Soil Compaction Techniques

University of Kirkuk/College of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics-Third Year

…………………………………………………………………………….
Soil Compaction
1. Definition of compaction
➢ In construction of highway embankments, earth dams and many other

engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to improve their strength by
increasing their unit weight;
➢ Compaction-Densification of soil by removing air from voids using mechanical

equipment;
➢ The degree of compaction is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
Objectives of compaction
➢ Increasing the bearing capacity of foundations;
➢ Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;
➢ Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;
➢ Increasing the stability of slopes.
Compaction is the densification of soil by rearrangement of soil particles without

outflow of water.
Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 62

Principles of compaction
➢ The dry unit weight (γd) increases as the moisture content increases to a point;
➢ The maximum dry unit weight (γdmax) is corresponding to the optimum moisture
content (wopt);
➢ Beyond wopt, any increase in moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit
weight.
𝛄 = 𝛄𝐝(𝐰=𝟎) = 𝛄𝟏
𝛄 = 𝛄𝟐 → 𝐰 = 𝐰𝟏
𝛄𝐝(𝐰=𝐰𝟏 ) = 𝛄𝐝(𝐰=𝟎) + ∆𝛄𝐝
Principles of compaction

2. Standard Proctor test
➢ The standard Procter test developed to simulate field compaction in the lab.
➢ The purpose of test is to find the wopt and γdmax.
➢ ASTM (D-698) and AASHTO (T-99).
➢ For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ is:

𝐖
𝛄=
𝐕𝐦
Where:
W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold.
Vm = volume of the mold.
Equipment
➢ Mold of volume 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3), the diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm (4
inch), the soil sample placed in three layers;
➢ Hammer of weight 5.5 lb (2.49 kg) and drop distance of 12 inch (305 mm); with
25 blows/layer.
➢ The compaction effort (energy) is 600 kN-m/m3 (12400 lb-ft/ft3).

Proctor mold of compaction
Procedure
1. Obtain 10 lbs of soil passing sieve No. 4;
2. Record the weight of the Proctor mold without the base and the (collar)
extension;
3. Assemble the compaction apparatus;
4. Place the soil in the mold in 3 layers and compact using 25 well distributed
blows of the Proctor hammer;
5. Remove the collar and the base without disturbing the soil sample to determine
the weight of the mold and compacted soil;

6. Take a sample (20-30) grams of soil to find the moisture content;
7. Place the remainder of the molded soil into the pan, break it down, and
thoroughly remix it with the other soil, plus 100 additional grams of water.
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the Lab.,
the dry unit weight is:
𝛄
𝛄𝐝 =
𝟏+𝐰
The values of determined γd can be plotted against the corresponding moisture

contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content
for the soil.
Compaction curve
3. Modified Proctor test
➢ The modified Procter test was developed to simulate larger compaction effort
for more serious loads and bigger equipment.
➢ ASTM (D-1557) and AASHTO (T-180).
Equipment
1) Mold of volume 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3); the soil sample placed in five layers;
2) Hammer of weight 4.54 kg (10 lb) and drop distance of 457 mm (18 inch); with
25 blows/layer.
3) The compaction effort (energy) is 2700 kN-m/m3 (56000 lb-ft/ft3).
4) The same procedure used in standard Procter test except placing soil in five
layers instead of three layers.

Proctor compaction test
Effects of compaction effort on compaction curve.

Zero-air-void unit weight
For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation S, the dry unit weight of
compaction is:
𝐆𝐬 𝛄𝐰
𝛄𝐝 =
𝟏+𝐞
𝐒. 𝐞 = 𝐆𝐬 . 𝐰
𝐆𝐬 𝛄𝐰
𝛄𝐝 =
𝐆𝐰
𝟏+ 𝐬
𝐒
For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained
when no air is in the void spaces, i.e S = 100%.
𝐆𝐬 𝛄𝐰 𝛄𝐰
𝛄𝐳𝐚𝐯 = =
𝟏 + 𝐆𝐬 𝐰 𝟏
+𝐰
𝐆𝐬
Where:
γzav = zero-air-void unit weight.
To obtain the variation of γzav with moisture content, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
2. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on.
3. Calculate γzav for various values of w.

