History

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This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human
beings, see History of the world. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).

Herodotus (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC), often considered the "father of history"

Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.[1]
—George Santayana

History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by

investigation')[2] is the study of the past.[3][4] Events occurring before the invention of
writing systems are considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term that
relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization,
presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who
focus on history are called historians. The historian's role is to place the past in
context, using sources from moments and events, and filling in the gaps to the
best of their ability.[5] Written documents are not the only sources historians use to
develop their understanding of the past. They also use material objects, oral
accounts, ecological markers, art, and artifacts as historical sources.
History also includes the academic discipline which uses narrative to describe,
examine, question, and analyze a sequence of past events, investigate the
patterns of cause and effect that are related to them. [6][7] Historians seek to
understand and represent the past through narratives. They often debate which
narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes
and effects. Historians also debate the nature of history and its usefulness by
discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing
"perspective" on the problems of the present. [6][8][9][10]
Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources
(such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural
heritage or legends.[11][12] History differs from myth in that it is supported
by evidence. However, ancient influences have helped spawn variant
interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and
continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and
includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematic
elements of historical investigation. History is often taught as part of primary and
secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in
university studies.
Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian is often considered (within the
Western tradition) to be the "father of history," or, by some, the "father of lies."
Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the
modern study of human history. Their works continue to be read today, and the
gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides
remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East
Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was known to be
compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts have
survived.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Description
 3History and prehistory
 4Historiography
 5Historical methods
o 5.1Marxian theory
o 5.2Potential Shortcomings in the Production of History
 6Areas of study
o 6.1Periods
 6.1.1Prehistoric periodisation
o 6.2Geographical locations
 6.2.1Regions
o 6.3Military history
o 6.4History of religion
o 6.5Social history
 6.5.1Subfields
o 6.6Cultural history
o 6.7Diplomatic history
o 6.8Economic history
o 6.9Environmental history
o 6.10World history
o 6.11People's history
o 6.12Intellectual history
o 6.13Gender history
o 6.14Public history
o 6.15LGBTQ+ History
 7Historians
 8Judgement
 9Pseudohistory
 10Teaching
o 10.1Scholarship vs teaching
o 10.2Nationalism
o 10.3Bias in school teaching
 11See also
o 11.1Methods
 o 11.2Topics
o 11.3Other themes
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from the Ancient Greek ἱστορία[13] (historía), meaning

'inquiry', 'knowledge from inquiry', or 'judge'. It was in that sense
that Aristotle used the word in his History of Animals.[14] The ancestor
word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus,
the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either
'judge' or 'witness', or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin
as historia, meaning "investigation, inquiry, research, account, description,
written account of past events, writing of history, historical narrative, recorded
knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was borrowed from Latin
(possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ('history, narrative,
story'), but this word fell out of use in the late Old English period. [15] Meanwhile, as
Latin became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed into forms
such as istorie, estoire, and historie, with new developments in the meaning:
"account of the events of a person's life (beginning of the 12th century),
chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in general
(1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events (c. 1240), body of
knowledge relative to human evolution, science (c. 1265), narrative of real or
imaginary events, story (c. 1462)".[15]
It was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and
this time the loan stuck. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems
to have become a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation
appearing in John Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in
a bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi
memoire". In Middle English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The
restriction to the meaning "the branch of knowledge that deals with past events;
the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-
15th century.[15] With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived,
and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th
century, when he wrote about "Natural History". For him, historia was "the
knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge
provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was
provided by fantasy).[16]
In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy,
English like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human
history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most
Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly
inflected, the same word is still used to mean both 'history' and
'story'. Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In
all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both "what
happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense
sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, or the word historiography.[14] The
adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[17]

Description

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the
current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to
provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All
history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a "true
discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past events
relating to the human race.[18] The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the
institutional production of this discourse.
All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute
the historical record.[19] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources
which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of
past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of
circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts
and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the
historian's role is to skillfully and objectively utilize the vast amount of sources
from the past, most often found in the archives. The process of creating a
narrative inevitably generates a silence as historians remember or emphasize
different events of the past.[20]
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and
at other times as part of the social sciences.[21] It can also be seen as a bridge
between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some
individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. [22] In the 20th
century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by
using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the
study of global history.
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by
passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions
through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning,
historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and
pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into
three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved,
and historians often consult all three.[23] But writing is the marker that separates
history from what comes before.
Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites
and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But
archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its
discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies
and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology
does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed, "historical archaeology" is
a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those
of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and
interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the
contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating
the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of
the total historical environment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written
documents at this time.
There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including
chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not
mutually exclusive, and significant intersections are often present. It is possible
for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very
general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area
called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns
or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim,
but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity. [24]

History and prehistory

Part of a series on

Human history
and prehistory

↑ before  Homo   (Pliocene epoch)

Prehistory
(three-age system)

Stone Age

Lower Paleolithic

 Homo
  Homo erectus
Middle Paleolithic

Early  Homo sapiens

Upper Paleolithic

Behavioral modernity
 Epipaleolithic
 Mesolithic
Neolithic

Cradle of civilization

Protohistory

Chalcolithic

Bronze Age
 Near East
 Europe
 India
 China
Bronze Age collapse

Iron Age
 Near East
 Europe
 India
 East Asia
 West Africa

Recorded history

Ancient history
 Earliest records
 Protohistory
Post-classical
history

Modern history
 Early
 Later
 Contemporary

↓ Future   (Holocene
epoch)

 v
 t
 e
Further information: Protohistory
The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens
sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in
written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of
the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a
culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other
artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written
record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to
avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-
Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been
criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[25] In 1961, British
historian E. H. Carr wrote:
The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when
people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both
in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition;
and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the
future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. [26]
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples,
such as Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral
records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their
contact with European civilization.

Historiography
Main article: Historiography

The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how

history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and
practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative towards
long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a
specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during
the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s"). Thirdly,
it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-
level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the
first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives,
interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other
historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history
can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.
[27][28]

Historical methods
Further information: Historical method

A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

Historical method basics

The following questions are used by

historians in modern work.

1. When was the source, written or

unwritten, produced (date)?
2. Where was it produced
(localization)?
3. By whom was it produced
(authorship)?
4. From what pre-existing material
was it produced (analysis)?
5. In what original form was it
produced (integrity)?
6. What is the evidential value of its
contents (credibility)?
The first four are known as historical
criticism; the fifth, textual criticism; and,
together, external criticism. The sixth and
final inquiry about a source is called internal
criticism.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by

which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then
to write history.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC)[29] has generally been
acclaimed as the "father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (c.
460 BC – c. 400 BC) is credited with having first approached history with a well-
developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War.
Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the
choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather
than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly
committed to this idea himself).[29] In his historical method, Thucydides
emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point of view, and that the human
world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also
viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[30]
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in
ancient and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography
in East Asia was established by the Han dynasty court historian known as Sima
Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). For the
quality of his written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father
of Chinese historiography. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in
China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for
biographical literature.[citation needed]
Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning
of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history
was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800,
German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.[24]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early
sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that
historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as
strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim
that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant
historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be
possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in
addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn
Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical
data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and
he often referred to it as his "new science". [31] His historical method also laid the
groundwork for the observation of the role
of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[32] and he is
thus considered to be the "father of historiography" [33][34] or the "father of the
philosophy of history".[35]
In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th
and 18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert
Spencer summarized these methods:
From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently
gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious
and sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions;
meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie
utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while
those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden
truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought [36]
By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry
Thomas Buckle expressed a dream of history becoming one day science:
In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have
been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and
universal laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men
of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their
regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have
every right to expect similar results[37]
Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on
methods became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to “what
really happened” and by this directed the field further away from science. For
Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put
together with critical rigor. But these procedures “are merely the prerequisites
and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and
regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws
about them.”[38]
As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history
is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he
practices his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his
word. If he is not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is
not doing science. The traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as
conventionally practiced, is not a science.[39]
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic
narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more
objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of
historical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more
as a social science rather than as an art, which traditionally had been the case.
Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse
collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz
Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc
Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien
Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social
science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined
history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with
economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while
Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and
differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology,
and economics. Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to
produce a theory of history. So far only one theory of history came from the pen
of a professional Historian.[40] Whatever other theories of history we have, they
were written by experts from other fields (for example, Marxian theory of history).
More recently, the field of digital history has begun to address ways of using
computer technology to pose new questions to historical data and generate
digital scholarship.
In sincere opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such
as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude
Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was
the power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be
understood as an art. French historians associated with the Annales
School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical
individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural
history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians such as Herbert
Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of
ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on
formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. Another genre
of social history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History
of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev
Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in
20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.
Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney
Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R.
James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher
Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a
Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians
such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry
Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of
history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie
Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-
Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the
experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have
challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all
history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In
Defence of History, Richard J. Evans defended the worth of history. Another
defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian
historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.
Today, most historians begin their research process in the archives, on either a
physical or digital platform. They often propose an argument and use their
research to support it. John H. Arnold proposed that history is an argument,
which creates the possibility of creating change.[5] Digital information companies,
such as Google, have sparked controversy over the role of internet censorship in
information access.[41]
Marxian theory
Main article: Marx's theory of history
The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is
fundamentally determined by the material conditions at any given time – in other
words, the relationships which people have with each other in order to fulfill basic
needs such as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families.
[42]
 Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five successive stages of
the development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[43] Marxist
historiography was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of
communism there in 1991, Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced to the margins
of scholarship.[44]
Potential Shortcomings in the Production of History
Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded
with bias because events and known facts in history can be interpreted in a
variety of ways. Constantin Fasolt suggested that history is linked to politics by
the practice of silence itself.[45] “A second common view of the link between history
and politics rests on the elementary observation that historians are often
influenced by politics.”[45] According to Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical
process is rooted in the archives, therefore silences, or parts of history that are
forgotten, may be an intentional part of a narrative strategy that dictates how
areas of history are remembered.[20] Historical omissions can occur in many ways
and can have a profound effect on historical records. Information can also
purposely be excluded or left out accidentally. Historians have coined multiple
terms that describe the act of omitting historical information, including:
“silencing,”[20] “selective memory,”[46] and erasures.[47] Gerda Lerner, a twentieth
century historian who focused much of her work on historical omissions involving
women and their accomplishments, explained the negative impact that these
omissions had on minority groups.[46]
Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and
ensure authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known
fact, they must make ecological sense (specifically for environmental history),
and published work must be reviewed by scholarly community and other
historians to ensure accountability.[47]

Areas of study
Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed

are histories of other fields, such as history
of science, history of
mathematics and history of philosophy.

 Ancient history: the study from the

beginning of human history until the
Early Middle Ages.
 Atlantic history: the study of the
history of people living on or near the
Atlantic Ocean.
 Art history: the study of changes in
and social context of art.
 Comparative history: historical
analysis of social and cultural entities
not confined to national boundaries.
 Contemporary history: the study of
recent historical events.
 Counterfactual history: the study of
historical events as they might have
happened in different causal
circumstances.
 Cultural history: the study of
culture in the past.
 Digital history: the use of
computing technologies do massive
searches in published sources.
 Economic history: the use of
economic models fitted to the past.
 Intellectual history: the study of
ideas in the context of the cultures that
produced them and their development
over time.
 Maritime history: the study of
maritime transport and all the
connected subjects.
 Material history: the study of
objects and the stories they can tell.
 Modern history: the study of the
Modern Times, the era after the Middle
 Ages.
 Military history: the study of
warfare and wars in history and what is
sometimes considered to be a sub-
branch of military history, Naval
history.
 Oral history: the collection and
study of historical information utilizing
spoken interviews with people who
have lived past events.
 Palaeography: study of ancient
texts.
 People's history: historical work
from the perspective of common
people.
 Political history: the study of
politics in the past.
 Psychohistory: study of the
psychological motivations of historical
events.
 Pseudohistory: study about the past
that falls outside the domain of
mainstream history (sometimes it is an
equivalent of pseudoscience).
 Social history: the study of the
process of social change throughout
history.
 Women's history: the history of
female human beings. Gender history is
related and covers the perspective of
gender.
 World history: the study of history
from a global perspective, with special
attention to non-Western societies.

Periods
Main article: Periodization
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in
particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to
allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by
historians.[48] The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as
can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular
period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they
represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed
retrospectively and so reFflect value judgments made about the past. The way
periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are
viewed and studied.[49]
Prehistoric periodisation
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to the archaeologists, who have
entirely different sets of tools and theories. The usual method for periodisation of
the distant prehistoric past, in archaeology is to rely on changes in material
culture and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age and
their sub-divisions also based on different styles of material remains. Here
prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could
unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology. [50] This
narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation.
There are periodisation, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying
largely on relative chronology and, thus, devoid of any specific meaning.
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon
dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or
artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many
cases neighbouring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures
without it, which may be used. Periodisation, however, is not viewed as a perfect
framework with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently
start and stop (combinedly) at periodisation boundaries" and that different
trajectories of change are also needed to be studied in their own right before they
get intertwined with cultural phenomena. [51]
Geographical locations
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for
example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events
took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. According
to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical
basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air." [52] Weather
patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the
people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians
developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.
Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each
year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough
crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm,
so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.
There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth Huntington and
Allen Semple, cited as a crucial influence on the course of history and racial
temperament.[53]
Regions

 History of Africa begins with the first emergence of

modern human beings on the continent, continuing
into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse
and politically developing nation states.
 History of the Americas is the collective history of
North and South America, including Central America
and the Caribbean.
o History of North America is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation on
the continent in the Earth's northern and western
hemisphere.
o History of Central America is the study of the
past passed down from generation to generation
on the continent in the Earth's western
hemisphere.
o History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest
evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have
been found.
 o History of South America is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation on
the continent in the Earth's southern and western
hemisphere.
 History of Antarctica emerges from early Western
theories of a vast continent, known as Terra
Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the
globe.
 History of Australia starts with the documentation of
the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on
Australia's north coast.
 History of New Zealand dates back at least 700
years to when it was discovered and settled by
Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture
centred on kinship links and land.
 History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of
the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
 History of Eurasia is the collective history of several
distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East,
South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe,
linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of
Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
o History of Europe describes the passage of time
from humans inhabiting the European continent
to the present day.
o History of Asia can be seen as the collective
history of several distinct peripheral coastal
regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle
East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian
steppe.
 History of East Asia is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation
in East Asia.
 History of the Middle East begins with the
earliest civilizations in the region now known
as the Middle East that were established
around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
 History of India is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation
in the Sub-Himalayan region.
 History of Southeast Asia has been
characterized as interaction between regional
players and foreign powers.
Military history
Main article: Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the
psychology of combat. The "new military history" since the 1970s has been
concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics,
and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture. [54]
History of religion
Main article: History of religions
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious
historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe.
Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review,
and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and
artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy. [55] This subject studies religions from
all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived. [56]
Social history
Main article: Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes
history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.
[57]
 In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among
scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from
1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities
identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of
political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[58] In the history departments of British
universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified
themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%).
[59]
 The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a
central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were
"social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was
contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men.
English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic
and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is
barren and political history unintelligible." [60] While the field has often been viewed
negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as
"history with the people put back in."[61]
Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:

 Black history
 Demographic history
 History of education
 Ethnic history
 History of the family
 Labour history
 Rural history
 Urban history
o American urban history
 Queer history
 Women's history
Smaller specialties include:

 History of childhood
 Gender history
Cultural history
Main article: Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and
1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look
at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical
experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past
knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed
their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art
in society as well is the study of images and human visual production
(iconography).[62]
Diplomatic history
Main article: Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily
regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars. More recently it looks at the causes
of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign
office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and
change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct
of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.
Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic
history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at
once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical
studies."[63] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to
replace it.
Economic history
Main articles: Economic history and Business history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century,
in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics
departments and away from traditional history departments. [64] Business
history deals with the history of individual business organizations, business
methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also
includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is
related to economic history; Business history is most often taught in business
schools.[65]
Environmental history
Main article: Environmental history
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the
history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human
activities upon it.[66] It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was
kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.
World history
Main article: World history
See also: History of the world and Universal history
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so.
World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained
popularity in the United States,[67] Japan[68] and other countries after the 1980s with
the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as
globalization proceeds.
It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold
J. Toynbee, among others.
The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every
quarter since 1990.[69] The H-World discussion list[70] serves as a network of
communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among
scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
People's history
Main article: People's history
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for
historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is
the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders.
Individuals or groups not included in the past in other type of writing about history
are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed,
the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors
are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of
the History Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.[71]
Intellectual history
Main articles: Intellectual history and History of ideas
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with
the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other
the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own. [72][73]
Gender history
Main article: Gender history
Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the
past from the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history
from women's history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the
importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, “Gender is a
constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences
between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of
power,”[74] meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived
differences between the sexes and how all genders utilize allotted power in
societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender
history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history
traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender
such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include
people who identify outside of that binary.
Public history
Main article: Public history
Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with
some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of
specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the
areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship,
and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada
in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since
that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums,
historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television
companies, and all levels of government. [75]
LGBTQ+ History
Main article: LGBT history
LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and
sexuality of ancient civilizations, involves the history
of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around
the world. A common feature of LGBTQ+ history is the focus on oral history and
individual perspectives, in addition to traditional documents within the archives.

Historians
For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.

Benedetto Croce

Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present

information about past events. They discover this information through
archaeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories,
and other archival material. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by
order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily
the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists,
though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement
See also: Ash heap of history
Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to
provide the "judgement of history."[76] The goals of historical judgements or
interpretations are separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be
formulated quickly after the events and be final.[77] A related issue to that of the
judgement of history is that of collective memory.

Pseudohistory
Main article: Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature
but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which
undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical
revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative,
or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political,
military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching
Scholarship vs teaching
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century
regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and
Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth,
Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited
to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than
the professors, fought back in defence of their system saying that it successfully
produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and
diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors
dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young
scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University,
where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate
programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing
of a thesis.[78][79]
In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing
universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on
undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools
to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track
faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-
time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.[80]
Nationalism
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of
history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United
States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to
teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage
with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward
teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western
cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy. [81]
At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs
more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both
perspectives.
The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle
histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and
Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut
national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif,
the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about
historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the
History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that
teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which
would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery." Proponents said it was
a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized
teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a
postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French
patriotism and national identity.[82]
Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and

patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies. [83]
In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government
and are written to put the national heritage in the most favourable light. For
example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from
textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other
countries have complained.[84] It was standard policy in communist countries to
present only a rigid Marxist historiography.[85][86]
In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in
content from state to state.[87] An example of content that is represented different
in different regions of the country is the history of the Southern states,
where slavery and the American Civil War are treated as controversial
topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticised for describing Africans
brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook. [88]
Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks,
sometimes with success.[89][90]
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states,
and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and
deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by
international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus
oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that
"German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to
develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress,
human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness." [91]

See also
Main articles: Outline of history and Glossary of history

 History portal

Methods

 Auxiliary sciences of history

 Archival research
 Bibliography
 Computational history
 List of history journals
 Popular history
Topics

 Historiography of Argentina
 Atlantic history
 Historiography of Canada
 Classics
o Greek historiography
 Historiography of Alexander the Great
o Roman historiography
 Historiography of the fall of the Western
Roman Empire
 Historiography of the Cold War
 Chinese historiography
 Historiography of the French Revolution
o Annales School, in France
 Historiography of Germany
o Bielefeld School, in Germany
 Historiography of early Islam
 Historiography of Japan
 Middle Ages
o Dark Ages (historiography)
o Historiography of the Crusades
 Historiography of Switzerland
 Historiography in the Soviet Union
  Historiography of the United States
o Frontier Thesis
 Historiography of the United Kingdom
o Historiography of Scotland
o Historiography of the British Empire
 World history
 Historiography of the causes of World War I
 Historiography of World War II
Other themes

 List of history awards

 History of the book
 Historiography of science
 Subaltern Studies, Regarding post-colonial India
 Whig history, History portrayed as the story of
continuous progress

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MUSE
Further reading
 The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical
Literature, 3rd ed., eds. Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (2
vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of
the most important English language history books in all fields and
topics
 Benjamin, Jules R. A Student's Guide to History (2009)
 Carr, E.H., with a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. What is
History? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001, ISBN 0-333-
97701-7.
 Cronon, William. "Storytelling." American Historical Review 118.1
(2013): 1–19. online, Discussion of the impact of the end of the
Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the
Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the
importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.
 Evans, Richard J. In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company
(2000), ISBN 0-393-31959-8.
 Furay, Conal, and Michael J. Salevouris. The Methods and Skills
of History: A Practical Guide(2010)
 Kelleher, William. Writing History: A Guide for
Students (2008) excerpt and text search
o Lingelbach, Gabriele. "The Institutionalization and
Professionalization of History in Europe and the United
States." in The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4:
1800–1945 4 (2011): 78+ online
 Presnell, Jenny L. The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to
Research for History Students(2006) excerpt and text search
 Tosh, John; The Pursuit of History (2006), ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.
 Woolf D.R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland
Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vol 1998) excerpt and text
search
 Williams, H.S. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. (ed.,
This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes; PDF version is available)

External links
 Best history sites .net
 BBC History Site
 Internet History Sourcebooks Project See
also Internet History Sourcebooks Project.
Collections of public domain and copy-permitted
historical texts for educational use
 The History Channel Online
 History Channel UK
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