Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Understanding teacher emotions: The development of a teacher

emotion inventory
Junjun Chen*
Department of Education Policy and Leadership, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

h i g h l i g h t s

A teacher emotion inventory with five factors is developed.

It is reported Joy as the most frequently experienced emotion, Love as the least frequently experienced emotion.

Most pleasant emotions are related to classroom and collegial interactions.

Most unpleasant ones are associated with educational policies, changes, and imbalance of teachers' lives.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates the emotions experienced by primary teachers in Hong Kong and Mainland China
Received 5 June 2015 schools and develops a Teacher Emotion Inventory (TEI). Through surveying 254 teachers in a pilot study
Received in revised form and 1830 teachers in the main study, a 5-factor TEI (i.e., Joy, Love, Sadness, Anger, and Fear) is identified
5 November 2015
using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. This model portrays primary teachers enjoying
Accepted 4 January 2016
Available online 13 January 2016
positive interactions with students and colleagues, recognition from school, family and public, but
experiencing negative emotions in relation to unfair treatment, competition among colleagues, imbal-
ance of work lives, and pressure from society, policy, and educational change.
Keywords:
Emotion
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Teacher emotions
Hong Kong education
Chinese education
Instrument development

1. Introduction
In the research field of teaching improvement, interest has been
continuously directed towards investigating the so-called ‘rational’
factors (e.g., teacher knowledge, skills, and capacities) that affect
teaching practices in different contexts (Campbell, Kyriakides,
Muijs, & Robinson, 2004; Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008; Kington,
Sammons, Day, & Regan, 2011; Marzano, 2007; Sammons et al.,
2008; Teddlie, Creemers, Kyriakides, Muijs, & Yu, 2006). However,
important as these rational and fundamental aspects are, teacher
emotions have often been ignored or underplayed (Crawford, 2011;
Day, 2011; Hargreaves, 2001; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003) in teaching
improvement initiatives.
Emotions are at the heart of teaching (Hargreaves, 1998). Schutz
and Lanehart (2002) argue that “emotions are intimately involved
* 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, NT, Hong Kong.
E-mail address: jjchen@ied.edu.hk.
in virtually every aspect of the teaching and learning process and,
therefore, an understanding of the nature of emotions within the
school context is essential” (p. 67). Schools and classrooms are
complex emotional arenas where teachers constantly experience
emotional demands from students, colleagues, parents and leaders
(Cross & Hong, 2012; Sachs & Blackmore, 1998). To cope with these
emotional demands, teachers are required to manage their emo-
tions competently in order to successfully deliver teaching and
smoothly interact with people around them (Lee & Yin, 2011). This
need is particularly apparent during times of continuous educa-
tional reform since emotions always run high in schools during
change (Day, 2011; Fullan, 2007; Schutz & Pekrun, 2007). The sit-
uation is aggravated by the vulnerability of teachers associated
with reforms (Kelchtermans, 2005) and their resistance to change,
which inevitably triggers emotions (Bahia, Freire, Amaral, & Estrela,
2013; Van Veen & Sleegers, 2006). Nowadays, continuous educa-
tional reforms are being implemented in Hong Kong and Mainland
China (Cheng, 2009). Teachers in Hong Kong and Mainland China

