Energy 203 (2020) 117816

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Performance improvement of photovoltaic modules via temperature

homogeneity improvement
M. Muneeshwaran a, Uzair Sajjad a, Tanveer Ahmed b, Mohammed Amer a,
Hafiz Muhammad Ali c, **, Chi-Chuan Wang a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
b
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
c
Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Though the PV module performance can be enhanced by cooling, the associated temperature non-
Received 23 December 2019 uniformity across the PV panel can deteriorate its efficiency. In this study, a significant effort is con-
Received in revised form ducted for an air-cooling system that can control the temperature uniformity across the PV panel. The
5 May 2020
cooling of a rooftop PV module is enabled by the air-conditioning unit installed on the building’s roof. PV
Accepted 6 May 2020
Available online 10 May 2020
panel performance, with and without the cooling, is experimentally investigated for the uniform cold air
duct. Experimental results showed that the cooled panel temperature is 6e12
C lower than that of the
uncooled one. However, even with the cooling, the temperature non-uniformity of 4e7
C was noticed
Keywords:
PV module
across the PV panel. To improve the temperature uniformity across the module, converging cold air ducts
Air cooling technique with different area ratios (AR) of 0.667 and 0.333 were designed and analyzed numerically. The effect of
Panel temperature inlet air temperature (Tin-air ¼ 18e23
C) and inlet airflow velocity (U ¼ 2e3 m/s) on panel temperature
Temperature non-uniformity were also studied. The results suggested that the PV panel with CCD having an AR of 0.333 exhibited a
Converging duct temperature non-uniformity of 1.5e2.5
C and demonstrated a 17e22% improvement in module effi-
ciency under Tin-air ¼ 18
C and U ¼ 3 m/s.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar modules display a

Solar cells are widely used for the conversion of light energy into
electricity by photovoltaic effect [1]. They have been extensively
studied for performance evaluation, efficiency enhancement, and
cost optimization. Many factors can degrade the performance of the
solar cell and reduce its efficiency, such as panel temperature, solar
irradiance, and ambient condition [2e4]. It has been found that the
efficiency of the solar panel is significantly reduced when the
module temperature is raised [5e7].On the other hand, solar panels
exhibit comparatively better performance at lower temperatures
[8,9]. It has also been reported that solar cells suffer from long-term
deterioration if the temperature exceeds a specific limit [10].
Many researchers witnessed the degradation of PV panel per-
formance with the rise in temperature. Ali et al. [9] reported that
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hafiz.ali@kfupm.edu.sa (H.M. Ali), ccwang@nctu.edu.tw
(C.-C. Wang).
lower electrical efficiency in peak summer months as compared to
winter. Maintaining the low panel temperature will help in
improving the efficiency of the solar module. For improving the
solar panel output power and efficiency, several researchers
introduced various cooling methods for the PV panel. Moharram
et al. [11] developed a cooling system based on the concept of
spraying water onto PV panels. The authors successfully decreased
the temperature of the PV panel by around 10
C and reported a
significant improvement in the electrical energy output. Rosario
et al. [12] cooled the PV modules by partially merging them in the
water, and achieved a 10e20% increment in efficiency when
compared to the same modules without cooling. Zhu et al. [13]
presented a de-ionized water immersion cooling solution for the
high concentration PV system. Another water-based cooling
scheme was reported by Odeh et al. [14], in which water trickling
mechanism was introduced to spray water on the upper surface of
the solar panel that yields a 15% improvement in system output.
Kolhe et al. [15] demonstrated that imposing water cooling on PV
panels can achieve up to 4.7e5.2 times higher electrical power.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117816
0360-5442/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816
Abdolzadeh and Ameri [16] enhanced the performance of a
photovoltaic water pumping system by cooling the PV modules
through the water spraying technique. Alami et al. [17] studied the
effect of evaporative cooling on the performance of PV cells. To cool
the PV panel, they applied a layer of synthetic clay on the backside
of the module. The authors reported a 19% increase in output power
through this cooling method.
Uzair et al. [18] introduced a cost-effective air cooling method
for PV panel cooling. In their approach, PV panels were cooled by
cold air supplied from the air-conditioning systems installed in the
buildings. Elminshawy et al. [19] used the geothermal air-cooling
system to control the PV panel temperature. They showed a
reduction of 13
C in panel temperature and an improvement of
22.98% in electrical efficiency. Nethra et al. [20] utilized an earth to
air heat exchanger concept for PV panel cooling. Air was cooled by
an earth to air heat exchanger and it was circulated back to the PV
panel to achieve an effective temperature reduction in the module.
Hernandez et al. [21] proposed a novel segmented aluminum heat
sink for cooling PV panel under still air condition and achieved a
10
C reduction in module temperature. Marinic et al. [22] analyzed
various slit arrangements to augment the cooling rate on PV panel
surface for the wind speeds less than 5 m/s and they found that a
reduction of 3
C is possible for the optimized slit arrangement. Kim
et al. [23] attached an iron and aluminum mesh on the backside of
the PV panel to reduce the panel temperature by 4.35
C and
6.56
C, respectively. Qifen et al. [24] studied the effect of non-
uniform heat transfer across the PV module and proposed an
optimized design comprising of heat pipe and fins. This design
served to minimize the module temperature as well as to maintain
temperature uniformity. Bahaidarah [25] analyzed the effect of
temperature uniformity in reducing the average panel temperature
via impingement cooling and showed that the conversion effi-
ciency can be increased by 98.4% by improving the temperature
uniformity. Bahaidarah et al. [26] summarized the importance of
uniform and non-uniform cooling of PV panels and listed various
cooling techniques such as heat pipes, immersion cooling, and
impingement cooling that can improve the conversion efficiency by
maintaining the temperature uniformity. Some of the cooling
methods employed for the solar PV modules are presented in
Table 1.
From the above literature review, most of the prior efforts
focused on increasing the panel efficiency by lowering its temper-
ature. Even though reducing the panel temperature can enhance
the panel efficiency, maintaining the uniform temperature distri-
bution across the solar panel can further improve its efficiency.
However, only a few studies were conducted regarding the tem-
perature homogeneity in solar panels. Among those few efforts, one
of the attempts for the thermal homogenization of the solar mod-
ules was carried out by Baloch et al. [28]. They assessed the per-
formance of the water-cooled PV panel by a converging channel
heat exchanger. Despite water cooling is very efficient, for practical
concerns in the application or in water-scarce regions, air cooling is
more reliable and simpler in implementation. Yet, until now, none
Table 1
Cooling methodologies for photovoltaic modules.
Reference Cooling method
Nizetic et al. [27] Simultaneous water sprinkling on both sides of the PV panel
Baloch et al. [28] Converging channel heat exchanger
Moharram et al. [11] Water sprinkling on the front surface of the PV module
Kaiser et al. [29] Air cooling (open-air supplied beneath the panel by a fan)
Alami et al. [17] Evaporative cooling using synthetic clay
Ebrahimi et al. [30] Cooling by natural vaporization
Chandrasekhar and Senthil Kumar [31] Heat spreader in conjunction with a cotton wick
of the efforts for the PV cooling regarding the temperature ho-
mogenization of solar panels by air cooling means had been re-
ported. Hence, the objective of this study is to investigate the
feasible air-cooled designs concerning potential area ratios (uni-
form and non-uniform cross-section).
Mostly, the PV panels are installed on the rooftop of the build-
ings. These panels can also be cooled by the air-conditioning sys-
tems, which are also usually mounted on the rooftop of the
building. PV panel cooling was achieved by supplying a cold air
(supplied from the air-conditioning system) through the duct
installed under the PV panel. In this study, an experimental and
numerical investigation was carried out for the solar photovoltaic
cooling system with a cold air duct having a uniform and non-
uniform cross-section. The performance of the PV panel was
experimentally investigated for a uniform cold air duct (UCD) un-
der the cooled and uncooled conditions. The results indicated that
the panel temperature was reduced under the cooled condition,
thereby increasing the system efficiency. Based on the experi-
mental results of the UCD, converging cold air duct (CCD) was
designed and numerically investigated under different operating
conditions such as the airflow velocity (U), the inlet temperature of
the air (Tin-air), and the area ratio of the duct (AR). The results
showed that the CCD with an area ratio of 0.333 can provide a more
uniform temperature distribution across the PV panel, and it can
yield a 20e25% higher module efficiency when compared to the
UCD.
2. Experimental setup
The experiments were carried out in the climate conditions of
Taxila, Pakistan. The Schematic of the experimental facility is pre-
sented in Fig. 1 (a). Specifications of the tested solar modules are
provided in Table 2. Two PV modules containing the same di-
mensions were used in the current investigation and the dimen-
sional details of the duct are provided in Table 3. One module
performance was accessed without any external cooling, while the
other is operated with the help of a cooling unit. The experimental
system mainly consists of (1) PV panel, (2) Air-conditioning unit, (3)
Cold air duct, and (4) Data measurement and acquisition system.
The PV module, which was cooled by cold air, was placed on the
cold air duct, as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The PV panel was placed on the
top of the duct, which directs the cooled airflow from the air-
conditioner. Moreover, the PV panel was fixed in the opening
provided at the duct, which enables the direct contact of the PV
panel and cold air. Meanwhile, an air leakage test was performed to
ensure there is no leakage exists in the system. An air conditioner
(Dawlance LVS-15) of one refrigeration ton capacity was employed
to supply the cold air for solar panel cooling. A flow straightener
was provided in the duct to minimize the effect of airflow mal-
distribution. The temperature of the cold air was measured at the
inlet of the cold air duct by K-type thermocouple meshes, which
contains eight thermocouples (±0.5
C). The average value of these
eight thermocouples was regarded as the corresponding cold air
Major findings
More than 5.9% enhancement in electrical efficiency
36% increase in conversion efficiency
12.5% increase in efficiency
19% increase in output power (at an air ventilation rate of 6 m/s)
19.1% enhancement in power output
More than 20% increase in electrical efficiency
14% increase in electrical yield
 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816 3

measured by a Pyranometer (TBQ-2 type) having a spectral range of

280e3000 nm (range: 0e2000 W/m2; accuracy: ±5%). A solar
module analyzer (PROVA-200) was employed for measuring
different output parameters of the PV modules.

3. Data reduction and STC characterization of the module

Different performance parameters are calculated by using the

following formulae.
Module power:

P¼ V  I (1)
Module Efficiency:


hm ¼ P=ðE  A Þ  100 (2)
a

4. Numerical methodology

4.1. Model description and governing equations

In the experimental study, the performance of the PV panel with

cooling was studied only for the uniform cold air duct (UCD). The
experimental results indicate that for the UCD, the temperature
non-uniformity across the PV panel is quite large. Therefore, it is
necessary to minimize the temperature non-uniformity of the
panel in order to increase its efficiency. To achieve this, converging
cold air ducts (CCD) were designed and analyzed numerically. The
details of the various designs taken for the numerical analysis are
shown in Fig. 2. Totally three models are designed and analyzed,
including (1) UCD with AR ¼ 1.0, (2) CCD with AR ¼ 0.667, and (3)
Fig. 1. (a) PV panel cooling system (b) Temperature measurement point in the PV
panel.
CCD with AR ¼ 0.333, respectively. The UCD (AR ¼ 1.0) was taken as
a reference case, and the performance of CCD (AR ¼ 0.667 and
0.333) was compared with the reference case. The details of the
Table 2 boundary condition are described as follows. At the inlet, the air
STC values of the tested photovoltaic panel. temperature was varied from 18
C to 23
C, and the airflow velocity
Parameters STC Values ranges from 2 to 3 m/s. For the 2 and 3 m/s, the corresponding
Reynolds number based on the ducts inlet dimension is, 17,656 and
Irradiance, E 1000 W/m2
Temperature 25
C
26,484, respectively. At the outlet of the duct, an atmospheric
Maximum voltage of the system 1000 V DC pressure condition prevails. At the top surface of the panel, heat
Power Tolerance 3% loss by convection is implied as the boundary condition. The power
Pmax 40 W (Q) produced by the PV panel was taken from the experimental
Vmax 18.2 V
results and it was given as a heat input of the PV panel in the nu-
Imax 2.2 A
Isc 2.7 A merical simulation. An adiabatic boundary condition is specified on
Voc 21.6 V the side walls and bottom wall of the cold air duct. No slip boundary
condition prevails on the solid wall boundaries. Thermal conduc-
tivity of the silicon PV cell was taken as 150 W/m,K [32]. The
temperature. To measure the temperature of the PV panel, ther- standard k-epsilon turbulent model was used in the numerical
mocouples are placed in the PV panel at an equal interval, as shown study and the turbulent intensity at the inlet boundary is set as
in Fig. 1 (b). The airflow velocity was measured at the inlet section 0.05. The steady-state numerical simulations were performed using
with hotwire anemometers (±0.1 m/s). Solar irradiation was COMSOL Multiphysics 5.4, which is a finite element-based soft-
ware. The governing equations used in the simulation are listed

Table 3
Dimensional details of the duct.

Duct dimensions (in mm)

Design Length At the inlet At the outlet

width Height Equivalent diameter width Height Equivalent diameter

UCD 690 540 75 131.7 540 75 131.7

CCD (AR ¼ 0.667) 690 540 75 131.7 540 50 91.53
CCD (AR ¼ 0.333) 690 540 75 131.7 540 25 47.78
4 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816

Fig. 2. The design details of cold air duct (a) Uniform cross-section with AR ¼ 1.0 (b) Varying cross-section with AR ¼ 0.667 (c) Varying cross-section with AR ¼ 0.333.

below.
Continuity equation: vUi
pk ¼  u’i u’j (8)
vxj
vU i
¼0 (3) where Uj is the time-averaged velocity components, n is the kine-
vxi
matic viscosity, u’i u’j is the Reynolds stress tensor, nT is the eddy
Momentum equation: viscosity, pk is the production of turbulent kinetic energy, k and ε
are turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation respectively. Launder,
vU i 1 vP v and Spalding [33] recommended the values for constants appearing
Uj ¼  ðU UjÞ þ nV2 U i (4) in Eqs. (5)e(7) as follows: Cε1 ¼ 1.44, Cε2 ¼ 1.92, Cm ¼ 0.09, sk ¼ 1.0
vxj r vxi vxj i
and sε ¼ 1.3.
The transport equations of turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its
!
dissipation rate (ε): Energy equation : V,ð u TÞ ¼ aV2 T (9)
! !
where u : velocity vector, m/s; T: temperature, K; a: thermal
vk v n vk
Uj ¼ nþ T þ Pk  ε (5) diffusivity, m2/s.
vxj vxj sk vxj
4.2. Numerical model validation and grid independence study
!
2
vε v nT vε ε ε
Uj ¼ nþ þ Cε1 Pk  Cε2 (6) The experiments were conducted for the UCD with AR ¼ 1.0, Tin-
vxj vxj sε vxj k k ¼ 20
C, and U ¼ 2 m/s and the PV panel temperature was
air
measured for seven days. For the same conditions, a numerical
analysis was carried out. Fig. 3 compares the experimental and
k2
nT ¼ cm (7) numerical results of the PV panel temperature. It is found that the
ε maximum deviation between the predicted temperature and
measurement is less than 1.5
C, thus substantiating the
 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816
Fig. 3. Validation of numerical prediction against experimental results.
applicability of the numerical model. Note that the temperature of
the PV panel mainly depends on the intensity of solar radiation. Yet,
some other parameters that can slightly affect the module tem-
perature, such as wind velocity, clouds, and moisture content in the
air. The effect of these environmental factors was not considered in
the numerical analysis. On top of that, the experimental data are
regarded as the average values of the seven days measurements.
Some changes were observed in the aforementioned climatic fac-
tors during the experimentation period. In this regard, a slight
variation (7%) can be seen between the experimental and numer-
ical results. The mesh details and the results of the grid indepen-
dent test are shown in Fig. 4. For the grid independent test, the
Fig. 4. Mesh details and grid independent test results (a) Mesh details for the whole computational domain (b) Mesh details (detailed view) at the corner of the system (c) Grid
independent test results.
5
Table 4
Details of different mesh types.
SI. No Mesh type No. of mesh elements Relative error (%)
1 Coarse 838,196 1.5
2 Fine 2502086 0.3
3 Finer 10073748 Reference
temperature profile of the PV panel is compared among three
different mesh types. The details of mesh type and the number of
mesh elements are listed in Table 4. It is seen from Fig. 4 that there
exists only a 0.3% deviation between a Fine and a Finer mesh type.
Hence, the Fine mesh type is adapted for further numerical
analysis.
5. Results and discussion
The experiments were conducted for seven sunny days in July.
The performance of the PV panel, with and without cooling, was
experimentally investigated only for the UCD design. The inlet air
temperature and velocity were respectively maintained at 20
C
and 2 m/s for the experimental study. Even though the perfor-
mance enhancement of the solar panel was attained by cooling, the
temperature non-uniformity across the PV panel was quite large.
For the UCD, during peak sunshine hours, the temperature non-
uniformity reaches around 7
C. This temperature non-uniformity
can significantly reduce the efficiency of the solar panel. Thus, to
attain a better temperature uniformity across the panel, converging
cold air ducts (CCD) with AR ¼ 0.667, and 0.333 were designed and
analyzed numerically. The uniform cold air duct with AR ¼ 1.0 was
also numerically modeled, and the numerical predictions were
compared with the experimental results to validate the numerical
model. The inlet airflow velocity of 2 m/s and 3 m/s were consid-
ered for this study, and the inlet air temperature was varied from
6 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816

18
C to 23
C. During the experiment, the power generated by the

PV panel (with cooling for the UCD having an AR ¼ 1.0) was
recorded, and the same was used in the numerical analysis as heat
input to the PV panel. Under these conditions, the performance of
CCD was numerically studied and compared with UCD.

5.1. Solar irradiance and power

The experiments were carried out for seven sunny days in the
month of July. It was conducted between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. All the
experimental data reported here is the average value of seven days
measurements. The PV panel temperature and solar irradiance
value are shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the solar irradiance
during peak sunshine hours (i.e., 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.) is 900e1050 W/
m2. This led to a higher panel temperature during that period. The
temperature of the panel, without cooling, is raised to 40e45
C
during peak sunshine hours. In fact, it is almost 20
C higher than
that of the STC. Apparently, the rise in panel temperature impairs
the solar module performance (i.e., reduction in efficiency). How- Fig. 6. PV panel temperature and output power over time.
ever, from the morning to evening, the temperature of the panel
with cooling is far lower than the uncooled panel. It can be seen in
Fig. 5 that the cooled PV panel achieved a temperature reduction of
6e12
C when compared to the uncooled one. As a result, cooling of
the PV panel by the cold air supplied from the air-conditioner is one
of the potential PV cooling methods. Fig. 6 displays the output
power and panel temperature over time. It is obvious that the panel
with cooling has generated more power over its counterpart (i.e.,
without cooling). The PV panel cooling has a prominent effect
during the peak sunshine hours. During that period, the panel with
cooling has produced 2e4 W higher than that of the one without
cooling, which is almost 11e16% improvement. However, in the
early morning (8 a.m.) and late evening (6 p.m.), the effect of
cooling on panel performance is low. The power improvement
attained during those periods is only 0.75e1 W.

5.2. Temperature distribution of PV panel

The temperature of the PV panel with and without cooling is

reported in Fig. 7. For the case of without cooling, the module
temperature remains above the ambient temperature for the whole
day (8 a.m.e6 p.m.). However, the temperature of the panel is al- Fig. 7. Validation of numerical model with experimental results (Tin-air ¼ 20
C and
ways below the ambient temperature upon cooling. As seen in Uair ¼ 2 m/s).
Fig. 6, the power generated by the cooled PV panel is higher than

that of the uncooled one. Though the performance enhancement of

the PV panel is feasible through this type of cooling method, some
inefficacy is associated with the temperature non-uniformity. Even
with cooling, the panel with UCD (AR ¼ 1.0) shows a large tem-
perature non-uniformity, as shown in Fig. 8. The temperature non-
uniformity is in terms of maximum temperature difference amid
the panel, namely DTpanel ¼ maximum temperature of the panel e
minimum temperature of the panel. Yet DTpanel is changing from 4
to 7
C during the period of 10 a.m. - 4 p.m. The temperature dis-
tribution of the PV panel and the velocity distribution in the duct
for the UCD design is shown in Fig. 9. At the entry region, the
temperature difference between the cold air and PV panel (DTair-
panel) is high, thus yielding a higher heat transfer rate and a lower
panel temperature. The panel is adequately cooled in the entry
region due to the high heat transfer rate. As the air moves along the
duct, it will pick up the heat generated from the PV panel. As a
result, the air temperature will increase, and DTair-panel will
decrease. Hence, the heat transfer rate between the cold air and the
PV panel will be gradually reduced alongside the panel. In sum-
mary, the panel temperature in the exit region will be greater than
Fig. 5. PV panel temperature and solar irradiance over time.
 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816 7

of the convection heat transfer mechanism. The heat transfer due to

convection can be increased by, (1) increasing the temperature
difference between the two mediums involved in the heat transfer,
(i.e., DTair-panel), (2) increasing the effective heat transfer surface
area, A, and (3) increasing the heat transfer coefficient, h. Incor-
poration of more fins at the airside can effectively augment the heat
transfer performance. However, it also contains a pressure drop
penalty and some problems during installation. Consequently, this
approach is not considered in this study. In the case of UCD, the
cross-sectional area of the duct remains unchanged alongside the

Fig. 8. Temperature non-uniformity of PV module (Tin-air ¼ 20
C and U ¼ 2 m/s).

Fig. 9. (a) Temperature distribution of PV panel at 12 p.m. (b) Velocity distribution in

the cold air duct. (AR ¼ 1.0, Tin-air ¼ 20
C, and U ¼ 2 m/s).

that of the entry region, as shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that at the
exit region, the temperature of the panel is almost 6
C higher than
that of the entry region. Even though the entry region is cooled
sufficiently, a hot zone exists in the exit region. This temperature
non-uniformity across the PV panel will degrade the panel per-
formance and decrease the module efficiency. To alleviate the non-
uniformity issue and attain a uniform temperature distribution
across the PV panel, converging ducts with AR ¼ 0.667 and 0.333
were designed and analyzed numerically. The converging duct
design helps to maintain the uniform heat transfer rate across the Fig. 10. (a) Temperature distribution of PV panel at 12 p.m. for AR ¼ 0.667 (b) Velocity
panel by accelerating the airflow towards the exit. distribution in the cold air duct for AR ¼ 0.667 (c) Temperature distribution of PV panel
The advantage of CCD over UCD can be explained with the help at 12 p.m. for AR ¼ 0.333 (d) Velocity distribution in the cold air duct for AR ¼ 0.333.
(Tin-air ¼ 20
C, & U ¼ 2 m/s).
8 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816

panel. Thus, the flow velocity is almost constant over the entire
length. This fixed flow velocity implicates a constant heat transfer
coefficient over the whole length of the panel. Besides, from the
duct inlet to outlet, the DTair-panel is gradually reduced. In this re-
gard, the combined influence of fixed heat transfer coefficient and
reduced DTair-panel causes the gradual reduction in heat transfer rate
alongside the panel for the UCD case. This indicates that the panel
with UCD encounters large temperature non-uniformity. In the CCD
design, the cross-sectional area of the duct is gradually reduced
from the entrance to exit. This reduction in the cross-sectional area
will increase the airflow velocity alongside the panel, and gradually
increase the heat transfer coefficient from the entry to exit, which
in turn enhances the heat transfer rate. In essence, the improved
heat transfer rate will compensate for the reduction of heat transfer
rate caused by the reducing DTair-panel, and maintains a compara-
tively uniform heat transfer rate over the entire length of the panel.
This phenomenon can help in maintaining the uniform tempera-
ture distribution over the whole panel. Based on this convective
heat transfer mechanism, converging ducts with AR ¼ 0.667 and
0.333 were designed to attain a uniform temperature distribution
across the panel. The temperature non-uniformity of the PV panel
with a CCD design can be seen in Fig. 8. During the peak sunshine
hours (10 a.m.e4 p.m.), the temperature non-uniformity of
1.8e3.5
C is observed for the CCD with AR ¼ 0.667, which is almost
50% less than that of the UCD design (AR ¼ 1.0). Similarly, the CCD
with AR ¼ 0.333 showed a temperature non-uniformity of only
1.5e2.5
C, which is around 60% less than that of the UCD. The
temperature distribution of the PV panel and the velocity

Fig. 11. PV panel temperature (a) Tin-air ¼ 23
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (b) Tin-air ¼ 20
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (c) Tin-air ¼ 18
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (d) Tin-air ¼ 23
C & Uin ¼ 3 m/s (e) Tin-air ¼ 20
C &
Uin ¼ 3 m/s (f) Tin-air ¼ 18
C & Uin ¼ 3 m/s.
 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816 9

distribution in the duct having AR ¼ 0.667 and 0.333 are shown in

Fig. 10. The above results indicate that the converging duct has a
high potential in controlling the temperature uniformity across the
PV panel.

5.3. Influence of airflow velocity and inlet air temperature on PV

panel performance

It is seen from the previous section that the converging duct

plays a vital role in controlling the temperature uniformity of the
PV panel. Besides that, airflow velocity and inlet air temperature
can significantly affect the performance of the PV panel. The effect
of these two parameters is discussed in this section. The inlet
airflow velocity and inlet air temperature are termed as U and Tin-
air, respectively. The analysis is carried out for the inlet air tem-
perature of 18e23
C and the velocity of 2 and 3 m/s. The tem-
perature of the PV panel under various operating conditions is
shown in Fig. 11. In general, for all the studied operating conditions,
PV panel with CCD (AR ¼ 0.333) experienced a lower temperature
when compared to the other duct designs (i.e., AR ¼ 1.0 and
AR ¼ 0.667). Yet, a profound cooling effect is noticed from 8 a.m. to
4 p.m. However, in the late evening (6 p.m.), the UCD and CCD
designs exhibited the same cooling effect due to the low ambient
temperature. It is interesting to note that the panel temperature is
around 25
C (STC requirement) for an air inlet temperature of
18
C. As far as the airflow velocity is concerned, U ¼ 3 m/s has
provided better cooling than the 2 m/s. It is seen in the previous
section that the CCD with AR ¼ 0.333 contains the best temperature
uniformity. Therefore, subsequent investigation regarding the ef-
fect of inlet air temperature and airflow velocity on PV panel
temperature is based on the CCD with AR ¼ 0.333. The effect of inlet
air temperature for U ¼ 3 m/s is shown in Fig. 12 (a). It is seen that
during the peak sunshine hours (10 a.m.e4 p.m.), the maximum
panel temperature obtained for Tin-air ¼ 23
C is around 31
C,
which is almost 6
C higher than that of the STC. Whereas, for the
same period, a maximum panel temperature of 27
C and 26
C is
attained for the Tin-air of 20
C and 18
C, respectively. These values
are very close to the solar module STC requirements. The effect of Fig. 12. PV panel temperature (a) Effect of inlet air temperature (U ¼ 3 m/s;
inlet air velocity for Tin-air ¼ 18
C is shown in Fig. 12 (b). The higher AR ¼ 0.333) (b) Effect of airflow velocity (Tin-air ¼ 18
C; AR ¼ 0.333).
flow velocity (U ¼ 3 m/s) yields a maximum panel temperature of
around 26
C. If the velocity is decreased to 2 m/s, the panel tem-
perature reaches a maximum of 29
C. This increase in panel 5.4. Temperature homogeneity improvement via high DTair-panel
temperature at a low airflow velocity is due to the reduction in heat
transfer rate (i.e., reduced heat transfer coefficient). In the previous sections, the temperature homogeneity of the
For every 1
C rise in temperature above the STC, the efficiency solar panel was noticeably improved by the converging duct design,
of the panel will drop by 0.5% [34]. The influence of cell tempera- which accelerates the airflow velocity towards the outlet and thus
ture on its efficiency can be calculated using ƞc ¼ ƞTref [1-bref*(Tc- increases the convective heat transfer rate by increasing the heat
Tref)], where Tref is the reference temperature, ƞTref is the electrical transfer coefficient. In the previous designs, the temperature dif-
efficiency of the module at Tref, and bref is the temperature coeffi- ference between the cold air and panel (DTair-panel) was gradually
cient at reference temperature (0.45%/K) [35]. The effect of inlet decreasing from the inlet to outlet, which is also the main factor
air temperature and inlet airflow velocity on module efficiency is contributing to the temperature non-uniformity. By maintaining
shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen that during peak sunshine hours, the the high DTair-panel over the entire length, the uniform convective
module efficiency is lower due to the rise in panel temperature. heat transfer rate can be attained. This can be achieved by intro-
However, during the peak sunshine hours, the CCD with AR ¼ 0.333 ducing the additional fresh cold air into the duct at some distance
showed a 20e25% increased efficiency than that of the UCD with away from the inlet. For an additional supply of cold air, two con-
AR ¼ 1.0. The efficiency improvement attained in the early morning figurations were considered in this study, as shown in Fig. 15. In
and late evening is in the range of 5e10%. The effect of inlet air Design A, in addition to the main inlet, the cold air was also sup-
temperature and airflow velocity for the CCD with AR ¼ 0.333 is plied via the sides of the duct; whereas, in Design B, the cold air was
shown in Fig. 14. For the inlet airflow velocity of 3 m/s, the effi- supplied through the bottom of the duct. In both designs, the inlet-
ciency attained for Tin-air ¼ 18
C is 17e22% and 7e9% respectively 2 (75  75 mm2) is located at a distance of 345 mm from the main
higher than that of the Tin-air ¼ 23
C and Tin-air ¼ 20
C. The effect of inlet (inlet-1). The temperature non-homogeneity attained by
inlet airflow velocity for Tin-air ¼ 18
C is shown in Fig. 14(b). It these two designs are compared with the reference case, which has
indicates that the airflow velocity of 3 m/s provided a 6e13% higher no secondary inlet, as shown in Fig. 16. The results indicate that the
efficiency than that of U ¼ 2 m/s. temperature non-uniformity attained by Design A and B is better
10 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816
Fig. 13. Module efficiency (a) Tin-air ¼ 23
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (b) Tin-air ¼ 20
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (c) Tin-air ¼ 18
C & Uin ¼ 2 m/s (d) Tin-air ¼ 23
C & Uin ¼ 3 m/s (e) Tin-air ¼ 20
C &
Uin ¼ 3 m/s (f) Tin-air ¼ 18
C & Uin ¼ 3 m/s.
than that of the reference case. The temperature non-uniformity,
which is a maximum temperature difference across the panel,
attained by Design B is almost 30% lower when compared to Design
A. However, the temperature distribution of the panel suggests that
the Design A can provide a more uniformity over Design B, as
shown in Fig. 17. In Design A, a major portion of the panel experi-
ences a uniform temperature of 26e27
C. Yet the area of the panel
containing a maximum temperature (i.e., hot zone) is minimum
when compared to the Design B. The reason for attaining the small
hot zone in Design A is because of the air recirculation caused
behind the inlet-2. In the case of Design B, the temperature uni-
formity of the panel is poor. A major portion of the panel experi-
ences a temperature of 28e29
C, which is 2
C higher than that of
Design A.
6. Future research direction and potential applications
In this study, PV panel cooling and the improved temperature
uniformity is attained via cold air supply from the refrigeration
system and its ducting system (e.g. converging duct), respectively.
Usually, the convective thermal resistance on the air side is much
higher due to its poor thermal conductivity. In order to increase the
heat transfer rate, the active surface area need to be increased
effectively by providing various fin surfaces such as plain fins and
wavy fins (i.e., at the back side of the PV panel). Yet, the enhanced
surfaces can be incorporated with some ideas in increasing the
effective temperature difference to maximize the heat transfer (e.g.
partial bypass design by Chen and Wang [36]). These concepts are
highly recommended to enhance the heat transfer as well as to
improve the PV panel performance.
The results of this study emphasis that the PV panel perfor-
mance can be enhanced by improving the temperature homoge-
neity of the module. This concept can be directly applied in the
commercial and residential buildings, where solar panels and
refrigeration systems are placed on rooftop. Moreover, the
converging duct method can also be employed in solar heater and
solar dryer applications where a higher outlet temperature of the
working fluid is demanded. In those applications, an increased
outlet temperature of the working fluid and the improved uniform
temperature distribution of the panel can be achieved simulta-
neously through this method.
7. Conclusions
The performance of the PV module can be augmented by cool-
ing, but the associated temperature non-uniformity across the PV
panel can deteriorate its efficiency. The present study focuses on
the performance improvement of an air-cooling PV module by
manipulating temperature uniformity across the PV panel. The
cooling of the rooftop PV module is enabled by the air-conditioning
 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816 11

Fig. 16. Comparison of temperature non-uniformity attained by Design A & B with the
reference case (Tin-air ¼ 18
C & U ¼ 3 m/s).

unit installed on the building roof. The performance enhancement

of the PV panel is experimentally and numerically studied with a
special emphasis on the temperature uniformity control. The
module temperature, temperature non-uniformity, and efficiency
improvement for UCD and CCD ducts are compared. Based on the
foregoing discussion, the main conclusions are made as follows.

1. For the UCD design with Tin-air ¼ 20
C and U ¼ 2 m/s, the panel
with cooling reveals a 6e12
C lower temperature than that of
the uncooled panel during peak sunshine hours (10 a.m.e4
p.m.). Correspondingly, the cooled panel has produced a 2e4 W
more electrical power over the uncooled one, which is almost
11e16% improvement.
2. Even with the cooling, the panel with UCD has encountered a
temperature non-homogeneity of 4e7
C.
3. For the panel with CCD, the temperature non-uniformity of
Fig. 14. Module efficiency (a) Effect of inlet air temperature (U ¼ 3 m/s; AR ¼ 0.333) (b)
1.8e3.5
C and 1.5e2.5
C is observed respectively for the
Effect of airflow velocity (Tin-air ¼ 18
C; AR ¼ 0.333).

Fig. 15. Duct designs for the temperature homogeneity improvement via increased DTair-panel.
12 M. Muneeshwaran et al. / Energy 203 (2020) 117816

the low ambient temperature and comparatively low solar

irradiance
5. During peak sunshine hours, the CCD with AR ¼ 0.333 showed a
20e25% increase in efficiency than that of the UCD with
AR ¼ 1.0.

Declaration of competing interest

Authors have no potential conflict of interest to declare.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

M. Muneeshwaran: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing

- original draft. Uzair Sajjad: Writing - original draft. Tanveer
Ahmed: Data curation. Mohammed Amer: Writing - original draft.
Hafiz Muhammad Ali: Conceptualization, Supervision. Chi-Chuan
Wang: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review & editing.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank for the support from the Min-
istry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, under contract number
108-2221-E-009-058-MY3. The authors would also like to thank
the University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, 47050,
Pakistan, for providing the experimental facilities to conduct
experimentation.

Nomenclature

Aa PV module active area, m2

E Irradiance, W/m2
I Current, A
P Power, W
T Temperature, oC
V Voltage, V
a Thermal diffusivity, m2/s
n Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
hm Efficiency of the PV module, %
AR Area ratio
CCD Converging cold air duct
ICA Inlet cross sectional area
OCA Outlet cross sectional area
PV Photovoltaic
STC Standard test condition
UCD Uniform cold air duct

subscripts
max Maximum
oc Open circuit
sc Short circuit

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4. In the late evening (after 4 p.m.), the effect of cooling on the
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