❖ The compaction curve should lie to the left of the zero-air-void curve.
❖ As the water content is larger than the optimum value, the void spaces become
filled with water so further compaction is not possible because water is
incompressible fluid.
Example
The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following
table.
Volume of mold Weight of moist soil in Moisture content, w(%)

(ft3) mold (lb)
1/30 3.78 10
1/30 4.01 12
1/30 4.14 14
1/30 4.12 16
1/30 4.01 18
1/30 3.90 20
a. Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum
moisture content.
b. Calculate and plot d versus the moisture content for degree of saturation, S =80,
90, and 100% (zav). Given: Gs = 2.7.

Solution (a)
Volume of Weight of soil, Moist unit Moisture Dry unit

mold V (ft3) W(lb) weight, content, w (%) weight,
(lb/ft3)a d(lb/ft3)b
1/30 3.78 113.4 10 103.1
1/30 4.01 120.3 12 107.4
1/30 4.14 124.2 14 108.9
1/30 4.12 123.6 16 106.6
1/30 4.01 120.3 18 101.9
1/30 3.90 117.0 20 97.5
𝐖
a
𝛄=
𝐕
𝛄
b
𝛄𝐝 =
𝟏+𝐰

From the plot, the maximum dry unit weight, d(max) = 109 lb/ft3 and the optimum
moisture content is 14.4%.
𝐆 𝐬 𝛄𝐰
(b) 𝛄𝐝 = 𝐆 𝐰
𝟏+ 𝐬
𝐒
𝛄𝐝 (𝐥𝐛⁄𝐟𝐭 𝟑 )
Gs w (%) S = 80% S = 90% S = 100%
2.7 8 132.7 135.9 138.6
2.7 10 126.0 129.6 132.7
2.7 12 119.9 123.9 127.3
2.7 14 114.4 118.6 122.3
2.7 16 109.4 113.8 117.7
2.7 18 104.8 109.4 113.4
2.7 20 100.6 105.3 109.4

4. Factors affecting compaction
There are three factors affect compaction:
1. Moisture content;
2. Compaction effort;
3. Soil type and gradation.
1. Effect of Moisture Content
Adding water to the soil during compaction acts as a softening agent on the soil
particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position.
➢ Add water gets better compaction.
➢ A little more water - a little better compaction.
➢ Even more water – Soil begins to flow.
2. Effect of Compaction Effort (CE)
The compaction effort can be calculated as follows:
(#𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐬/𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫)(#𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐬)(𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐞𝐫)(𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐬)

𝐂𝐄 =
(𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐝)
As the compaction effort increased, γdmax is increased and the optimum moisture
content decreased to some extent.
3. Effect of Soil Type and Gradation
The type of soil (grain-size distribution, shape of grains, Gs and amount and type
of clay minerals) has a great influence on γdmax and wopt.
➢ fine grain soil needs more water to reach wopt; and

➢ coarse grain soil needs less water to reach wopt.
Effects of number of blows on compaction

Effects of soil type on compaction
5. Field compaction
The common equipment used in field compaction are:
1. Smooth wheel rollers;
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers;
3. Sheep foot rollers;
4. Vibratory rollers.

Smooth Wheel Rollers or Smooth Drum Rollers
➢ Are suitable for thin layers and for finishing operations;
➢ Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
➢ Provide 100% coverage;
➢ Ground contact pressure range (310-380) kN/m2.
Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
➢ Have a series of rubber tires side-by-side instead of a smooth drum.

Compaction is achieved by a combination of weight and kneading action.
➢ Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
➢ Provide (70-80) % coverage;

Sheep foot Rollers
➢ Are drums with a large number of "sheep foot" projections. They are most
effective in compacting clayey soils.
➢ Most effective in clayey soils;

Vibratory Rollers
Vibratory rollers work well in compacting granular soils. Vibratory action can be
attached to the all types of rollers.
Ramming
Rammers can be used for effective compaction of granular soils over a limited
area.
Factors Affecting Field Compaction
1. Soil type;
2. Moisture content;
3. Thickness of lift;
4. Intensity of pressure applied by the equipment;
5. The area over which the pressure is applied.
6. Measurement of field compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a

compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test.
a) Relative compaction
Relative compaction is a way of comparing compaction in the field with the

laboratory compaction results. It is defined as:
𝛄𝐝(𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝)

𝐑(%) =
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱−𝐥𝐚𝐛)