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.001
0742-051X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77
are experiencing a paradigm shift into more learner-oriented
teaching and greater teacher accountability (Cheng & Mok, 2008;
National Assessment of Educational Quality, 2008). These educa-
tional reforms in Hong Kong and Mainland China have unfortu-
nately created high pressure and anxiety among teachers and
exhausted their energy and time rather than enhancing teaching
and learning in order to achieve teaching improvement (Cheng,
2009; Lee & Yin, 2011). This situation highlights the relevance of
involving teacher emotions in teaching improvement initiatives in
schools in Hong Kong and Mainland China.
Research on teacher emotions in education has warranted
attention since the late 1990s (Hargreaves, 1998; Marshak, 1996)
and has attracted increased attention in recent years. This is
motivated by the realization that teacher emotions influence
teacher behavior (Becker, Goetz, Morger, & Ranellucci, 2014;
Hagenauer & Volet, 2014; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003), teaching
(Gong, Chai, Duan, Zhong, & Jiao, 2013; Saunders, 2013; Trigweel,
2012), professional identity (Lee, Huang, Law, & Wang, 2013),
teachers' lives (Hargreaves, 2005; Schutz, 2014; Schutz & Zembylas,
2009; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015), student behavior and learning
(Brackett, Floman, Ashton-James, Cherkasskiy, & Salovey, 2013;
Chang, 2013; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009), and educational change
(Day, 2011; Leithwood & Beatty, 2007). However, few studies on
teacher emotions have taken place in Hong Kong and Mainland
China.
Although previous research on teacher emotions has made
substantial progress, it has most frequently used semi-structured
interviews (Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Examples of such studies,
including Day and Leitch (2001), Van Veen and Sleegers (2006), and
Casey and Morrow (2004), Zembylas (2005a), Cross and Hong
(2012), and Bahia et al. (2013). Certainly this methodology is use-
ful, but it only captures teachers' reflections on past emotional
experiences rather than examining their moment by moment
experience and the findings cannot be generalized beyond those
interviewed. Therefore, Stecher and Borko (2002) advocated using
a combination of quantitative surveys, which can be used to make
generalizations, and in-depth qualitative techniques that bring
these generalizations to life and illuminate survey findings (Scott &
Sutton, 2009; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). However, many such
studies are based on research in social psychology and rely on ex-
periments with college and university students (e.g.,
Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987; Eaton & Funder, 2001; Larson,
Raffaelli, Richards, Ham, & Jewell, 1990; Torquati & Raffaelli,
2004), but few focus on school teachers.
Therefore, this study addresses the following issues on the
teacher emotion literature: (1) there is insufficient research on
teacher emotion at the school level, especially in the Hong Kong
and Mainland China contexts; (2) teachers in both places are facing
high pressure during school change; (3) current research on
teacher emotion over-emphasizes on the ‘technical’ dimensions of
teaching to the detriment of its ‘emotive’ dimensions; (4) current
research is dominated by qualitative research design and lacks of
studies with a quantitative and/or mixed-method research design.
This study primarily aims at exploring how school teachers
perceive their emotions in schools of Hong Kong and Mainland
China. A second aim is to develop and validate a Teacher Emotion
Inventory (TEI) using a pilot quantitative study and a main quan-
titative study based on a prior qualitative study. The study offers
potential contributions to the literature and practice of teacher
emotions and teaching improvement. In addition, this study de-
velops the first quantitative instrument on teacher emotion in
Chinese contexts which may be adopted in teacher emotion studies
in the similar context but also provide a reference for developing a
Teacher Emotion Inventory in other contexts. Please note that
comparison between teachers from Hong Kong and Mainland
69
China was not an aim of this paper, but would present in a com-
panion paper.
2. Teacher emotions
2.1. Understanding emotion and teacher emotion
Emotion is a mysterious human phenomenon that has puzzled
us for centuries. Emotions comprise mostly dynamic qualities since
they are fundamentally about movement (Hopfl & Linstead, 1993).
Schutz, Hong, Cross, and Osbon (2006) define emotions as “socially
constructed, personally enacted ways of being that emerge from
conscious and/or unconscious judgments regarding perceived
successes at attaining goals or maintaining standards or beliefs
during transactions as part of social-historical contexts” (p. 344).
This definition of emotions is used in this study as it is grounded in
the assumption that teacher emotional experiences not only occur
in individual's psychological activities, but also involve the
emotional feelings of others and interactions with the personal,
professional, and social environment (Chubbuck & Zembylas,
2008). Farouk (2012) states that teacher emotions comprise indi-
vidual teacher's dynamic mental state level, ability of emotional
self-regulation and response to exterior stimuli, and an approach of
synthesis. Teacher emotions are not “internalized sensations that
remain inert within the confines of their bodies but are integral to
the ways in which they relate to and interact with their students,
colleagues and parents” (Farouk, 2012, p. 491). Therefore, teacher
emotions are relational with the environment, which means
teacher emotions do not exist within an individual or environment
independently, rather they involve person-environment trans-
actions (Schutz et al., 2006).
2.2. Classification of emotions
Emotions have been categorized in many ways which could be
summarized into dichotomous, multiple, and dimensional cate-
gories. The dichotomous classification of teacher emotions into
positive and negative is common in the literature (e.g.,
Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987; Diener, 1999; Larson et al., 1990;
Torquati & Raffaelli, 2004; Watson & Clark, 1988; Watson &
Tellegen, 1985) though this is claimed to narrow down the nature
of emotions or to be too straight-forward (Kristj ansson, 2007;
Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Positive emotions generally include
joy, satisfaction, pride and excitement, and negative emotions
include anger, frustration, anxiety and sadness (Hargreaves, 1998;
nsson, 2007; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). This dichotomous
Kristja
category has formed a fundamental basis for the latter research on
emotion classification. In a more complex multiple categorization,
Plutchik and Kellerman (1980) propose the wheel system to iden-
tify different human emotions. The diameter level represents how
strong each emotion is while the whole circle indicates similarities
among different emotions. In total, eight sections characterize eight
basic emotions, set out as four pairs of opposites. Gross and Barrett
(2011) theorize there are four major perspectives of emotions and
place them into an emotion continuum which encompasses basic
emotions, appraisal, psychological construction, and social con-
struction from left to right.
Parrott (2001) describes a comprehensive list that organizes
emotions into a dimensional tree structure where basic emotions
are divided into secondary emotions, which are in turn subdivided
into tertiary ones. Six primary emotions are included in the first
level, namely love, joy, surprise, anger, sadness and fear. The second
level contains more emotions within each primary emotion group.
Love, for example, is followed by affection, lust, longing, cheerful-
ness as secondary emotions. Each emotional feeling from the
70 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77
secondary emotion group has tertiary divisions. Parrott (2001)
states that many aspects of emotions are often dealt with sepa-
rately although they can only be fully understood as a whole. He
gives an example of this, asserting that the two secondary emotions
of disappointment and shame stem from the primary emotion of
sadness, although many people who experience these do not
acknowledge they are related to sadness. Parrott's tree structure,
detailing a vast list of specific and superficial tertiary emotions and
of deeper secondary and primary emotions, may prove to be a
promising research instrument because it gives a full account of
human emotions and provides an insightful awareness of the way
emotions are linked to deeper categories. Parrott's tree structure of
emotion will provide a framework to analyze teacher emotions in
this study.
2.3. Studies of emotions of school teachers
There are a few studies of school teacher emotions and their
influence on teaching from different countries. Most of these
studies use qualitative research design. For example, Zembylas
(2005b) conceptualized emotions in teaching using a primary
teacher case study in the United States. The study revealed that
teacher's emotional rules in teaching are historically contingent
and teacher emotions are influenced by social power relations and
values of social culture. Cross and Hong (2012) investigated teacher
emotions using two primary teachers in the United States. The
study reported that teachers mostly gained positive emotions from
students and experienced unpleasant emotions with difficult stu-
dents, parents, and colleagues. The study also revealed that teacher
emotions tend to be influenced by their own psychological bi-
ographies (pedagogical beliefs and identity) and school conditions
(curriculum policy and professional development). Bahia et al.
(2013) examined teacher emotions using eight Portuguese pri-
mary and secondary teachers. The most often reported positive
emotions were joy, enthusiasm, zest, and satisfaction associated
with the engagement with students. In contrast, negative emotions
related to teacher's personal growth. The study also revealed that
secondary school teachers mention their personal emotions more
than their primary colleagues, but employ more rational peda-
gogies in teaching practice.
A couple of studies employed a mixed-method approach. Scott
and Sutton (2009) investigated changes of teacher emotions us-
ing 50 primary teachers in the United States. The quantitative data
indicated a significant relationship between the types of teacher
emotions and emotion change. Zembylas, Charalambous,
Charalambous, and Kendeou (2011) conducted a very in-depth
perception of the intersection between teachers' emotional readi-
ness and socio-political initiative using a mixed method with 660
Cyprus primary and secondary teachers. It reported that unresolved
political disagreement can be transformed into teacher emotions
which are relevant to the teaching process. The study also reported
that teacher's age and gender affect teacher emotions.
In addition to the studies conducted in other contexts, Lee and
Yin (2011) investigated teacher emotions in the context of educa-
tional reform with 25 secondary teachers in China using a quali-
tative approach. The results reveal that Chinese teachers try to
maintain their positive emotions and hide or control their negative
emotional feelings. These teachers believe that positive emotions
are able to encourage student learning and improve teaching. Using
the same sample of participants, Yin and Lee (2012) identified that
teacher emotions are socially constructed and regulated by social
norms and regulations intimately related to the professional and
ethical beliefs on teaching profession. These consist of committing
to teaching with passion, hiding negative emotions, maintaining
positive emotions, and instrumentalizing emotions to achieve
teaching goals. Yin (2016) also found that Chinese secondary school
teachers used seven strategies of their emotion regulation which
comprised pretending, restraining, refocusing, reframing, sepa-
rating, releasing, and outpouring. In an exploratory study (Authors,
under review) of interviewing 53 primary school teachers in Hong
Kong and Mainland China, teachers report more positive emotions
than negative emotions, and the majority of negative emotions are
sourced from classroom contexts. The study reveals that teacher's
gender and years of teaching experience affect teacher emotions.
This study forms the basis for generating items on teacher emotions
which will constitute the quantitative teacher emotion inventory
(TEI) developed in the context of Hong Kong and Mainland.
Building upon the findings of relevant research, this proposed
project represents a preliminary study to understand teacher
emotions and to develop a TEI for primary schools of Hong Kong
and Mainland China using a mixed research method. Note that the
researcher are interested in investigating primary and secondary
school teachers' emotions in both locations, however, only the
primary school teachers were targeted in this study since teachers
from the two levels may experience different emotions. The sec-
ondary school teachers will be investigated in the future research
projects. Two research aims of this study are:
(1) To investigate teacher emotions in primary schools in Hong
Kong and Mainland China; and
(2) To develop the Teacher Emotion Inventory.
3. Method
This paper encompassed a pilot quantitative study and a main
quantitative study to respond to the two research questions using a
previous qualitative study as a basis.
3.1. Sample
The pilot survey aimed at exploring initial patterns of how pri-
mary teachers perceived their emotions and validating the pro-
posed TEI (see details in next section) using a small sample of
teachers. A 55-item TEI was distributed to 300 school teachers in
Hong Kong and Mainland China and 254 teachers responded with a
response rate of 82%. Out of the total of 254 school teachers, 80
teachers were from four Hong Kong primary schools and 174
teachers were from four Mainland China primary schools. Sixty-five
percent of the teachers were female, half were junior teachers, 62%
had a bachelor qualification, 19% held a master qualification, and
57% had six to 15 years of teaching experience.
The main study aimed at further exploring how primary
teachers perceived their emotions and validating the TEI using a
larger sample. A sample of 2200 primary school teachers was
approached and 1830 valid questionnaires were returned, giving an
excellent response rate of 83.2%. Out of 1830 respondents, 82% were
from 43 schools in Mainland China and 19% were from 12 schools in
Hong Kong, 85% of them were female, 53% were senior teachers,
76% had a bachelor qualification, 12% held a master qualification,
17% had one to five years of teaching experience, approximately
equal percentages of the teachers had six to 15 years (35%), and
16e25 years of teaching experience (34%).
3.2. Survey instrument and data analysis
In the emotion literature, some instruments (e.g., the positive
affect scale) are utilized to investigate students or teachers whose
emotions were sampled during the course of a normal day or a
certain time of professional development period (Csikszentmihalyi
& Larson, 1987; Eaton & Funder, 2001; Larson et al., 1990). A classic
 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77
approach to measure teacher emotions use the Positive and
Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) measures positive and negative
emotions separately (e.g., Watson & Clark, 1988). The other way of
measuring teacher emotions grounded in teachers' work, for
example, collecting teachers' views or statements about emotions
to create a questionnaire (Schutz et al., 2006). However, the existing
instruments are mainly developed in Western contexts and teacher
emotions are regarded as being context-dependent, it might be
practically and theoretically useful to develop an instrument in the
Chinese context. This study has built on the work and learnt the
ways of developing the instrument from the previous research. The
TEI was developed for this study based on the literature review
(e.g., Hargreaves, 2005; Lee & Yin, 2011; Schutz & Zembylas, 2009),
the related instrument review (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987;
Diener, 1999; Eaton & Funder, 2001; Gumora & Arsenio, 2002;
Larson et al., 1990; Schutz et al., 2006; Torquati & Raffaelli, 2004;
Trigweel, 2012; Watson & Clark, 1988), and the authors' previous
interview study (Authors, under review) using a content validity
procedure (Beck & Gable, 2001; Haynes, Richard, & Kubany, 1995;
Lynn, 1986). A two-stage content validity procedure, the develop-
mental stage and the judgment stage, will be employed to establish
the TEI content validity in this study (Beck & Gable, 2001; Haynes
et al., 1995; Lynn, 1986).
3.2.1. The developmental stage
The first stage focused on generating content items, identifying
domains (dimensions), and classifying an item pool for each
domain. This procedure generated a set of items relating to teacher
emotions based on relevant literature, the authors' previous qual-
itative study on teacher emotions using the framework of Parrott's
(2001) emotion tree theory (this has been reported in the a com-
panion paper). Note that the previous study is comprised of inter-
view data from 56 primary teachers from Hong Kong and Mainland
China. Two steps are commonly employed to create items and
content domains for an instrument (Haynes et al., 1995). The first
step defines content domains from previous studies relating to the
topic and then generates new items for each domain. The second
step begins by collecting items and domains from target re-
spondents on the basis of the first step. Both steps were used to
generate the content domains and the items in each domain of the
teacher emotions in this study. The advantage of employing both
steps is that this ensures all relevant items and content domains are
taken into consideration for the TEI development. Following an
extensive literature review, the five initial content dimensions
proposed consisted of love, joy, sadness, anger, and fear (Parrott,
2001). Sixty items were then generated to enable assessment of
each content domain relating to teacher emotions in the Hong Kong
and Mainland China contexts. Five volunteer primary teachers from
Mainland China were asked to examine whether all important as-
pects of teacher emotions were covered, to identify whether all
items were essential, and to eliminate items undesirable to a
particular construct domain in the TEI. According to their recom-
mendations, nine were discarded, seven items were added, and
seven were revised. There were no recommendations in terms of
the content domains. Hence, 58 items were kept in the five-
dimension TEI.
3.2.2. The judgment stage
The judgment stage consisted of three steps to examine item
validity and domain validity using a professional panel and two
samples of teacher participants from the target sample. Firstly,
three professionals in the field of teacher development were
invited to examine item validity and domain validity. A quantitative
sorting-process was utilized to check whether the items fitted into
the instrument assessing teacher emotions and whether the items
71
were in line with the five corresponding domains. The professionals
were asked to indicate whether they thought these items should be
included in the TEI (1 ¼ No, 2 ¼ Maybe, 3 ¼ Yes) and how confident
they were about that (1 ¼ not very sure; 2 ¼ Sure; 3 ¼ very sure). A
minimum of two of the three judges had to agree that an item
belonged in the TEI (where 3 ¼ yes) and the mean confidence score
had to be greater than 2.0 (2 > sure). After this, the judges were
asked to classify each of the 58 items into one of the five di-
mensions and to indicate how confident they were that their se-
lection was associated with the particular content domain. The
rating scales and criteria for domain validity were the same as the
item validity criteria. As a result, three items were discarded
because of unsatisfactory confidence ratings, three were revised,
and four items were moved from one content domain to another. In
the end, 55 items were kept in the instrument and classified into
the five original dimensions.
Secondly, a sample of 254 teachers was utilized to validate the
55-item TEI. It was expected that this stage would provide insights
into the patterns of how teachers perceived their emotions and
would reduce the items of the TEI. The 55-item TEI encompassed
five dimensions (e.g., love, joy, sadness, anger, and fear). Teacher
participants were asked to indicate how frequently they had felt
each emotion on the list during the whole academic year. The
frequency rating scale had six points with identical scores (e.g.,
1 ¼ never, 2 ¼ rarely, 3 ¼ sometimes, 4 ¼ about half the time,
5 ¼ frequently, and 6 ¼ almost always). In Part 2, teachers were
asked to give their personal demographic information. Exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) was employed to generate the model using
SPSS 20. To develop the EFA model, items were removed that had
loadings smaller than .30 on their intended conceptual factors, or
which did not match logically and theoretically with other items in
the same factors, or which caused negative error variance by being
overly correlated with each other. During this process, 14 items
were dropped. As a result of this stage, a 41-item TEI with the same
five dimensions was developed.
Thirdly, the sample of 1830 teachers was approached to further
investigate the structure of teacher emotions and to validate the
TEI. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was undertaken to examine
the patterns of teacher emotions using AMOS 21. In this stage, three
CFA procedures were involved to enhance the validity of the CFA
model through using three different samples. The sample of 1830
was randomly split into the two samples in SPSS 20. Both of them
were comprised of 915 teachers. One sample was firstly utilized to
test the 41-item model and four items were discarded. The other
sample was used to test the 37-item model and six items were
dropped. The final CFA procedure was to test the 31-item CFA
model using the whole sample of 1830 teachers and the 26-item
model was confirmed.
Maximum likelihood estimation with oblique rotation was used
in exploratory and confirmatory analysis (Costello & Osborne,
2005). To develop CFA models, in line with current practice (Hu &
Bentler, 1999; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004), a multi-criteria
approach for acceptable model fit was adapted: comparative fit
index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), and TuckereLewis Index (TLI)
.90; gamma hat .90; root mean square errors of approximation
(RMSEA)  .08; standardized root mean residuals (SRMR)  .08;
c2/df ratio was statistically non-significant (p > .01). Models that
met these criteria were considered sufficiently close to the data so
as to not be rejected. During this process, 15 items were dropped
and the final 26-item TEI was identified.
4. Results
This section explained the results based on the two research
aims of this study: Teacher emotions and the Teacher Emotion
72 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77

Inventory. However, they were interwoven rather separating from Table 2

each other. The 26-item TEI model encompassed five inter- Factor Inter-Correlations, scale Means, SDs, and Cronbach a

correlated factors with a good fit (c2 ¼ 1777.35; df ¼ 289; c2/ Scale Joy Love Sadness Anger Fear M1 SD Cronbach a
df ¼ 6.15; p ¼ .02; RMSEA ¼ .062, 90% CI ¼ .060e.062; Joy e 5.36 .54 .90
SRMR ¼ .058; TLI ¼ .91; NFI ¼ .91; CFI ¼ .92; and gamma hat ¼ .91). Love .432 e 4.28 .94 .73
These five factors comprised two positive factors (Joy and Love) and Sadness .07 ¡.20 e 4.63 .97 .86
three negative factors (Sadness, Anger, and Fear). Joy (consisted of Anger .04 ¡.23 .76 e 4.55 1.05 .87
Fear .08 ¡.22 .72 .69 e 4.31 .86 .86
seven items) focused on teachers' joy on positive interactions with
students, colleagues, and school leaders (See more items in Table 1). Note. 1 ¼ maximum agreement is 6.00. 2 ¼ Values in bold are inter-correlations
within inventories; values < .06 are not statistically significant.
The Joy factor also covered teacher emotions resulting from support
from parents and colleagues, and recognition from school leaders.
Love (made up of four items) referred to teachers' happiness
Alphas within the range of .73e.90 with an average value of .84
because of the nature of the teaching job such as respect from
were good, indicating that the items had sufficiently robust re-
others, stability, reasonableness of wage, and witness of children’
liabilities such that these items could be meaningfully used in
development. Sadness (likewise four items) described teachers
further analysis (see Table 2). Table 2 also shows the descriptive
feeling unhappy because of ignorance of their efforts, unfair
statistics for five factors. Teachers most frequently endorsed the
recognition or reward, students' unfriendly attitudes. Anger (like-
emotion of Joy (M ¼ 5.36, SD ¼ .54) followed by sadness (M ¼ 4.63,
wise four items) referred to teachers being annoyed about unfair
SD ¼ .97), Anger (M ¼ 4.55, SD ¼ 1.05), Fear (M ¼ 4.31, SD ¼ .86),
blame from the public, shifting pressure from school and education
and gave least frequency to Love (M ¼ 4.28, SD ¼ .94).
bureaucracy, and ignorance of students. Fear consisted of seven
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with main effects
items which were concerned on students' problems, competition
for sex, school location (Hong Kong vs Mainland China), educa-
among colleagues, parents' over-high expectations, and imbalance
tional background, and teaching experience was used to test
of life and work.
whether teacher characteristics caused any statistically significant
All item loadings were greater than .58, which indicated that the
mean difference for the factors of teacher emotions. MANOVA
items were related to each other as separate factors in the model
found that four characteristics (i.e., school location, educational
(see Table 1). The inter-correlations between the five factors ranged
background, and teaching experience) had statistically significant
from .23 to .76 with an average value of .34 (see Table 2). These
mean differences in frequency with five factors of teacher emo-
correlations indicate that the five factors had something in com-
tions. Univariate analysis showed that the sex effect applied only to
mon but still varied in sufficient ways. The correlations also reveal
Fear; the school location effect applied to Joy, Love, Anger, and
that the same kinds of emotions (i.e., positive emotions: Joy and
Sadness; the educational background effect applied to Love and
Love; negative emotions: Sadness, Anger, and Fear) were positively
Sadness; The teaching experience effect applied to Joy, Love,
and highly correlated with each other but negatively and weakly
Sadness, Anger and Fear (see Table 3).
correlated with the different kinds of emotions.
Teachers from Hong Kong reported more frequent Love and

Table 1
Factor loadings from confirmatory factor analysis.

Scale and item Factor loading

F1. Joy
8. I am motivated by students' care. .79
11. I feel proud when I see my students make progress. .86
13. I am glad that my students enjoy my teaching. .87
15. I am so exciting when my students interact with my teaching. .84
9. I am motivated by support from my colleagues and leaders. .78
10. I enjoy sharing with my colleagues. .85
12. I am moved for parents' understanding and support. .85
F2. Love
1. I love my teaching job because I could see how our next generation grows up which is different from other jobs. .65
2. I love my teaching job because it is a profession which could obtain respect and recognition from society. .78
4. I love my teaching job because it is stable. .70
5. I love teaching because the wage is reasonable. .70
F3. Sadness
31. I feel really sad when my students fire up at me. .69
32. I feel disappointed when my school leaders ignore my efforts and contributions. .80
33. I feel frustrated when my promotion is stuck by stiff policies. .79
34. I feel disappointed when I do not get what I should get. .85
F4. Anger
24. I am annoyed when I am misunderstood by parents. .71
25. I am indignant when the society and/or public blame our teachers without any evidence. .82
27. I feel angry when I am treated unfairly (i.e., workload arrangement, salary level). .85
28. I feel angry when the society and/or public misunderstand our teachers. .81
F5. Fear
43. I feel pressured from high expectations of parents. .76
40. I am worried about how to improve my student engagement and achievement. .60
39. I am worried about competition with my colleagues. .58
52. I am worried that students don't take responsibility for their study. .62
46. I feel pressured about imbalance of work and life. .87
47. I feel pressured when I suffer from shortage of time with too much work. .80
48. I feel pressured that my students could not accept my new teaching style which are adjusted to fit new policies/or reforms (i.e., curriculum reform). .58
 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77 73

Anger than their peers from mainland China (HK: Love M ¼ 4.74 middle. This model portrayed primary school teachers in Hong
SD ¼ .66; Anger M ¼ 4.81, SD ¼ .78; Mainland China: Love M ¼ 4.62 Kong and Mainland China as enjoying positive interactions with
SD ¼ .94; Anger M ¼ 4.49, SD ¼ .97). On the contrary, teachers from student and colleagues, understanding and recognition from
Mainland China reported that they experienced Joy and Sadness school, family and public, and stability of the nature of the teaching
more frequently than Hong Kong teachers (HK: Joy M ¼ 5.15 job, but having negative emotions regarding unfair treatment,
SD ¼ .52; Sadness M ¼ 4.48, SD ¼ .80; Mainland China: Joy competition among colleagues, imbalance of work and lives, and
M ¼ 5.39, SD ¼ .57; Sadness M ¼ 4.66, SD ¼ .98). Teachers with a pressure or frustration from society, policy, and educational change.
master degree or above experienced Love more frequently and In other words, most pleasant emotions are related to classroom
experienced Sadness less frequently than their peers (Master: Love and collegial interactions, whereas the unpleasant ones are asso-
M ¼ 5.30, SD ¼ .54; Sadness M ¼ 4.41, SD ¼ .96; Diploma: Love ciated with educational policy, changes, and imbalance in teachers'
M ¼ 5.37, SD ¼ .51; Sadness M ¼ 4.72, SD ¼ .99; Bachelor: Love lives. Furthermore, the TEI was validated through a content validity
M ¼ 5.35, SD ¼ .58; Sadness M ¼ 4.65, SD ¼ .96). Teachers with procedure. The discussion will review the major findings on the
6e25 year teaching experience were more likely to experience teacher emotion model and seek to interpret these results in light
Sadness, Anger, and Fear than their peers with less than 6 years or of the contexts of Hong Kong and Mainland China.
more than 25 years teaching experience (6e25 years: Sadness Teachers in this study reported that they experienced pleasant
M ¼ 4.75, SD ¼ .94; Anger M ¼ 4.65, SD ¼ .99; Fear M ¼ 4.46, or unpleasant emotions through interactions with students, col-
SD ¼ .87; <6 years: Sadness M ¼ 4.58, SD ¼ .96; Anger M ¼ 4.51, leagues, school leaders, and parents. As with the results from Cross
SD ¼ .95; Fear M ¼ 4.32, SD ¼ .86; >25 years: Sadness M ¼ 4.56, and Hong's (2012) study, teachers in this study were more likely to
SD ¼ .98; Anger M ¼ 4.49, SD ¼ .97; Fear M ¼ 4.28, SD ¼ .94). In experience emotions with their students at the classroom level. The
contrast, teachers with less than 6 years or more than 25 years number of questions (10 out of 26, 38.5%) revealed the interactions
teaching experience reported to experience Love more frequently between teacher and students. For example, teachers reported that
than their peers (6e25 years: Love M ¼ 5.29, SD ¼ .59; <6 years: they felt joyful when their students enjoyed their teaching, made
Love M ¼ 5.40, SD ¼ .56; >25 years: Love M ¼ 5.35, SD ¼ .55). When progress, and showed care to them. These results are consistent
checking how great were these mean differences caused by teacher with those from the relevant studies (Becker et al., 2014; Hagenauer
characteristics, the absolute values of effect sizes ranged from .02 to & Volet, 2014). They also experienced pleasant emotions regarding
.59 with an average effect size of .20. Only three effects were clearly the growth of students. Teachers talk about the joy they experience
of medium size (Cohen, 1992): school location with Love (d ¼ .59) in their relationships with children, especially when the children
and Joy (d ¼ .46), and teachers' educational background with Love are responsive, motivated, and responsible (Sutton & Wheatley,
(d ¼ .46). These effect sizes reveal that Hong Kong teachers were 2003). In Bahia et al.'s (2013) study, the experience of pleasant
more likely to have the emotion of Joy (d ¼ .59), but were less in- emotions by teachers is linked to student motivation. However,
clined to have the emotion of Love (d ¼ .46) than their peers from Linnenbrink (2007) argued that student motivation and participa-
Mainland China. In addition, teachers with a master degree or tion in learning is complex. This may need further investigation to
above experienced more frequently the emotion of Love than those prove. By contrast, teachers experienced unpleasant emotions
with a bachelor or associate degree (d ¼ .46). when students fired up at them or did not take responsibility for
their study. It is noted that teachers' worry about how to improve
student achievement had the highest means score among the
5. Discussion negative emotions (M ¼ 4.86, SD ¼ 1.22). This indicates that
teachers most frequently experienced this worry in their profes-
This study generated a teacher emotions model which encom- sional practice. It might be caused by the increasing academic
passed five dimensions, Joy, Love, Sadness, Anger, and Fear. Primary accountability of teachers in Hong Kong and Mainland China
teachers from Hong Kong and Mainland China reported Joy as the (Cheng & Mok, 2008; National Assessment of Educational Quality,
most frequently experienced emotion, Love as the least frequently 2008). The emotions identified by the teachers in this study
experienced emotion. The three negative emotions ranked in the aligned with the results from Bahia et al.’s (2013) study which
revealed that teachers are concerned about their students' success
and experience pleasant emotions in relation to student positive
Table 3
learning and performance. Teachers also worry about students' lack
Statistically Significant MANOVA and Univariate results Teacher Emotions scales.
commitment and responsibility for their study.
MANOVA & Univariate effects df F p Secondly, interactions with colleagues and school leaders also
Sex affect teachers' emotions. Nine out of 26 (34.6%) relate to emotional
Fear 1 5.94 ¼.02 affiliations with colleagues and school leaders. Teachers feel posi-
School location 5, 1824 88.81 <.001
tive (Joy) regarding collaboration with colleagues and gaining
Joy 1 61.07 <.001
Love 1 99.45 <.001 support from colleagues. This is consistent with the findings from
Anger 1 26.25 <.001 the study by Erb (2002). However, competition between colleagues
Sadness 1 10.61 ¼.001 is an aspect of teachers' Fear. These teachers did not mention much
Teacher certificate 20, 5699 12.41 <.001 about the interaction with school leaders, but focused on the di-
Joy 4 8.98 <.001
Love 4 10.62 <.001
lemmas of bureaucracy relating to leadership management (e.g.,
Anger 4 6.58 <.001 fairness, rewards, and shifting the pressure). These unpleasant
Educational background 15, 4947 5.49 <.001 emotions in relation to school leaders were triggered by educa-
Love 3 14.35 <.001 tional change. Scott and Sutton (2009) argue that emotions are
Sadness 3 4.36 ¼.005
intense when teachers are required to change their practices. The
Teaching experience 15, 4842 6.45 <.001
Joy 3 3.09 ¼.03 increasing bureaucratic workload and professional identity di-
Love 3 20.21 <.001 lemmas arising from the change lead to a growing professional
Sadness 3 9.52 <.001 vulnerability of teachers (Kelchtermans, 2005, 2011). This is espe-
Anger 3 6.64 <.001 cially the case in Hong Kong and Mainland China since teachers in
Fear 3 7.31 <.001
Hong Kong are experiencing ‘bottle-neck syndrome effects’ due to
74 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77
the continuous reforms (Cheng, 2009) and teachers in Mainland
China are experiencing professional dilemmas about rebuilding
their professional identity and educational beliefs during the
educational reforms (Gong et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2013). Lee and Yin
(2011) also identified Chinese secondary teachers' emotions during
curriculum reform. The teachers in the study considered that it was
relatively unimportant to express their inner feelings. They tended
to be careful on controlling emotions and were obedient to the
reform policies and aims. This kind of phenomenon reflects hier-
archical relationships and collective culture in Chinese Society and
schools (Yin & Lee, 2012). These findings align with other studies
such as those by Bahia et al. (2013) and Flores and Day (2006).
Teachers in this study also reported mixed emotions regarding
parents and society. Similarly, Chen and Wang (2011) found that
teacher emotions in Taiwan were influenced by some factors, such
as parents' sociocultural status, teachers' moral purposes, teachers'
notions of professionalism, teachers' political pretense, and the
frequency to contact parents, when interacting with parents.
Teachers in this study experienced positive emotions when they
believed that parents are responsible, support teachers' efforts, and
respect teachers' professional judgment but felt pressure from high
expectations. The positive emotion experiences in this study align
with the findings from Lasky's study (2005). However, unpleasant
emotional experiences associated with high expectations and un-
reasonable blame from parents and society may be a feature of the
Chinese context. In the traditional Chinese view, the teacher is
regarded as ‘completely devoted to the job’. Chinese people have
high expectations for their children's education which results in a
high demand for teacher responsibility. Unavoidably, this results in
pressure on teachers. The teachers from Mainland China had
extremely high unpleasant feelings towards society and public
blame. From the previous qualitative interview study with teachers
in Hong Kong and Mainland China, teachers felt sorrow about the
decreasing social recognition and respect of the profession. It is
even worse when the educational bureau and school leaders do not
take the responsibility that they should take but shift pressure onto
the teachers. The study by Zembylas (2005a) revealed that teach-
er's emotional roles in teaching are historically contingent and
teacher emotions are influenced by social power relations and
values of social culture. This is also in line with the findings from
other studies (Bahia et al., 2013; Jeffrey & Wood, 1996).
In addition to emotions resulting from interactions, personal
and professional life imbalance was identified by these teachers as
relevant. Teachers in this study reported five items causing un-
pleasant emotions relating to their personal and professional life. It
seems clear, that teachers experienced tremendous pressures from
heavy workload, unprepared working conditions, increased
accountability and an unchanged system structure. They struggled
with personal stress (e.g., younger babies, financial situation) and
faced conflicting personal teaching ideologies and uncertainties of
change. The reform innovations have imposed on teachers in Hong
Kong and Mainland China have forced them to try to change their
philosophy and practices in a high pressure system while existing
structural elements and traditional cultures of many schools have
remained unchanged. These create tensions and dilemmas in
teachers' lives, pose threats to teachers' professional practice,
identities and their sense of professionalism and risk the loss of
their commitment (Schutz, 2014; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015). In other
studies, scholars found similar results. For example, Sutton and
Wheatley (2003) argue that these may be caused by the open-
ended nature of teaching, increased accountability and personal
perfectionism. Bahia et al. (2013) identifies that teachers in Portugal
reported strong personal and professional frustration. The study by
Lee and Yin (2011) in the China context reports unpleasant emo-
tions against a background of reform. It has proved that teachers'
personal and professional life balance will contribute to teacher
effectiveness (Day, Sammons, Stobart, & Kington, 2007). Therefore,
how to support teachers to maintain a balance between their per-
sonal and professional life should obtain attention from policy
makers, school leaders and society.
6. Implications and future research
The implications are comprised of the perspectives of teacher
education, school management, educational change, and develop-
ment of the TEI. One of the considerable challenges that teachers
face is to understand their emotions, the role of emotions in
teaching and the classroom, and how to integrate emotions into
their professional development. Understanding one's own emo-
tions and becoming more aware of the emotions of students is an
essential prerequisite not only for the teacher's own practice, but
also for teacher professional development (Bahia et al., 2013). On
the other hand, the capacity for handling emotions in various sit-
uations will contribute to the enhancement of the emotional
climate of their classrooms, in which teachers could provide scaf-
folding to support students' emotional development (Meyer &
Turner, 2007). Teachers in this study reported mixed emotions
through interactions with students, colleagues, school leaders,
parents, and society. It seems that they are in a dilemma to un-
derstand their own emotions and manage their emotions in various
situations. This poses a challenge for teacher education and teacher
professional development to assist teachers in understanding their
emotions and managing their emotions better. There is growing
attention to the need to include emotional competencies in teacher
education and teacher professional development programs. The
programs should be proactive to prepare for and train teachers to
handle their emotions and those of others (i.e., students, parents)
(Bahia et al., 2013; Yin, 2016). Darby (2008) identifies that profes-
sional development leads to emotional change in what concerns
the reconstruction of teachers' self-understanding during a reform
period and leads to improvements in instructional practice and
student achievement. It should be noticed that Chinese teachers
sometimes try their best to maintain their pleasant emotions and
hide or control their unpleasant emotions (Lee & Yin, 2011). We are
not sure about whether the accumulation of the unpleasant emo-
tions results in an imbalance of teachers' personal and professional
life. The effects of this phenomenon on teacher and teaching are
unknown. Therefore, future empirical research may investigate
these effects so that professional development programs could be
designed based on the empirical findings. In this regard, the find-
ings of this study may be helpful to teachers for understanding
their emotions. Emotional issues-related professional development
programs may lead to emotion regulation in various situations. The
findings may also provide a theoretical frame of reference for future
teacher education and professional development not only in Chi-
nese contexts but also in international contexts. It is firstly pro-
posed that the connection between emotional and cognitive
knowledge and emotional teaching strategies in relevant situations
should be included in the initial teacher education and teacher
training programs. In addition, it is suggested to establish ongoing
partnerships with schools and teacher educators which is not the
same as the practicum relationship (Hoy, 2013). Teacher educators
need to work with and support the development of student
teachers and teachers in congruence with a variety of demands
from the current classrooms. Furthermore, programs or courses
should be developed to assist prospective or practicing teachers to
understand the situation of current teacher's identity and vulner-
ability. Initial teacher education must help future teachers see the
professional relevance and value of their emotional experiences
and support them in analyzing those feelings as reflecting their
 J. Chen / Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016) 68e77
