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Steel Corrosion in Concrete

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PKP Supervision

Steel Corrosion in Concrete

Frank, FEI Fan

Supervisor: Deryck, Chan

Abstract

This report aims to explore and discuss various aspects associated with steel
corrosion in reinforced concrete. To structure the report in a comprehensive
manner, the main body is composed of four sections which are the causes
triggering the corrosion, potential harms on the durability of concrete, detecting
and monitoring system, as well as the approaches to tackle the issues.
Additionally, the causes are further analyzed in two separate sub-sections in
accordance with whether the concrete is manufactured in-situ or in factory. As a
matter of fact, although the advantages of precast concrete allow it to have less
risk of corrosion, there are still some elements that will induce the problem and
in this report, we will focus on the corrosion activity within closure pour. In light
of the factors to the detriment of the concrete’s quality, the mechanical effects of
corrosion will be discussed based on the properties of rust. In order to guarantee
and maintain good performance of reinforcement concrete, various methods of
detecting and monitoring corrosion have been developed including electrical
potential like Half Cell Potential and its complemented methods with Ground
Penetrating Radar, and we will interpret their principle of operation in the
following text. Furthermore, several technologies in service currently to address
the problems are introduced, followed by a discussion about future development
of solutions to protection against corrosion.

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Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................. 1

1. Introduction and Background ...................................................................... 3

2. Causes of Corrosion ..................................................................................... 3

2.1 In-situ Concrete ................................................................................................ 3

2.2 Pre-cast Concrete ............................................................................................. 5

3. Harms of Corrosion (Mechanical Effect) ...................................................... 6

3.1 Characteristics of Metal/Cement Interface ...................................................... 7

3.2 Thickness .......................................................................................................... 8

3.3 Bonding Strength .............................................................................................. 9

3.4 Radial Displacement ......................................................................................... 9

4. Detecting and Monitoring System (HCP as Example) ................................ 11

4.1 Introduction to HCP ........................................................................................ 11

4.2 Strength and Weakness of HCP ...................................................................... 12

4.3 GPR+HCP for Deterioration Detection ............................................................ 13

5. Protection against Corrosion ..................................................................... 14

5.1 Air Entrainment .............................................................................................. 14

5.2 Enamel Coating .............................................................................................. 15

5.3 Fly Ash ............................................................................................................ 16

6. Conclusions and Summaries ...................................................................... 16

7. References ................................................................................................. 18

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1. Introduction and Background

Reinforced concrete, by virtue of its good mechanical properties, high resistance

to chemical attack, low cost of production and relatively mature manufacturing
process, has become one of the dominant materials in construction. Concrete, a
material classified as a ceramic, is mainly composed of aggregates and hydrated
cement paste, both of which are relatively inert to chemical attack. However, the
rebar embedded in the concrete is susceptible to moisture and chloride, and the
aftermath of chemical reaction is the formation of rust. Corrosion is a critical
challenge that engineers encounter at present in concrete structures which
results in lower strength and toughness of reinforcement as well as initiation of
cracks in the concrete. As a consequence, the performance of concrete
construction will be adversely affected, and more severely, it will face the risk of
collapse. Therefore, not only should the engineers enhance the corrosion
inspection system, but also to develop the techniques to avoid corrosion as well
as improve the properties of reinforced concrete.

2. Causes of Corrosion

Although cement paste provides alkaline environment for steel rebar to avoid
corrosion, the acidification will take place and neutralize the alkalinity through
diffusion (mainly acid gases like CO2 and SO2) and chloride ingress (Kwan). Once
the passivity is broken down, rusting will commence. The next two sections will
look at two different manufacturing processes and discuss the triggers of
corrosion in detail. The first section will introduce the primary causes in cast in-
situ concrete and the second section will emphasize the effect of closure pouring
on steel corrosion in pre-cast concrete.

2.1 In-situ Concrete

The majority of corrosion stem from the reaction between carbon dioxides in the
atmosphere and hydroxides in the concrete, which is named as carbonation. The
principle of carbonation can be expressed in the following chemical equations.