R (%) = relative compaction.
➢ Relative Compaction value range (90 – 100%).
➢ If R > 100 % use Modified Proctor Test.
b) Relative density
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms
of the required relative density Dr or the required relative compaction. Relative
density should not be confused with relative compaction. It indicates the in-situ
denseness or looseness of granular soil.
𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
𝐃𝐫 =
𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐧
Dr: is the relative density, usually given as percentage;
efield : is the in situ void ratio of the soil;
emax: is the void ratio of the soil in the loosest state;
emin: is the void ratio of the soil in the densest state.
- In terms of the porosity:
(𝟏 − 𝐧𝐦𝐢𝐧 )(𝐧𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 )

𝐃𝐫 =
(𝐧𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝒏𝒎𝒊𝒏 )(𝟏 − 𝐧𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 )
-In terms of unit weight:
𝛄𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅) − 𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

𝐃𝐫 = [ ][ ]
𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝛄𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)

𝛾(𝑚𝑖𝑛): is the dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of emax);
𝛾(𝑚𝑎𝑥): is the dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio of emin);
𝛾(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑): is the in situ dry unit weight (at void ratio of efield).
- In terms of density
𝛒𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅) − 𝛒𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝛒𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

𝐃𝐫 = [ ][ ]
𝛒𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝛒𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝛒𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
𝐑𝐨
𝐑=
𝟏 − 𝐃𝐫 (𝟏 − 𝐑 𝐨 )
𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏)
𝐑𝒐 =
𝛄𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
Qualitative description of granular soil deposits.
Relative Density % Description

0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense
7. Determination of field unit weight
The common methods are:
a) Sand cone method (ASTM D-1556 or AASHTO T-191);
b) Rubber balloon method (ASTM D-2167 or AASHTO T-205);

c) Nuclear method (ASTM D-2922).
a) Sand cone method
The device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top.
The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
Sand cone test
Procedure
1. Determine the combined weight of jar, cone and sand filling the jar, W1;

2. Clean the area in the site of the compacted area, then excavate a small hole and
measure the weight of excavated soil, W2, also determine the moisture content of
excavated soil;
3. Determine the dry weight of soil;
𝐖𝟐
𝐖𝟑 =
𝐰(%)
𝟏+
𝟏𝟎𝟎
4. After excavation the hole, place the inverted cone with jar over the hole. The
sand is allowed to fill the hole, after determine the combined weight of jar, cone
and remaining sand, W4;
𝐖𝟓 = 𝐖𝟏 − 𝐖𝟒
Where W5 is the weight of sand filled the hole.
5. Determine the volume of the excavated hole;
𝐖𝟓 − 𝐖𝐜
𝐕=
𝛄𝐝(𝐬𝐚𝐧𝐝)
Wc is the weight of sand to fill the cone only,
6. Determine the field dry unit weight of compacted soil
𝐖𝟑
𝛄𝐝(𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝) =
𝐕
b) Rubber balloon method
It's similar to the sand cone method except the determination of volume of hole by
introducing a balloon filled with water into the hole.

Rubber balloon test
c) Nuclear method
➢ Operates either in drilled holes or from the ground surface.
➢ Measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water present
in a unit volume of soil.
➢ The big disadvantage of this instrument is the safety precautions that have to be
taken into account. It is even necessary to have the operators attend a special
training just to work with the gauge.

8. Special compaction techniques
Several special types of compaction techniques were developed for deep

compaction and large scale works.
a) Vibroflotation
The vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and can generate a centrifugal
force in horizontal direction to vibrate and compact. It's applicable for in situ
densification of loose granular soil deposits. Success of densification of in situ soil
by vibroflotation depends on:
a) Grain-size distribution of the in-situ soil;
b) Type of backfill material.
For the backfill material we can define a parameter for suitability "Suitability
number, SN".
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝐒𝐍 = 𝟏. 𝟕 ∗ √ + +
(𝐃𝟓𝟎 )𝟐 (𝐃𝟐𝟎 )𝟐 (𝐃𝟏𝟎 )𝟐
Rating of backfill soil
Range of SN Rating as backfill

0-10 Excellent
10-20 Good
20-30 Fair
30-50 Poor
>50 Unsuitable

Procedure
Stage 1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the
ground.
Stage 2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil and it allows the
vibrating unit to sink into the ground.
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the
lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries
the granular material down the hole.
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3 m lifts and held
vibrating for about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the
desired unit weight.
Compaction by vibroflotation process.

