1.

0 OBJECTIVE
 To determine the consolidation characteristics of soils of low permeability

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of this experiment, students are able to:
 Conduct one dimensional consolidation test
 Identify the factors causes soil consolidation
 Determine the consolidation parameters (cv, mv, Cc and Pc)

3.0 INTRODUCTION

When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore water pressure is
increased suddenly. In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage caused by the increase
in the pore water pressure is completed immediately. Pore water drainage is accompanied by a
reduction in the volume of the soil mass, which results in settlement. Because of rapid drainage
of the pore water in sandy soils, elastic settlement and consolidation occur simultaneously.

This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This
data is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the
preconsolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained
can also be used to determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary
compression of the soil. The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are
used to estimate the magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation
settlement of a structure or an earthfill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design
of engineered structures and the evaluation of their performance.
4.0 THEORY

When a fully saturated soil is subjected to a compressive stress, its volume tends to
decrease. The decreasing of its volume is due to compression of the solid grains and escape of
water from the voids. In a free drainage soil such as saturated sand the escape of water can take
place rapidly. But in clay, due to low permeability, the movement of water occurs very much
slowly and therefore, considerable time may be required for excess water to be squeezed out to
permeable boundaries.

Settlement is the direct result of the decrease in soil volume and consolidation is the rate
of volume decrease with time. The consolidation test is use to estimate the amount of settlement
and time of consolidation. From this test some consolidation parameters such as coefficient of
consolidation (cv), coefficient of volume compressibility (mv), compression index (Cc),
preconsolidation pressure (Pc) can be determined.

There are two methods for determining the coefficient of consolidation:

(i) Casagrande or log (time) or 50% consolidation
(ii) Taylor or √ time or 90% consolidation

The coefficient of consolidation can be determined by this equation,

Tv H 2
cv  (3.1)
t
Where, cv = coefficient of consolidation (m2/year)
Tv = Time factor
H = Maximum length of drainage path (m)
t = Time to achieve 50% or 90% consolidation (year or minute)
 Square Root Time (minute)
0 5 √t90 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0

Settlement (mm) 10

15

20
x

25 1.15x
2
1
30

Figure 3.1: Settlement versus log Time

Time (minute)
0.1 1 t50 10 100 1000 10000
0% consolidation line
0
20 δ
δ
40
Settlement (mm)

A
60 50% consolidation line

80
B = 4A
100
120 100% consolidation line

140
160

Figure 3.2: Settlement versus square root time

5.0 TEST EQUIPMENTS

1. Consolidation apparatus
- Consolidation ring
- Corrossion-resistant porous plate
- Consolidation cell
- Dial Gauge
- Loading device
2. Balance readable to 0.1g
3. Vernier caliper
4. Stop-clock readable to 1 s

Consolidation apparatus

Balance readable to 0.1g Vernier caliper Stop-clock readable to 1 s

6.0 MATERIAL
  Peat soil

7.0 PROCEDURES

1. Measure the internal diameter (D) and the height of the ring, using internal vernier
calipers.
2. Weight the ring to the nearest 0.01g (mR).
3. Cutting the specimen and trimming into ring.
4. Determine the initial moisture content from trimming soil.
5. Determine the weight of ring and specimen (m1)
6. Determine the mass of bulk specimen (m) to the nearest 0.01g using this equation

m = m1 – mR

7. Place the consolidation ring and specimen (cutting edge uppermost) centrally on the
porous disc.
8. Fit the ring retainer and cell body and then place the upper porous disc centrally on top of
the specimen.
9. Place the consolidation cell centrally in position on the platform of the machine base.
10. Lift the end of the beam to allow the loading yoke to be raised to the vertical position and
adjust the loading stem by screwing it downwards until the end engages closely in the
recess on the top of the loading cap
11. Attach the compression dial gauge to the arm on the support post.
12. Add weight (2.5 kg) carefully to the load hanger
13. Add water at room temperature to the cell and make sure that the specimen and upper
porous disc are completely submerged.
14. Wind down the beam support and at the same time start the clock.
15. Observe the compression gauge readings and the clock, and record the readings on a
consolidation test form at the selected time intervals.
16. Plot the readings of the compression against time to a logarithmic scale and against
square-root-time.

8.0 EXAMPLE CALCULATION

 Date started: 9/7/07 Sample No.: A1 - 1
Soil Type: Silty clay Cell No: 4

BEFORE TEST

Moisture content from trimming: 22.9 (%) S.G. (Assumed) : 2.7

Weight of ring : 439.35 (g) Diameter of ring : 74.9 (mm)
Weight of sample + ring: 260.43 (g) Area of ring: 4406 (mm2)
Weight of sample : 178.92 (g) Thickness of ring: 20.1 (mm)
Weight of dry sample: 145.35 (g) Volume of ring : 88.56 (mm3)
Weight of initial moisture: 33.57 (g) Density,  : 2.02 (Mg/m3)
Initial moisture content: 23.1 (%) Dry density, d : 1.64 (Mg/m3)

Gs
Initial void ratio,  1 = 0.622
d

SETTLEMENT READINGS
Elapse time Cumulative
Time √ Clock Gauge
hr min sec compression, H
(min) time time reading
(mm)
0 0 0 8.00 am 0 0
10 0.17 0.41 21 21 x 0.002 = 0.04
20 0.33 0.57 23 23 x 0.002 = 0.05
30 0.50 0.71 25 25 x 0.002 = 0.05
40 0.67 0.82 29 29 x 0.002 = 0.06
50 0.83 0.91 35 35 x 0.002 = 0.07
1 1 1.00 8.01 am 41 41 x 0.002 = 0.08
2 2 1.41 8.02 am 49 49 x 0.002 = 0.10
4 4 2.00 8.04 am 58 58 x 0.002 = 0.12
8 8 2.83 8.08 am 66 66 x 0.002 = 0.13
15 15 3.87 8.15 am 75 75 x 0.002 = 0.15
30 30 5.48 8.30 am 86 86 x 0.002 = 0.17
1 60 9.00 am 95 95 x 0.002 = 0.19
2 120 10.00am 107 107 x 0.002 = 0.21
4 240 12.00 pm 115 115 x 0.002 = 0.23
8 480 4.00 pm 124 124 x 0.002 = 0.25
24 1440 8.00 am 126 126 x 0.002 = 0.25

9.0 RESULT AND DATA

9.1 For loading = 2.5 kg

DATA SHEET

Date started: 21/01/2010 Sample No.: MG001

Soil Type: Peat Soil Cell No:

BEFORE TEST

Moisture content from trimming: (%) S.G. (Assumed) : 2.7

Weight of ring : 313.8 (g) Diameter of ring : 74.76 (mm)
Weight of sample + ring: 402.6 (g) Area of ring: 4389.64 (mm2)
Weight of sample : 88.8 (g) Thickness of ring: 19.78 (mm)
Weight of dry sample: 73.3 (g) Volume of ring : 86.827 x 103 (mm3)
Weight of initial moisture: 15.5 (g) Density, r : 1.02 (Mg/m 3)
Initial moisture content: 21.15 (%) Dry density, rd : 1.64 (Mg/m 3)

Gs
Initial void ratio,  1 = 0.65
d

SETTLEMENT READINGS
Elapse time Cumulative
Time √ Clock Gauge
hr min sec compression, H
(min) time time reading
(mm)
0 0 0 9.00 am 0 0
10 0.17 0.41 60 0.12
20 0.33 0.57 80 0.16
30 0.50 0.71 115 0.23
40 0.67 0.82 220 0.44
50 0.83 0.91 320 0.64
1 1 1.00 9.01 am 360 0.72
2 2 1.41 9.02 am 450 0.90
4 4 2.00 9.04 am 487 0.97
8 8 2.83 9.08 am 500 1.00
15 15 3.87 9.15 am 512 1.02
30 30 5.48 9.30 am 520 1.04
1 60 7.75 10.00 am 521 1.04
2
4
8
24

9.2 For loading = 5 kg

 DATA SHEET

Date started: 21/01/2010 Sample No.: MG001

Soil Type: Peat Soil Cell No:

BEFORE TEST

Moisture content from trimming: (%) S.G. (Assumed) : 2.7

Weight of ring : 397.2 (g) Diameter of ring : 74.06 (mm)
Weight of sample + ring: 482.5 (g) Area of ring: 4307.82 (mm 2)
Weight of sample : 85.3 (g) Thickness of ring: 19.78 (mm)
Weight of dry sample: 63.8 (g) Volume of ring : 85.209 x 103 (mm3)
Weight of initial moisture: 21.5 (g) Density, r : 1.00 (Mg/m3)
Initial moisture content: 33.70 (%) Dry density, rd : 1.64 (Mg/m3)

Gs
Initial void ratio,  1 = 0.65
d

SETTLEMENT READINGS
Elapse time Cumulative
Time √ Clock Gauge
hr min sec compression, H
(min) time time reading
(mm)
0 0 0 9.00 am 0 0
10 0.17 0.41 180 0.36
20 0.33 0.57 220 0.44
30 0.50 0.71 250 0.50
40 0.67 0.82 324 0.65
50 0.83 0.91 390 0.78
1 1 1.00 9.01 am 457 0.91
2 2 1.41 9.02 am 650 1.30
4 4 2.00 9.04 am 710 1.42
8 8 2.83 9.08 am 746 1.49
15 15 3.87 9.15 am 790 1.58
30 30 5.48 9.30 am 810 1.62
1 60 7.75 10.00 am 820 1.64
2
4
8
24

10.0 ANALYSIS DATA AND CALCULATIONS

To convert time to minute :

1 hour = 60 min
1 min = 60 sec

For example:
1. 10 sec = 10/60 = 0.17 min
2. 20 sec = 20/60 = 0.33 min
3. 30 sec = 30/60 = 0.50 min
4. 40 sec = 40/60 = 0.67 min
5. 50 sec = 50/60 = 0.83 min

- Calculation in others convert time to minute is same operation with above.

Determine the cumulative compression, H :

H (mm) = Gauge reading x 0.002

For example:
Loading = 2.5 kg Cumulative Loading = 2.5 kg Cumulative
compression, H Gauge reading compression, H
Gauge reading
(mm) (mm
0 0 0 0
60 60 x 0.002 = 0.12 180 180 x 0.002 = 0.36
80 80 x 0.002 = 0.16 220 220 x 0.002 = 0.44
115 115 x 0.002 = 0.23 250 250 x 0.002 = 0.50
220 220 x 0.002 = 0.44 324 324 x 0.002 = 0.65
320 320 x 0.002 = 0.64 390 390 x 0.002 = 0.78
360 360 x 0.002 = 0.72 457 457 x 0.002 = 0.91
450 450 x 0.002 = 0.90 650 650 x 0.002 = 1.30
487 487 x 0.002 = 0.97 710 710 x 0.002 = 1.42
500 500 x 0.002 =1.00 746 746 x 0.002 =1.49
512 512 x 0.002 = 1.02 790 790 x 0.002 = 1.58
520 520 x 0.002 = 1.04 810 810 x 0.002 = 1.62
521 521x 0.002 = 1.04 820 820 x 0.002 = 1.64
10.1 For loading = 2.5 kg

1. Weight of sample = (Weight of sample + ring) - Weight of ring

= 402.6 – 313.8
= 88.8 g

2. Weight of dry sample = (Weight of dry sample + ring) – Weight of ring

Weight of ring = 313.8 g

Weight of dry sample + ring = 387.1 g

Weight of dry sample = 387.1 – 313.8 = 73.3 g

3. Weight of initial moisture = Weight of sample - Weight of dry sample

= 88.8 – 73.3
= 15.5 g

4. Initial moisture content = x 100 %

= x 100%

= 21.15 %

5. Area of ring = = = 4389.64 mm2

Gs
6. Initial void ratio = pd - 1 = - 1= 0.65

7. Volume of ring = j 2 t = 4389.64  19.78 = 86.827 x 103 mm3

8. Density, = = 1.02 x 10-3 g/mm3 = 1.02 Mg/m3

9. Dry density, = = 1636.36 kg/m3 = 1.64 Mg/m3

10. Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv (m2/year)

Initial height of sample, Ho = 19.78

Final height of sample, Hf = 18.26

Hav = = = 19.02 mm

Casagrande Method

From graph settlement versus square root time :

t50 = 0.72 min

Cv = = = 24.75 mm2/min

Cv = = 12.69 m2/year

Taylor Method

From graph settlement versus log time,

√ t90 = 1.22
t90 = 1.49
 Cv = = = 51.47 mm2/min

Cv = = 26.39 m2/year

10.2 For loading = 5 kg

1. Weight of sample = (Weight of sample + ring) - Weight of ring

= 482.5 – 397.2
= 85.3 g

2. Weight of dry sample = (Weight of dry sample + ring) – Weight of ring

Weight of ring = 397.2 g

Weight of dry sample + ring = 461.0 g

Weight of dry sample = 461.0 - 397.2 = 63.8 g

3. Weight of initial moisture = Weight of sample - Weight of dry sample

= 85.3 – 63.8
= 21.5 g

4. Initial moisture content = x 100 %

= x 100%

= 33.70 %

5. Area of ring = = = 4307.82mm2

 Gs
6. Initial void ratio = pd - 1 = - 1= 0.65

7. Volume of ring = j 2 t = 4307.82  19.78 = 85.209 x 103 mm3

8. Density, = = 1 x 10-3 g/mm3 = 1 Mg/m3

9. Dry density, = = 1636.36 kg/m3 = 1.64 Mg/m3

10. Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv (m2/year)

Initial height of sample, Ho = 19.78

Final height of sample, Hf = 17.02

Hav = = = 18.4 mm

Casagrande Method

From graph settlement versus square root time :

t50 = 0.95 min

Cv = = = 17.55 mm2/min

Cv = = 9.15 m2/year
 Taylor Method

From graph settlement versus log time,

√ t90 = 1.65
t90 = 2.72

Cv = = = 26.39 mm2/min

Cv = = 18.65 m2/year

11.0 OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS 1

1. From your experimental data, determine the coefficient of consolidation, cv (m2/year)

using Casagrande Method. Please comment your answer.

For Loading = 2.5 kg

Ho = Hring = 19.78 mm
H = 1.52 mm
Hfinal = Ho - H = 19.78 – 1.52 = 18.26 mm

Hav = = = 19.02 mm

t50 = 0.72 min

 Cv = = = 24.75 mm2/min

Cv = = 12.69 m2/year

For Loading = 5 kg

Ho = Hring = 19.78 mm
H = 2.76 mm
Hfinal = Ho - H = 19.78 – 2.76 = 17.02 mm

Hav = = = 18.4 mm

t50 = 0.95 min

Cv = = = 17.55 mm2/min

Cv = = 9.15 m2/year

Comment :

Refer to graph settlement versus square root time, we obtained the value coefficient of
consolidation, Cv for loading 2.5 kg and 5 kg is different. The value of Cv for loading 2.5
kg is greater than compare to loading 5 kg. This situation was happen because of the
differentiation load that apply for both sample. So, it given an affected to the value of Cv.

2. Clay samples collected from 5 metres deep in Batu Pahat has a unit weight () of 18
kN/m3. The following data were recorded during an oedometer test.

Effective Stress (kN/m2) 25 50 100 200 400 800 200 50

Void ratio (e) 0.85 0.82 0.71 0.57 0.43 0.3 0.4 0.5
(i) Plot the graph of void ratio against effective stress on semi-log graph and determine
the compression index (Cc), Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) and coefficient of volume
compressibility (mv).

(ii) Define whether the soil is normally consolidated or over consolidated.

 QUESTIONS 2

1. From the experimental data , determine the coefficient of consolidation, cv (m2/year)

using Taylor Method. Please comment your answer.

For Loading = 2.5 kg

Initial height of sample, Ho = 19.78

Final height of sample, Hf = 18.26

Hav = = = 19.02 mm

Cv = = = 51.47 mm2/min

Cv = = 26.39 m2/year

For Loading = 5 kg

Initial height of sample, Ho = 19.78

Final height of sample, Hf = 17.02

Hav = = = 18.4 mm

Cv = = = 26.39 mm2/min

Cv = = 18.65 m2/year
 Comment :

Refer to graph settlement versus log time, we obtained the value coefficient of
consolidation, Cv for loading 2.5 kg and 5 kg is different. The value of Cv for loading 2.5
kg is greater than compare to loading 5 kg. This situation was happen because of the
differentiation load that apply for both sample. So, it given an affected to the value of Cv.

2. Clay samples collected from 10 metres deep in Parit Raja has a unit weight () of 20
kN/m3. The following data were recorded during an oedometer test.

Effective Stress (kN/m2) 50 100 200 400 800 1600 400 100
Void ratio (e) 0.95 0.92 0.81 0.67 0.53 0.4 0.5 0.6

(i) Plot the graph of void ratio against effective stress on semi-log graph and determine
the compression index (Cc), Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) and coefficient of
volume compressibility (mv).
Cc=Pc=mv
12.0 DISCUSSION

Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. It occurs when stress is

applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its
bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out
of the soil.

In this experiment we have used a peat soil with different weight that is 2.5 kg for sample
1 and 5.0 kg for sample 2. After done the experiment, we had known the settlement of water
which we got for sample 2 is greater than sample 1 based from the data that we got. We also can
see that the percentage of moisture content for sample 2 is more than sample 1. In the one
structure of soil, the moisture content is to be one of factor to known the limit of stability of soil.
Each soil type has moisture content and different permeability which it will determine stated soil
type strength

From the graph settlement versus log time and graph settlement versus square root time,
we get a curve shape for the both sample. From the graph we can find the value of t 50 t90 and
other value that is need to calculate the value coefficient of consolidation, Cv. From the
calculation we can see that the value of value coefficient of consolidation, Cv = 12.69 m2/year for
2.5 kg and 9.15 m2/kg for load 5kg. We know that the value will increase when the load that we
applied to the peat soil.

The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted. Sometimes consolidation can take
1years. This is especially true in saturated clays because their hydraulic conductivity is
extremely low, and this causes the water to take an exceptionally long time to drain out of the
soil. While drainage is occurring, the pore water pressure is greater than normal because it is
carrying part of the applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles). The process of consolidation
is often explained with an idealized system composed of a spring, a container with a hole in its
cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure itself of
the soil, and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil
 When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the
decrease in volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil
mass pertaining to its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as
compressibility. In a saturated soil mass having its void filled with incompressible water,
decrease in volume or compression can take place when water is expelled out of the voids. Such
a compression resulting from a long time static load and the consequent escape of pore water is
termed as consolidation.

Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore
water in the beginning. As the water starts escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in
water gets gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil solids which increases effective
on them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The rate of escape of water depends on the
permeability of the soil.
13.0 CONCLUSION

From the experiment, the samples taken from a peat soil from the laboratory. The load
are 2.5kg and 5 kg to the load hanger. Based on experiment we carried out, we got to determine
the consolidation characteristic of soils of flow permeability through the value that we get after
experiment and determined measurements of stress-strain parameters (Cc, Cs, mv) are generally
acceptable, provided sampling quality is good, e.g. minimal disturbance, valid representation of
strata, maintenance of structure and water content, careful preparation, etc.

Measurements of strain/time relationships (cv) and permeability (k) are not so reliable.
Observed rates of settlement are generally greater than values based on oedometer test results.
Secondary compression is basically similar to compaction, except it takes place slowly. The
result of creep is a change in volume (also water content and void ratio).
The soil is in effect further consolidated, and therefore if unloaded is left overconsolidated. The
phenomenon of overconsolidation due to creep is noticeable in soft clays.

The one-dimensional compression and swelling characteristics of a soil may be measured

in the laboratory using the oedometer test (from the Greek: oidema = a swelling).
A cylindrical specimen of soil enclosed in a metal ring is subjected to a series of increasing static
loads, while changes in thickness are recorded against time.
From the changes in thickness at the end of each load stage the compressibility of the soil may be
observed, and parameters measured such as Compression Index (C c) and Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility (mv). From the changes in thickness recorded against time during a load stage
the rate of consolidation may be observed and the coefficient of consolidation (cv) measured.
The test is fully detailed in BS 1377. 

A general theory for consolidation, incorporating three-dimensional flow vectors is

complicated and only applicable to a very limited range of problems in geotechnical engineering.
For the vast majority of practical settlement problems, it is sufficient to consider that both
seepage and strains take place in one direction only; this usually being vertical.
14.0 REFERENCES

1. Books

 Lab Sheet
 Braja M. Das. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 6th. Toronto, ON: Thomson
Canada Ltd, 2006.
 Amir Khan Suwandi, Mohd Nazri Mohidin & Zaihasra Abu Talib. Kejuruteraan
Geoteknik. Penerbit : UTHM, 15 Mei 2007.

2. Internet

 http://eprints.utm.my/8312/1/KhairulAnuarKassim2000_ConsolidationCharact
eristicsOfLimeStabilisedSoil.PDF
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_%28soil%29
 http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/expt13.html
REFERENCES

3. Books

 Lab Sheet
 Braja M. Das. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 6th. Toronto, ON: Thomson
Canada Ltd, 2006.
 Amir Khan Suwandi, Mohd Nazri Mohidin & Zaihasra Abu Talib. Kejuruteraan
Geoteknik. Penerbit : UTHM, 15 Mei 2007.

4. Internet

 http://eprints.utm.my/8312/1/KhairulAnuarKassim2000_ConsolidationCharacteristic
sOfLimeStabilisedSoil.PDF