CO# + 𝐻# 𝑂 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝐻# 𝐶𝑂1 (𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑)

Ca OH # + 𝐻# 𝐶𝑂1 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂1 + 2𝐻# 𝑂

Equation 1 Carbonation Reaction

From the above process, carbonic acid acts as a solvent on lime compounds
existing in concrete and reduce the pH from over 12 to about 8. Hence, the
protective function of concrete cover will disappear because of the low alkalinity,

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leading to corrosion whenever oxygen and moisture are sufficient (Kwan).

In addition to carbonation, even when surrounding concrete is still alkaline, the

corrosion will still be able to occur in the presence of chlorides in the concrete.
Usually, a very thin coherent film of oxide can be formed on the steel surface in
an alkaline environment which isolates the steel from water and air so that
further corrosion is prevented, and renders the steel passive. However, attacks
from chloride ions will destroy the oxide layer to undermine the passivity and
dissolve the metal. Normally, during casting, calcium aluminate and calcium
aluminoferrites will be transformed into insoluble calcium chloroaluminates and
calcium chloroferrites in reaction with chlorides, in which the chloride is
restricted to an inert form (Kwan). Nevertheless, the unexpected aqueous phase
of chloride on account of incomplete reaction and active soluble chloride
penetrating from seawater where the concrete structure operates contributes to
corrosion of steel. Furthermore, the carbonated concrete can also promote the
process by means of destroying the hydrated cement phases and release more
free chloride which catalyses the rust generation (National Physical Laboratory
(UK)).

Electrochemistry is involved in the corrosion and the area already depassivated

becomes the anode while the one still under protection is more cathodic. Under
these circumstances, the steel will be oxidized and emit the metallic ions which
then transfer to the cathode and react with oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (Kwan).
Since the major component of rust is hydrated ferric oxide, the formation of rust
is not in one step but has two main stages which are illustrated in the diagram
with assistance of reaction formulae.

Stage 1:

Figure 1 Electrochemical Reaction when steel corroded (Kwan)

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At anode: Fe → Fe#= + 2𝑒 >

?
At cathode: 2e> + 𝑂# + 𝐻# 𝑂 → 2𝑂𝐻>
#

Stage 2:

At anode: Fe#= + 2𝑂𝐻> → 𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 # ,

4𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 # + 2𝐻# 𝑂 + 𝑂#
→ 4𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 1 (𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐹𝑒# 𝑂1
∙ 𝐻# 𝑂)

Equation 2 Corrosion Reaction

As a matter of fact, the extent and rate of corrosion mainly depend on the
permeability of concrete whereby the highly porous products will foster the
penetration of acidic gas and accelerate the corrosion. Permeability and porosity
of concrete can be determined by a number of factors including Water/Cement
ratio, aggregates grading, cement content, compaction and curing process. By
adjusting them according to the specific environment in which the concrete is put
into service, permeability can be limited and the risk of carbonation could also be
mitigated.

Cracking of concrete is a much more concerning issue in comparison with high

permeability and is formed as a consequence of tensile loading, shear stress,
dilation or shrinkage, and other factors. As aforementioned, the alkaline nature
of concrete on the one hand can restrain steel from corrosion. However, on the
other hand, alkalies can also pose a threat to the rebar by virtue of reaction with
susceptible forms of silica in aggregates to generate alkali-silicate gel which will
absorb water and expand its volume to initiate cracks. Once cracks appear, oxygen
and moisture can get access to unprotected steel and the degree of corrosion
depends on the width of cracks, atmospheric conditions and exposure area
(National Physical Laboratory (UK)).

2.2 Pre-cast Concrete

Pre-cast concrete is a product produced in factory. Instead of being poured into

formwork and cured on site, the procedure of pre-cast concrete construction
contains casting in the mold, curing offsite, transporting to the construction site
and assembling together. Owing to the operation in plant, there are fewer
uncertainties in the process of production. Under the controlled environment,
the concrete gains more opportunity to be properly cured. The conditions of
manufacture also facilitate monitoring work by staff. The advantages of pre-cast
concrete reduce the incidence of corrosion by a considerable degree, but it may

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still suffer the risk of being corroded especially within the closure pours.

