string.
Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
o The time period (T) of a simple pendulum
is given by the formula T=2πgl where
▪ T is the time period,
▪ l is the length of the pendulum,
▪ acceleration due to gravity.
Additional Information
o The time period of a simple pendulum
with infinite length is 84.6 minutes.
o The time period of a second's pendulum is
2 seconds, and its length on Earth is
approximately 100 cm.
7
Effects on Time Period
• Acceleration due to gravity decreases
with altitude, causing the time period of a
pendulum clock to increase, making the
clock run slower.
• If the bob of a simple pendulum is
suspended from a metallic wire, the
length of the pendulum increases with an
increase in temperature, leading to an
increase in its time period.
• When a girl swings on a swing and stands
up, the effective length of the swing
decreases, resulting in a decrease in the
time period of oscillations.
Pendulum Clock in Space
• A pendulum clock cannot be used in a
space-ship since it relies on gravity, which
is absent or significantly different in a
microgravity environment. Pendulum-
based timekeeping methods are
impractical in such conditions.
Damped Harmonic Motion
• Damped Harmonic Motion occurs when
there is a damping force, such as friction,
acting within an oscillating system. In this
type of motion, the amplitudes of the
oscillation decrease over time due to the
influence of the damping force.
Resonant Oscillations
• Resonant Oscillations occur when a body
oscillates with its own natural frequency
(v0) with the assistance of an external
periodic force, also known as forced
harmonic motion. If the frequency (v)
provided by the external agent is equal to
the natural frequency of the body (v0), the
Learn Finite © 2024 | All Rights Reserved | www.learnfinite.com
oscillations of the body are termed
resonant oscillations.
In resonant oscillations, the external force
reinforces the natural frequency of the body,
leading to enhanced amplitudes. This
phenomenon is often exploited in various fields,
such as music, engineering, and electronics, to
achieve maximum efficiency or desired effects.
Wave
• A wave is a disturbance that propagates
energy from one place to another without
the transport of matter.
Types of Waves
1. Mechanical Wave
• Mechanical waves require a
material medium (solid, liquid, or
gas) for their propagation and are
also known as elastic waves.
Types of Mechanical Waves
1. Longitudinal Wave
• If the particles of the medium
vibrate in the direction of the
wave's propagation, the wave is
called a longitudinal wave.
2. Transverse Wave
• If the particles of the medium
vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of the wave's
propagation, the wave is called a
transverse wave.
Examples
• Waves on strings under tension.
• Waves on the surface of water.
8