identity and as well as the conditions they have to work in
(Kelchtermans, 2005, 2011; Lee & Yin, 2011; Schutz & Zembylas,
2009). In addition, to deal with the already emotionally charged
schooling environment and to incorporate instructional changes,
prospective and practicing teachers must resolve their inter-
psychological tensions and modify their domain specific beliefs
and identities to better align with what they would face (Schutz &
Zembylas, 2009). These, however, could be included in the initial
teacher education and teacher training programs.
It is also noted that it was a challenge for teachers to keep a
balance between their personal and professional life. The results
from MANOVA showed that teachers in this study reported fear in
relation to their life balance and, interestingly, teachers with 6e25
years of teaching experience were more likely to report such fear
than their peers. It is critically important to investigate the indi-
vidual and social aspects of emotions simultaneously to understand
teachers' lives and emotional experiences (Cross & Hong, 2012; Day
& Kington, 2008). If teachers are expected to act as change agents
for educational reforms, it is crucial to recognize challenges in
teachers' lives and their perceived constraints and to provide sup-
port wherever relevant (Dello-Iacovo, 2009; Guo, Guo, Beckett, Li,
& Guo, 2012; Harfitt & Tavares, 2004). On the one hand, there is a
need to enhance the quality of professional development programs
which are normally used to train teachers to build up their capacity
for handling unpleasant emotions. On the other hand, school
leaders may consider how to manage teacher human resources
better, how to implement high quality professional development
programs, and create a positive but relaxed school environment to
support teachers to survive through this time of tensions and di-
lemmas. In doing so, teachers could contribute by extending the
improvements and reducing the challenges and threats that the
changes bring to them. They could be enabled to refocus their
thoughts and energy in ways that keep them optimistic and
committed to their teaching job and well-developed professional
identity (Cross & Hong, 2012). Day et al. (2007) have found that one
feature for greater effectiveness may be how well the teachers are
able to manage their working lives, sustain their commitment and
sense of professional identity and build their capacity for resilience.
Future research may investigate possible connections between
the type of emotions and change. The existing research presents
mixed findings in this field. Some research has identified that
negative emotions are related to change (e.g. Beck & Frankel, 1981;
Bless, Bohner, Schwartz, & Strack, 1990; Gregoire, 2003), whereas
other studies have focused on how positive emotions are related to
change (e.g., Danner, Snowden, & Friesen, 2001; Fredrickson, 1998,
2001; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Wyer, Clore, & Isbell, 1999). For
example, Scott and Sutton (2009) find that neither positive nor
negative emotions relate to change. Therefore, more research needs
to be conducted in this direction to clarify the connections so that
professional programs could shed light on the emotional change
process which may lead to a change in teachers' practice.
The results from MANOVA show that school and teacher char-
acteristics (i.e., school location, educational background, and
teaching experience) made a statistically significant mean differ-
ence to teacher emotions. In this study and the previous studies, we
did not have the opportunity to explore the reasons for these ef-
fects. It may be interesting for future studies to investigate why
teachers reported such differences.
The other goal of this study was to develop a TEI for school
teachers to be used in the context of Hong Kong and Mainland
China. The instrument was developed and validated by a rigorous
procedure in which judges and school teachers used different
strategies and samples. However, its validity needs to be enhanced
through more samples in other contexts. For example, secondary
school teachers could be involved both qualitatively and
75
quantitatively to test the instrument validity so that the instrument
could apply for such school settings in Hong Kong and Mainland
China. The TEI developed in the current study provides a quanti-
tative instrument on teacher emotions which may be utilized in
other Chinese contexts, but also serves as a reference tool for
related studies in an international context. Indeed, the develop-
ment procedure itself of the TEI may provide a lens for the con-
struction of a teacher emotion instrument for researchers in other
contexts.
One limitation of this study is the imbalanced sample distribu-
tion between Hong Kong and mainland China. The sample of Hong
Kong teachers is only a small proportion (19%) out of the whole
sample. This imbalance may cause the sample of mainland China
has greater power to influence model construction and other re-
sults of this study. The literature suggests many algorithm and
techniques that solve the problem of imbalance sample distribu-
tion. These approaches are mainly divided into three kinds of
methods such as sampling, algorithms, and feature selection (e.g.,
Ling & Li, 1998; Wasikowski & Chen, 2010). The most common
technique is sampling, which can be achieved by two ways - under-
sampling the majority class and over-sampling the minority class.
Under-sampling is to try to balance the distribution of classes by
randomly reducing the sample of majority. The problem with this
under-sampling method is loss of valuable participant information.
Over-sampling refers to deliberately enlarge the proportion of the
minority, which may be not practical in most occasions
(Wasikowski & Chen, 2010). Apparently, the sample distribution
between Hong Kong and mainland China in this study is imbal-
anced. To avoid losing valuable participant information, under-
sampling technique was not utilized to balance the sample distri-
bution. Therefore, it is suggested that the sample of Hong Kong
teachers could be deliberately enlarged in the following validation
studies to achieve the balance destruction of sample.
In summary, the findings of this study offer empirical data to
advance theoretical knowledge about teacher emotions which will
in turn provide useful implications for regulating teacher emotions
and developing teacher emotion intervention. The study will also
contribute to global dialogues concerning teaching improvement
through involving ‘emotive’ dimensions, which will help refine the
teaching improvement literature and provide implications for
teacher development. It will contribute to the development of a
quantitative instrument, namely the Teacher Emotion Inventory
which will provide a new quantitative means to investigate teacher
emotions in future research. The Teacher Emotion Inventory, which
presents a set of generic items of teacher emotions, might also
provide a reference for developing a Teacher Emotion Inventory in
other contexts. Understanding emotions triggered by vulnerability
may constitute an opportunity for teachers to educate in a way that
really makes a difference to students' and teachers' lives but also
teacher effectiveness (Day et al., 2007; Kelchtermans, 2005, 2011).
Emotions have great potential to strengthen not only interpersonal
relationships experienced in the classroom and broader contexts,
but also create opportunities for learning and teaching in various
situations (Bahia et al., 2013).
Acknowledgement
This project was supported by Internal Research Grant of the
Hong Kong Institute of Education. The author expresses her special
appreciation to Professor Shun Wing Ng who provided his exper-
tise to support this project especially for data collection.
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