Closure pour fills the gap between where two concrete pours terminates, and it
is usually used as the joint to connect precast concrete walls and floors. Normally,
pre-cast concrete and closure pours consist of different materials, which leads to
the heterogeneous properties across the joint and the bonding at the contact
surface is weak. Based on the research conducted by Udaipurwala, Poursaee and
Schiff, the outcome of electrochemical measurement and visual inspection
revealed the active corrosion at the interface of concrete and closure pours which
indicates the local penetration of chlorides is high. Their experiment has tested
corrosion activities of steel rebar within closure pours composed of three
materials which are Quikrete with PVA fibers, Ductal with PVA fibers and Ductal
steel fibers in both uncracked and cracked slabs. Specimens are submerged in
NaCl solution in cycles of wet and dry periods to accelerate the process. According
to their experimented data, regardless of material being used, rebar located in
closure pours in all testing groups have been corroded and the interfaces are also
partially or entirely corroded. Additionally, the macrocell phenomenon will
happen, since the corrosion of the steel inside the pre-cast portion of the
concrete specimens is negligible with respect to those within closure pours.
Eventually, smaller closure pours will become the anode and larger pre-cast
portion will become the cathode which stimulates further corrosion
(Udaipurwala, Poursaee, & Schiff, 2015).

Briefly speaking, from the conclusion of that research report, it can be

acknowledged that materials differ in the capability of fluid transportation
according to their properties. Among the three types of materials used in the
experiment, Ductal with PVA gives the poorest performance while Quikrete with
PVA blocks the moisture in higher efficiency (Udaipurwala, Poursaee, & Schiff,
2015). Therefore, to reduce corrosion rate for pre-cast concrete, we should raise
awareness of protection on closure pours, and more sustainable and
impermeable materials should be developed for use in the closure pours.

3. Harms of Corrosion (Mechanical Effect)

The main concern of corrosion is that it will contribute to subsequent

deterioration of concrete, and threaten the safety of concrete structure as well
as disturb the serviceability. As mentioned previously that carbonation and
chloride ingress are two main causes of corrosion, they are not directly
detrimental to the concrete but further expansion of rust in size compared to the
original steel and the changes in physical properties lead to straightforward
damage. This section will firstly study the mechanical properties of rust and
discuss its effect on concrete.

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3.1 Characteristics of Metal/Cement Interface

The chemical equations exhibited (Equation 2 Corrosion Reaction) to

demonstrate the formation process of rust have depicted its primary composition.
With optical microscope, the observations reveal that a brown layer with non-
uniform thickness is formed outside the rebar and a seemingly mixed layer is also
discovered which has similar microstructure to the cement paste but brown in
color. Furthermore, analysis of the images taken from CCD camera has confirmed
the basic components of different layers surrounding the steel. O, Ca, Si, Fe
elements have been observed in the interface between rebar and mortar, and the
concentrations of O and Fe increase as the source of sample gets closer to the
surface of the steel core while the concentrations of calcium and silicon drop. The
mixed layer is comprised of the elements from both rust and cement paste (Care,
Nguyen, L'Hostis, & Berthaud, 2008). A small amount of calcium might also be
identified occasionally in the rust layer just covering around steel with no
corrosion. Its existence can be attributed to the dissolution of lime compounds in
the presence of acidic solution near steel rebar.

Regarding the mixed layer, the blend of rust and mortar will definitely affect the
strength of concrete. Steel rust is a kind of material with low ductility as it loses
the metallic properties and becomes more brittle. When the rust merges with
concrete, the interface will be quite vulnerable to cracking because of poor
toughness and energy absorption. Additionally, the tensile stress is generated on
the concrete as the result of dilation since the volume will swell as steel turns to
rust. According to the research on the relationship between degree of corrosion
and maximum crack widths, the results show that initially, the cracks at interface
propagate faster than or equally to the those on the concrete surface (see 1 in
figure below). However, as the degree of corrosion increases, the cracks on the
surface become larger than those at the interface (see 2 in figure below). The
reason is that at first, the mixture of rust and mortar has low strength, so that the
interface fails earlier than concrete surface. As the corrosion develops, the tensile
stress on the surface has exceeded the limitation and promotes cracking. The
specific relationship can be viewed in the following graph (Bajaj, 2012).