c) Dynamic compaction
Dynamic compaction is a technique that has gained popularity in the United

States for the densification of granular soil deposits. This process consists
primarily of dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals.
The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of 80 to 360 kN, and the height
of the hammer drop varies between 7.5 and 30.5 m. The stress waves generated by
the hammer drops aid in the densification.
The degree of compaction achieved at a given site depends on the following three
factors:
1) Weight of hammer
2) Height of hammer drop
3) Spacing of locations at which the hammer is dropped.
Leonards, Cutter, and Holtz (1980) suggested that the significant depth of
influence for compaction can be approximated by using the equation:
𝐃 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟓√𝐖𝐇 𝐡
Where:
D = significant depth of densification (m)
WH = dropping weight (metric ton)
h = height of drop (m).
In English units, the preceding equation takes the form:
𝐃 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏√𝐖𝐇 𝐡

Where the units of D and h are ft, and the unit of WH is kip.
d) Blasting
Its suitable for densification of loose granular soils;
➢ The process involves the denotation explosive charges at a certain depth below
the ground surface in saturated soil;
➢ The lateral spacing of charges varies from (3-9) m;
➢ 3-5 successful denotations are necessary to achieve the desired compaction;
➢ Blasting can achieve relative density up to 80% and depth up to 18 m;
➢ The charges are placed at 2/3 of the compacted area depth;
➢ The sphere of influence of compaction by 60% dynamite charge is:
𝐖𝐄𝐗
𝐫=√
𝐂
Where:
r = sphere of influence
WEX = weight of explosive - 60% dynamite
C = 0.0122 when WEX is in kg and r is in m.

Soil Compaction Techniques

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Compaction Techniques

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Kirkuk/College of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Soil Mechanics-Third Year

➢ In construction of highway embankments, earth dams and many other

➢ Compaction-Densification of soil by removing air from voids using mechanical

➢ The degree of compaction is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.

➢ Increasing the bearing capacity of foundations;

➢ Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;

➢ Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;

➢ Increasing the stability of slopes.

Compaction is the densification of soil by rearrangement of soil particles without

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 62

𝛄𝐝(𝐰=𝐰𝟏 ) = 𝛄𝐝(𝐰=𝟎) + ∆𝛄𝐝

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 63

2. Standard Proctor test

➢ The purpose of test is to find the wopt and γdmax.

➢ ASTM (D-698) and AASHTO (T-99).

➢ For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ is:

W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold.

Vm = volume of the mold.

➢ The compaction effort (energy) is 600 kN-m/m3 (12400 lb-ft/ft3).

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 64

Proctor mold of compaction

1. Obtain 10 lbs of soil passing sieve No. 4;

3. Assemble the compaction apparatus;

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 65

6. Take a sample (20-30) grams of soil to find the moisture content;

The values of determined γd can be plotted against the corresponding moisture

3. Modified Proctor test

➢ ASTM (D-1557) and AASHTO (T-180).

3) The compaction effort (energy) is 2700 kN-m/m3 (56000 lb-ft/ft3).

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 67

Proctor compaction test

Effects of compaction effort on compaction curve.

Zero-air-void unit weight

γzav = zero-air-void unit weight.

1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.

2. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on.

3. Calculate γzav for various values of w.

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 69

Volume of mold Weight of moist soil in Moisture content, w(%)

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 70

Volume of Weight of soil, Moist unit Moisture Dry unit

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 71

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 72

4. Factors affecting compaction

There are three factors affect compaction:

1. Effect of Moisture Content

➢ Add water gets better compaction.

➢ A little more water - a little better compaction.

➢ Even more water – Soil begins to flow.

2. Effect of Compaction Effort (CE)

The compaction effort can be calculated as follows:

(#𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐬/𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫)(#𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐬)(𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐞𝐫)(𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐬)

3. Effect of Soil Type and Gradation

➢ fine grain soil needs more water to reach wopt; and

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 73

➢ coarse grain soil needs less water to reach wopt.

Effects of number of blows on compaction

Dr. Aram M. Raheem Page 74

Effects of soil type on compaction

The common equipment used in field compaction are:

1. Smooth wheel rollers;

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers;