Theory is the mother of practice

DEE-23106
Lecture Notes # 6: Electrical Engineering Rev. 1
Lectures 4-6

Teuvo Suntio©

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Contents
The slide set contains: Frequency and Time-Domain Analysis Principles

• An introduction to the basics of transfer functions

• Application of Laplace-transformation technique to obtain time-domain responses for
• simple RC circuit
• simple LC resonant circuit

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 1
The electrical systems are usually represented by means of transfer functions which may describe their internal
and output responses to the excitations to certain input variables. The transfer functions describe the dynamic
behavior of the system. The time-domain responses can be derived based on the transfer functions when also
initial conditions in the memory elements (i.e., L and C) are taken into account.

A transfer function is usually given as a ratio of two polynomials in s according to (2.)1 where s is the Laplace
variable equaling jω (ω = 2πf, ω is the angular frequency in rad/s and f the frequency in 1/s). The roots (ωzi) of
the numerator polynomial are called zeros, and the roots (ωpi) of the denominator polynomial poles,
respectively. The zeros and poles may be real or complex numbers given in respect to the angular frequency.
The magnitude of the transfer functions (│G(s)│) is commonly expressed in dB, i.e., │G(s)│dB =
20log10(│G(s)│), and the phase in degrees.

The logarithmic magnitude means that the combined effect of zeros and poles can be found by adding together
the dB-values related to the zeros and subtracting the dB-values related to the poles, respectively. The phase of
the transfer function can be found similarly by adding together the phase contribution of the zeros and
subtracting the phase contributions by the poles, respectively. The zeros and poles can locate at left half plane
(LHP) (i.e., negative real part), or right half plane (RHP) (i.e., positive real part) of the complex plane or at the
imaginary axis (i.e., zero real part) (Note: the real part corresponds to the power of the exponential function
representing the time-domain response).

an s n + an −1s n −1 + ⋅⋅⋅ + ao
G ( s) =
bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ⋅⋅⋅ + bo (2.1)
( s + ω z1 )( s + ω z 2 ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( s + ω zn )
G ( s) = K ⋅
( s + ω p1 )( s + ω p 2 ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( s + ω pm )
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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 2

2
ω ω
Single zero: G ( s ) = 1 ± s / ω z ; G ( s ) = 1 + ; ∠G ( s ) = ± arctan( )
ωz ωz

ωz
ω= ('-' LHP zero;'+' RHP zero)
10
G ( jω ) = 1.01 → 20 log10 ( 1.01) = 0.04 dB
∠G ( jω ) = ± arctan(0.1) = ±5.7 deg
ω = ω z
G ( jω ) = 2 → 20 log10 ( 2) = 3 dB
∠G ( jω ) = ± arctan(1) = ±45deg
ω = 10 ⋅ ω z
G ( jω ) = 10 → 20 log10 (10) = 20 dB
∠G ( jω ) = ± arctan(10) = ±84.3deg

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 3

Single LHP zero: G ( s ) = 1 + s / ωz

Fig. 2.1 Frequency response of single LHP zero

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 4

Single RHP zero: G ( s) = 1 − s / ωz

Fig. 2.2 Frequency response of single RHP zero

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 5

1 1 ω
Single pole: G ( s ) = ; G(s) = ; ∠G ( s ) =  arctan( )
1± s / ωp 2 ωp
ω
1+
ωp

ωz
ω= ('-' LHP pole; '+' RHP pole)
10
G ( jω ) = 1/ 1.01 → −20 log10 ( 1.01) = −0.04 dB
∠G ( jω ) = − arctan(0.1) = −5.7 deg
ω = ω z
G ( jω ) = 1/ 2 → −20 log10 ( 2) = −3 dB
∠G ( jω ) =  arctan(1) = 45deg
ω = 10 ⋅ ωz
G ( jω ) = 1/10 → −20 log10 (10) = −20 dB
∠G ( jω ) =  arctan(10) = 84.3deg

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 6

1
Single LHP pole: G ( s) =
1+ s / ωp

Fig. 2.3 Frequency response of single LHP pole

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 7

1
Single RHP pole: G ( s) =
1− s / ωp

Fig. 2.4 Frequency response of single RHP pole

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 8
ωn
A second-order polynomial is typically expressed as s 2 + s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn2 or as s 2 + s ⋅ + ωn2
Q
comprising either zeros or poles in the corresponding transfer function, where ζ is called damping
factor, ωn undamped natural frequency, and Q quality factor. The second-order transfer functions
are common in power electronics and their impact in the system behavior has to be understood. The
roots of the second-order polynomial can be expressed by s1,2 = −ωnζ ± ωn ζ 2 − 1. The system
ωn2
characterized by the transfer function of the form G ( s ) = 2 may be classified
s + s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn2
according to the value of the damping factor as follows:

1. Underdamped case: 0 < ζ < 1

The roots are complex conjugates of each other, which can be expressed by s1,2 = −ζωn ± jωd ,
where ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 is called damped natural frequency. A step change applied to the reference
input will cause decaying oscillatory output response, where the oscillation frequency is ωd

2. Cirically damped case: ζ = 1

The roots are real and equal, which can be expressed as s1,2 = −ζωn . The step response resembles
an exponential response but is faster.

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 9

3. Overdamped case: ζ > 1

The roots are real, which can be expressed by s1,2 = −ζωn ± ζ ζ 2 − 1. The higher the
damping factor the higher the separation between the roots. A step response contain only
exponential behavior.

4. Oscillatory case: ζ = 0
The roots are pure imaginary roots, which can be expressed as s1,2 = ± jωn . The system will oscillate
at the undamped natural frequency ωn .

5. Ustable case: ζ < 0

The roots of the polynomial locate in RHP which means that the power of the exponential function is positive
and the step responses indicates increassing amplitude behavior depending on the level of the damping factor.

See Fig. 2.5 for the time-domain step responses of the different second-order systems stated above.

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 10

Fig. 2.5 Time-domain step responses of second-order transfer functions depending on the level of damping
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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 11

ωn2
G (s) = 2 LHP poles
s + s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn2

Magnitude Phase

Fig. 2.6 Frequency responses of second-order LHP poles

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 12

ωn2
G (s) = 2 RHP poles
s − s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn
2

Magnitude Phase

Fig. 2.7 Frequency responses of second-order RHP poles

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 13

s 2 + s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn2
G (s) = LHP zeros
ω 2
n

Magnitude Phase

Fig. 2.8 Frequency responses of second-order LHP zeros

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Introduction to Basics of Transfer Functions - 14

s 2 − s ⋅ 2ζωn + ωn2
G (s) = RHP zeros
ωn2

Magnitude Phase

Fig. 2.9 Frequency responses of second-order RHP zeros

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 1
The frequency and time-domain responses related to the first-order RC circuit in Fig. 2.10 are assumed to be
very well known when being a MSc in electrical engineering. The responses we are going to extract from the
RC circuit are the responses caused by the change in the input voltage uin in the output voltage uo and input
current uin. We assumed that the initial conditions are zero i.e., uin, uo, and iin are zero.

Output voltage (R2 open) Input current (R2 open)

1 uin sC
rC + iin = = ⋅ uin
sC 1 + srC C 1
uo = ⋅ uin = ⋅ uin R1 + rC + 1 + s ( R1 + rC )
1 1 + s ( R1 + rC )
R1 + rC + sC
sC sC
1 + srC C G (s) =
G (s) = 1 + s ( R1 + rC )C
1 + s ( R1 + rC )C

Fig. 2.10 RC circuit

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 2
Output voltage
1
rC +
R2 sC R2 1 + srC C
uo = ⋅ ⋅ uin = ⋅ ⋅ uin
R1 + R2 R R 1 R R
R1 + R2 1 + s ( 1 2 + r )C
1 2
+ rC + C
R1 + R2 sC R1 + R2
R2 1 + srC C
G (s) = ⋅
R1 + R2 1 + s ( R1 R2 + r )C
C
R1 + R2

Input current

uin 1 1 + s ( R2 + rC )C
iin = = ⋅ uin
1 R1 + R2 1 + s ( R1 R2 + r )C
(rC + ) R2 C
R1 + sC R1 + R2
1
R2 + rC +
sC
1 1 + s ( R2 + rC )C
G (s) =
R1 + R2 1 + s ( R1 R2 + r )C
C
R1 + R2
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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 3
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.11. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain responses of the
output voltage and input current can be given (R2 = open) a shown below, where τ = (R1+rC)C i.e., time
constant.
Output voltage (R2 open)
t
1 + srC C U 1 R1 1 R1 −
uo = ⋅ =U( − ⋅ ) → U (1 − e ( R1 +rC )C )
1 + s ( R1 + rC )C s s R1 + rC s + 1 R1 + rC
( R1 + rC )C
Input current (R2 open)
t
UC U 1 U −
iin = = ⋅ → e ( R1 + rC )C
1 + s ( R1 + rC )C R1 + rC s + 1 R1 + rC
( R1 + rC )C