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Figure 2 Relationship between Degree of Corrosion and Max. Crack Widths (Bajaj, 2012)

Figure 3 Circumstance 1 - cracks near interface propagate equally to those on the surface (left) Side View
Circumstance 2 – cracks on the surface propagate much faster (right) Front View

3.2 Thickness

Overall thickness of rebar will increase on account of the formation of rust and it
also varies from one location to another except in the ideal scenario whereby the
steel is uniformly covered by the concrete everywhere. Once the crack occurs,
the corrosion will no longer be evenly distributed both along the bars and around
the circumference of the reinforcement. The area close to the crack is exposed to
the air and moisture which speeds up the rate of corrosion, whereas the opposite
face has the thinnest rust layer due to the longer distance to cracks (Bajaj, 2012).
Hence, the location with more rust tends to generate more cracks which can
accelerate the corrosion, promoting the formation of rust and enlarging the
cracks. This positive feedback from steel corrosion reduces the durability of
concrete to a large degree, shortens the duration required for concrete to
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completely lose its strength and aggravates the situation as time goes by.

3.3 Bonding Strength

The concrete and its reinforcement require the strong bonding to get physical
connection in order that the loading can be carried by the steel members.
Nevertheless, corrosion decreases its strength and as a consequence, the
function of rebar will be interfered.

To figure out the relationship between corrosion levels and bonding strength,
Bajaj has also conducted an experiment on it and the bonding strength was
measured by pullout tests. At the very start, the increase in corrosion level
enhances the bonding strength. There are mainly three reasons including the
interlocking effect due to the pressure induced by the larger volume, corrosion
product filling in the micro-voids to improve confinement and the increasing
friction force on the contacting surface between rebar and concrete because of
high roughness of rust. Further increasing in degree of corrosion leads to rapid
reduction of bonding strength since the interlocking between steel and concrete
has been diminished on account of excessive mechanical pressure on the
concrete, and the confinement condition is reversed in the presence of cracks
(Bajaj, 2012). Moreover, the growing amount of moisture inside the concrete
environment acts as a lubricant to smoothen the contacting surface and minimize
the friction, which can also reduce the bonding effect.

Figure 4 Degree of Corrosion versus Normalized Bond Strength (Bajaj, 2012)

3.4 Radial Displacement

The cross-sectional area of steel bars will increase as the volume of rust increases,
leading to the radial displacement of interface rust/mortar after all voids are filled

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up with the corrosion products. On the basis of the estimated data derived from
the analytical model in Berthaud’s report, some conclusions can be drawn
associated with cracking time, rust thickness and rate of displacement. The figure
below demonstrates the structure of the steel with rust outside its surface.

Figure 5 Structure of the Steel with Rust where U(r) refers to the expansion of rebar’s thickness and δ refers
to the shrinkage of steel’s thickness (Care, Nguyen, L'Hostis, & Berthaud, 2008)

From the data curve of cracking time versus thickness of the layer and
displacement velocity, it manifests that the calibrated time to crack does not
depend on the thickness of the rust layer but on the radial displacement rate.
Furthermore, as displacement accelerates, time to crack will be reduced, and the
function between them seems to be linear.

In order to understand the effect on mechanical properties of rust, Berthaud also

performed another experiment to explore the relationship between Young’s
modulus and rust thickness as well as the relationship between Young’s modulus
and the radial displacement. With the same model, the graphs depicted the exact
opposite result to those of cracking time evaluation. It implies that Young’s
modulus remained constant as rate of displacement increases but goes up when
the thickness of rust grows. The explanation of the results can be ascribed to the
compaction of the layer due to confinement. When the thickness of rust increases,
it also should endure the compressive force exerted by the concrete to resist
further expansion of volume (Care, Nguyen, L'Hostis, & Berthaud, 2008). In the
macro level, it can be explained that on account of the pressure exerted by the
concrete cover, the porosity of rust will decrease leading to more compact
packing of rust particles, so that the stiffness also increases. In the micro level,
based on the theorem of crystalline structure, the layers of lattice may change
their arrangement under the loading and have plastic deformation more or less
to undertake the force. This crystalline transformation will definitely affect the
mechanical characteristics as the material will become more stiff so that its
modulus of elasticity increases. Simultaneously, the rust will also have less
toughness and become much more brittle.

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Figure 6 Curves of Time to Cracking (left) and Young's Modulus (right) depend on the Changing Thickness at
Constant Expansion Rate or Changing Rate at Constant Rust Thickness (Care, Nguyen, L'Hostis, & Berthaud,
2008)

4. Detecting and Monitoring System (HCP as Example)

In light of the severe harms caused by the corrosion as aforementioned,

protection and maintenance should be conducted promptly with the assistance
of accurate monitoring and detecting systems. Visual inspection is a quite
common and straightforward approach, since the color and texture of rust
normally will be distinct from those of steel. However, the limitation of the
method is that it will be quite misleading when the corrosion hides in the invisible
part covered by the concrete. This situation does exist as the corrosion will not
distribute evenly on the surface of steel unless there is no access for rebar to the
outer environment. Additionally, whenever the steel is exposed to oxygen and
moisture, corrosion will take place at the side where the steel is still covered
because it is anode. Normally, inspectors will merely pay attention to the part
under exposure, leading to the ignorance of corrosion existing in the inner part.

To minimize the risk of omission, new tactics will be applied based on the
mechanism of electrochemistry involved in the reaction of corrosion. For example,
potential measurements are representatively crucial to determine the condition
of rebar, and sometimes, the results will be compared with the data recorded by
ground penetrating radar (GPR) to improve accuracy. In the following paragraphs,
the principles, advantages and drawbacks will be introduced in detail.

4.1 Introduction to HCP

Half cell potential method, also referred to as HCP, is a primary way to detect

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corrosion by means of potential measurement. As mentioned in the previous
section that the oxidation of steel can be treated as the electrochemical reaction,
and the concrete surrounding the rebar acts as the electrolyte. In addition, the
potential registered by the cell will vary along the reinforcement of concrete,
depending on the concrete environment (Song & Saraswathy, 2007). The
apparatus of HCP basically contains an external electrode as standard reference
which is typically comprised of a metal bar immersed in the solution of its own, a
voltmeter and a conductivity sponge just underneath the external electrode. All
of those including the reinforcement of concrete should be connected by the wire
to form a circuit (Verma, Bhadauria, & Akhtar, 2014). The assessment criteria of
corrosion are based on the measured value of potential with respect to the
standard value, which means that if the potential exceeds the certain range, it
can be identified as presence of corrosion, and the specific extent of corrosion is
in accordance with the magnitude of potential. To ensure a good electrical
connection, some wetting preparations are necessary on the surface of concrete
to reduce the resistivity (Verma, Bhadauria, & Akhtar, 2014).

4.2 Strength and Weakness of HCP

Actually, there is a variety of detecting and monitoring techniques other than HCP,
but no consensus has been achieved on which method is the best one, as each
has its merits. HCP, as the main method to inspect corrosion condition, also has
its strengths and weakness in comparison with other methods.

In terms of its advantages, HCP is quite simple to carry out since the equipment
does not occupy a large space, and it is quite convenient to transport. Besides,
the operation of facilities is also quite straightforward. The procedure only
requires equipment assembly, data recording and check of the corrosion degree
in the table given. The most important is that the technique can be operated in-
situ and it is a non-destructive test that can harvest the sufficient quantity of data
from a broad structural area. In order to achieve the target of corrosion diagnosis,
the equipotential contours can be drawn with the data collected (Song &
Saraswathy, 2007), which ease the analysis as well as interpret the results.