1 1
Applicable L-transforms: u (t ) ↔ e − at ↔
s s+a

Initial value theorem: lim+ f (t ) = lim sF ( s ) Final value theorem: lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t →∞ s →0
t →0 s →∞

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 4
The corresponding time-domain responses are shown in Fig. 2.11 including the meaning of the time constant.

a) b)

Fig. 2.11 The time-domain responses of the RC circuit (R2 = open): a) uo, and b) iin

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 5
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.11. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain responses of the
output voltage and input current can be given (R2 connected) a shown below, where τ = (R1R2/(R1+R2)+rC)C i.e.,
time constant (Note: Rp = R1R2/(R1+R2)).
Output voltage (R2 connected)

R2 1 + srC C U Rp 1 Rp 1
uo = ⋅ = ( − ⋅ )U
R R
R1 + R2 1 + s ( 1 2 + r ) s R1 s R p + rC s + 1
C
R1 + R2 ( R p + rC )C
t
Rp Rp −
( R p + rC ) C
→U (1 − e )
R1 R p + rC
Input current (R2 connected)

1 1 + s ( R2 + rC )C U U 1 R2 − R p 1
iin = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅( + )
R1 + R2 1 + s ( R p + rC )C s R1 + R2 s R p + rC s + 1
( R p + rC )C
t
U R2 − R p − ( Rp + rC )C
→ (1 + e )
R1 + R2 R p + rC
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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 6
The corresponding time-domain responses are shown in Fig. 2.12 including the meaning of the time constant.

a) b)

Fig. 2.12 The time-domain responses of the RC circuit (R2 connected): a) uo, and b) iin

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 7
Fig. 2.13 shows a second-order LC circuit which is also known as resonant circuit. The current sink at the
output of the circuit is assumed to be zero. We are interested to study the time-domain behavior of the output
voltage uo and input iin when a step change is applied to the input voltage uin. When computing the responses,
we assume that the load resistor Ro is an open circuit .

Output voltage: Input current:

1 1 + srC C 1 sC
uo = ⋅ ⋅ uin iin = ⋅ ⋅ uin
r +
LC s 2 + s L C +r 1 r +
LC s 2 + s L C +r 1
L LC L LC
1 1 + srC C 1 sC
G (s) = ⋅ G (s) = ⋅
LC s 2 + s rL + rC + 1 LC s 2 + s rL + rC + 1
L LC L LC

Fig. 2.13 LC circuit

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 8
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.14. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain response of the
output voltage can be given a shown below. The corresponding time-domain behavior is shown in Fig. 2.15.
Output voltage: rL
s+
1 1 + srC C U 1 L
uo = ⋅ ⋅ =U( − )=
LC 2 rL + rC 1 s s rL + rC 1
s +s + s +s
2
+
L LC L LC
rL + rC 1 r +r
s+ − ( L C )2
1 2L (rL − rC ) / 2 L LC 2L
U( − − ⋅ )
s rL + rC 2 1 rL + rC 2 1 r +r r + r 1 r + r
(s + ) + −( ) − ( L C )2 (s +
L
) +
C 2
− ( L C )2
2L LC 2L LC 2L 2L LC 2L
rL + rC
− ⋅t (rL − rC ) / 2 L 1 rL + rC
→ U (1 − e 2L
(cos(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t ) − sin(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t )); ωn = ; ζ=
ωn 1 − ζ 2 LC
2
L
C
2
−
rL + rC (r − r ) / 2 L 
⋅t
−1 ωn 1 − ζ
2
≈ U (1 − e ( 1+ 
2L L C
 sin(ωn 1 − ζ ⋅ t + tan (
2
))
 ω 1− ζ 2  (rL − rC ) / 2 L
 n 
b
a sin x + b cos x = a 2 + b 2 sin( x + tan −1 )
a
1 s+a ω
Applicable L-transforms: u (t ) ↔ e − at cos ωt ↔ e − at
sin ω t ↔
s ( s + a)2 + ω 2 ( s + a)2 + ω 2
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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 9
The applied component values of the resonant circuit in Fig. 2.14 are as follows: L = 105 μH, C = 316 μF, rL =
τ = 2 L / (rL +rC ) ωres = 2π f res = 1/ LC
30 mΩ, rC = 30 mΩ, respectively.

Fig. 2.14 Output-voltage response of the LC circuit

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 10
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.14. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain response of the
input current can be given a shown below.

Input current:

1 r +r
− ( L C )2
1 C CU LC 2L
uo = ⋅ ⋅U = ⋅ )
LC r + r 1 1 r +r r + r 1 r + r
s2 + s L C + − ( L C )2 (s +
L
) +
C 2
− ( L C )2
L LC LC 2L 2L LC 2L
rL + rC
CU − ⋅t
→ ⋅e 2L
⋅ sin(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t )
ωn 1 − ζ 2

1 s+a ω
Applicable L-transforms: u (t ) ↔ e − at cos ωt ↔ e − at sin ωt ↔
s ( s + a)2 + ω 2 ( s + a)2 + ω 2

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 11
The applied component values of the resonant circuit in Fig. 2.14 are as follows: L = 105 μH, C = 316 μF, rL =
τ = 2 L / (rL + rC ) ωres = 2π f res = 1 / LC
30 mΩ, rC = 30 mΩ, respectively.

Fig. 2.15 Input-current response of the LC circuit

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 12
We assume now that the equivalent series resistances (ESR) rL and rC are zero and compute the effect of the load
resistor Ro on the behavior of the resonant circuit. Without the load resistor, the circuit will be oscillating at the
resonant frequency because the time constant of the exponential function would be infinite. See the previous
analyses.

Output voltage: Input current:

1 1 + sRo C u
1 1 iin = ⋅ ⋅ in
uo = ⋅ ⋅ uin LC s 2 + s 1 + 1 Ro
LC s 2 + s 1 + 1
Ro C LC
Ro C LC

Fig. 2.16 LC circuit

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 13
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.16. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain response of the
output voltage can be given a shown below. The response is shown in Fig. 2.16b.

Output voltage: 1
s+
1 1 U 1 Ro C
uo = ⋅ ⋅ =U( − )=
LC s 2 + s 1 + 1 s s s2 + s 1 + 1
Ro C LC Ro C LC
1 1 1 1 2
s+ −( )
1 2 Ro C 2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C
U( − − ⋅ )
s (s + 1 )2 + 1 − ( 1 )2 1 1 2 (s + 1 )2 + 1 − ( 1 )2
−( )
2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C 2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C
1
− ⋅t 1 1 L/C
→ U (1 − e 2 Ro C
(cos(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t ) − sin(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t )); ωn = ;ζ =
2 Ro Cωn 1 − ζ 2 LC 2 Ro
2
−
1
⋅t  1 
≈ U (1 − e 2 Ro C
⋅ 1+   ⋅ sin(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ⋅ t + tan −1 (2 Ro Cωn 1 − ζ 2 ))
 2 R Cω 1 − ζ 2 
 o n 

1 s+a ω
Applicable L-transforms: u (t ) ↔ e − at cos ωt ↔ e − at sin ωt ↔
s ( s + a)2 + ω 2 ( s + a)2 + ω 2
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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 14

a) rL = rC = 30 mΩ b) rL = rC = 30 mΩ, Ro = 10 Ω

Fig. 2.16 Output-voltage response of the LC circuit with a) ESRs and b) load resistor

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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 15
We assume now that a step change of U is applied to the circuit in Fig. 2.16. The Laplace transformation of uin is
U/s. As a consequence of this, the Laplace transformations and the corresponding time-domain response of the
input current can be given a shown below. The response is shown in Fig. 2.17b.
Input current: 1
s+
1 1 + sRo C U U 1 2 Ro C
iin = ⋅ ⋅ = ( − −
LC s 2 + s 1 + 1 Ro s Ro s ( s + 1 ) 2 + 1 − ( 1 ) 2
Ro C LC 2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C
1 1 2
−( )
1 LC 2 R C
⋅ o
)
1 1 2 (s + 1 1 1
2 Ro C −( ) ) +
2
−( ) 2

LC 2 Ro C 2 Ro C LC 2 Ro C
1
U − ⋅t 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
→ (1 − e 2 RoC (cos( −( ) ⋅ t) + sin( −( ) ⋅ t ))
Ro LC 2 Ro C 1 1 2 LC 2 Ro C
2 Ro C −( )
LC 2 Ro C
1
U − ⋅t 1 1 2
≈ (1 − e 2 RoC
cos( −( ) ⋅ t ))
Ro LC 2 Ro C
1 s+a ω
Applicable L-transforms: u (t ) ↔ e − at cos ωt ↔ e − at sin ωt ↔
s ( s + a)2 + ω 2 ( s + a)2 + ω 2
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Introduction to Time-Domain Responses- 16

0A 1A

a) rL = rC = 30 mΩ b) rL = rC = 30 mΩ, Ro = 10 Ω

Fig. 2.17 Input-current response of the LC circuit with load resistor

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