Despite all those strengths of HCP, it is undisputed there are also several
shortcomings which have an adverse impact on its performance. Generally,
external factors including the polarization by diffusion of oxygen, cover thickness
and porosity, and high concrete resistivity will negatively affect the precision of
results (Verma, Bhadauria, & Akhtar, 2014), which furthermore distorts diagnosis.
Moreover, the preparation of saturated electrode also takes a lot of effort and is
quite time consuming (Verma, Bhadauria, & Akhtar, 2014).

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4.3 GPR+HCP for Deterioration Detection

Because a small fluctuation of potential will lead to large variation of corrosion

rate, it is suggested that HCP be complemented by other methods. Ground
penetrating radar (GPR), which is also a nondestructive technique, mainly relies
on the electromagnetic waves to observe the objects or interfaces covered by the
visible opaque substance (Daniels, 2005).

Researchers from Northeastern University have carried out a study to explore the
effectiveness of Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Analysis on threshold
detection methodology with the cooperation of GPR and HCP. The procedure of
this ROC analysis includes the following steps (Martino, 2013):

1. Plot HCP and GPR on the same grid.

2. Set 1 when HCP measurements are below -350 mV and 0 for those above
-350mV.
3. Set the threshold for GPR.
4. Set 1 to those GPR values under threshold and 0 to all others.
5. If:
a. Both HCP and GPR reveal 1, it is a true positive.
b. Both HCP and GPR reveal 0, it is a true negative.
c. If HCP=0 and GPR=1 it is considered a false positive.
d. If HCP=1 and GPR=0 it is considered a false negative.
6. Calculate true positive rate, false positive rate and accuracy.
7. Repeat the steps above to minimize errors.

HCP
True Class/Hypothesized
Class Positive Negative (not
(corroded) corroded)

Yes
True Positives False Positives
(corroded)
GPR
No (not
False Negatives True Negatives
corroded)

Table 1. Receiver Operating Characteristic Analysis (Martino, 2013)

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𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
True Positive Rate = ,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 + 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = .
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 + 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 Negatves

Equation 3 Calculations of ROC Analysis

Specific accuracy of corrosion detection as exhibited above can be derived from

the True Positives rate and False Positive rate. Referring to the accuracy calculated,
the threshold can be modified to a more appropriate one to decide the corrosion
inside the concrete.

The combined use of HCP and GPR could maintain the simplicity of operation
from one aspect. From another, it also enhances the accuracy of detection and
makes the results more convincing. Although this methodology is likely more
reliable, further analysis is still required to ensure its applicability, and the
threshold should also be carefully determined.

5. Protection against Corrosion

Specialists have already invented several techniques to cope with the problem of
corrosion, and it is quite essential to develop efficient methods because of the
severe potential risk that corrosion poses to structural integrity. The current
approaches to avoid corrosion mainly include ensuring adequate concrete cover
during casting, water/cement ratio adjustment, corrosion-resistant materials like
stainless steel and so on. The theories behind are nothing but mainly to provide
sufficient isolation for steel from external environment, reduce the moisture
content, or improve the capability of components to endure corrosion. Instead of
introducing methods that deal with the factors above, this section will discuss
three types of innovative techniques respectively which are air entrainment,
enamel coating and the additions of sand and fly ash.

5.1 Air Entrainment

In certain circumstances, air can be considered as an additional ingredient of

concrete mixture apart from aggregates, water and cement. The air entrained can
form discrete air voids in microscopic level which hinders the passage of water as
the channels for water transportation disappear (Natural Resources Conservation
Service, 1976). There are two methods to entrain the air: ○ 1 Air entraining agents

including natural wood resins, animal or vegetable fats, wetting agents and water

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soluble soaps of certain acids. ○ 2 Air entraining cement produced by

intergrinding air entraining agents with cement clinker (Natural Resources

Conservation Service, 1976).

The function of air entrainment is quite remarkable in that it can effectively

influence the properties of both fresh mixture and hardened concrete. With
regard to the concrete just cast, the minor air cavities smoothen the mixture
contributing to greater workability. Additionally, air bubbles also act as a third
aggregate by virtue of their small size and shape, and thereby reduce the amount
of sands. And because of the lubricant role of air bubbles, the water content can
be to some degree decreased without affecting workability too much. In this case,
strength and other characteristics restrained by high water/cement ratio will get
better (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1976). Corrosion is one kind
among those properties, since the reduction of W/C ratio considerably mitigates
the adverse effect of corrosion formation, and air bubbles erect the barriers that
impede the intrusion of moisture. As for the concrete after hydration, air
entrainment also provides enhanced weather-ability and scaling resistance.
Alternate freezing and thawing will unavoidably cause frost action, and either of
cement paste or aggregates can be damaged by dilation. Air entrainment is one
of the solutions to tackle the issue. Besides, the sulfate resistance can also be
strengthened, and this fact has been verified via laboratory tests (Natural
Resources Conservation Service, 1976).

5.2 Enamel Coating

Analogous to epoxy-coated steel dowel bars, enamel-coated steel is a new type

of technique which applies different material. The basic principle of this method
is to eliminate the exposure to the air of steel in order to prevent corrosion. The
enamel coating, from the testing and verification by experiment performed by
Bajaj, is proved to be more efficacious than epoxy coating as it not only preserves
the advantages of epoxy, but also ameliorates the drawbacks of epoxy.

Briefly speaking, the comparison of two experimental results demonstrates that

the corrosion resistance for both materials can be considered as of equal
effectiveness. In view of the condition of coating, the enamel coating still
remained excellent without damage while the coating of epoxy-coated steel has
been peeled off, and the components of epoxy coating are observed on the steel-
concrete interface. This indicates the existence of adhesion between epoxy and
cement paste, which means that the mobility of enamel coating performs better
than epoxy coating. The high mobility of steel bars inside the concrete can ease
the process of post-tension method in bridge construction to minimize the
bending moment at the middle when loaded. Furthermore, it is much harder to
induce defects on the enamel-coated steel in contrast with epoxy-coated steel
dowel bars. Conclusively, enamel-coated steel is less vulnerable to the damage of

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the coating during shipping and assembly process at either manufacturing plant
or construction site (Bajaj, 2014).

5.3 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a finely divided silica rich powder which acts as an additive in the
concrete mixture leading to quite low permeability. Poor permeability as analyzed
previously will definitely decelerate the rate of corrosion by hindering
carbonation and chlorides invasion (Coo & Pheeraphan, 2016).

The most important reason why fly ash can manage to reduce permeability is
based on the action between the fly ash and the calcium hydroxide formed in the
first few days of hydration. The product derived from the reaction is a calcium
silica hydrate (CSH) compound, and it fills in the void space of cement paste with
extremely low electrical conductivity to effectively reduce the diffusion of oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water and chloride ions. Eventually, the corrosion will be less
likely to take place as a consequence of rise in concrete resistivity (Coo &
Pheeraphan, 2016).

In addition, fly ash with high fineness in low carbon concentration also increases
the workability of concrete, which implies less water is required in concrete
mixture. This function resembles the one of air entrainment, which eases the
requirement of water to cement ratio, and less value of the ratio can be attained
to be beneficial for the protection against corrosion (Thomas, 2007).

The implementation of fly ash is still making progress, and the amount of fly ash
in the concrete should also depend on the application, composition and
proportions of all the ingredients of concrete, finishing and curing conditions,
environmental conditions and exposure conditions (Thomas, 2007).

6. Conclusions and Summaries

This report has endeavored to introduce the causes of corrosion, its detrimental
effects, detecting and monitoring system to inspect the corrosion, and protection
approaches. Some conclusions can be drawn as follows:

i. Corrosion occurring in reinforcement concrete stems from carbonation and

chloride intrusion, which mainly involves the electrochemical reaction of
iron. It is a step-wise reaction since Fe has various covalence states. The iron
will first be oxidized to Fe2+, and subsequently change to Fe3+.
ii. Although pre-cast concrete gains more opportunities to avoid corrosion on
account of its manipulation in factory, it still suffers the risk of corrosion
because of the presence of closure pour. The experimental results reveal
that it is vulnerable to corrosion around closure pours and closure pour of

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different materials will have different extents of corrosion.
iii. There is an interfacial transition zone between the rust and concrete. The
substance in the region has elements from both rust and cement. The rust
is brittle and weak in comparison with steel, which reduces the overall
strength of concrete.
iv. When steel is corroded, its volume will also dilate as rust has larger size than
the iron which formed it. The expansion in size will cause tensile stress on
the concrete and initiate the cracks which will lead to collapse of concrete.
The thickness of rebar is also a function depending on time.
v. Bonding strength between the rebar and concrete is also weakened due to
disappearance of interlocking and lubricative function of moisture.
vi. Rust’s mechanical properties like Young’s Modulus are also discovered in
relation with the thickness of rebar instead of the rate of its expansion.
vii. The most commonly used technique to detect the corrosion, HCP, has been
introduced and the theory to determine the extent of corrosion by
measurement of potential has also been explained. Additionally,
supplemented by GPR as well as the ROC threshold analysis which is based
on the combining these two methods, HCP gives a more comprehensive and
convincing result.
viii. Several protective methods have been discussed including air entrainment,
enamel coating and fly ash. The fundamental ideas of these methods are to
isolate rebar from outer environment and reduce the moisture level by
altering W/C ratio.

As a matter of fact, the development of corrosion research in reinforcement

concrete has already made huge progress and several innovative techniques have
been studied and implemented. The contents of this report can help us to gain
more background about the corrosion in reinforcement concrete and better
understand what it is in various circumstances. Further research is necessary to
explore more secrets hidden in the dark and construct a better foreground for
reinforcement concrete.

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7. References

Bajaj, S. (2012, December). EFFECT OF CORROSION ON PHYSICAL AND

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE.

Care, S., Nguyen, Q. T., L'Hostis, V., & Berthaud, Y. (2008, August). Mechanical
properties of the rust layer induced by impressed current method in reinforced
mortar. Cement and Concrete Research, 38(8-9), pp. 1079-1091.

Coo, M., & Pheeraphan, T. (2016). Effect of sand, fly ash and limestone powder
on preplaced aggregate concrete mechanical properties and reinforced beam
shear capacity. Construction and Building Materials, 581-592.

Daniels, D. (2005). Ground Penetrating Radar. In Encyclopedia of RF and

Microwave Engineering.

Kwan, A. (2015). Professor Kwan Notes Series.

Martino, N. (2013). Retrieved from Northeastern University VOTERS Sensor

System:
http://www.northeastern.edu/voters/research/publications/conference_procee
dings/documents/Determine_Ground.pdf

National Physical Laboratory (UK). The corrosion of steel, and its monitoring, in
concrete. Retrieved from National Physical Laboratory:
http://resource.npl.co.uk/docs/science_technology/materials/life_management
_of_materials/publications/online_guides/pdf/corrosion_of_steel_in_concrete.
pdf

Natural Resources Conservation Service. (1976). Retrieved from Natural

Resources Conservation Service:
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs141p2_023438.pdf

Song, H.-W., & Saraswathy, V. (2007). Corrosion Monitoring of Reinforced

Concrete Structures - A Review. International journal of electrochemical science.

Thomas, M. (2007). Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete. Portland Cement
Association .

Udaipurwala, A., Poursaee, A., & Schiff, S. (2015). Corrosion Activity in Precast
Concrete Elements and Cementitious Closure Pours. 20(12), p. 04015013.

Verma, S., Bhadauria, S., & Akhtar, S. (2014). Monitoring Corrosion of Steel Bars
in Reinforced Concrete Structures. The Scientific World Journal.

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