1474 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra

Chapter

34
Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
Logical variables : In the study of logic, statements are
Mathematical Logic represented by lower case letters such as p, q, r, s.. These letters are
Introduction called logical variables.
For example, the statement ‘The sun is a star’ may be represented
Logic was extensively developed in Greece. In the middle ages or denoted by p and we write
the treatises of Aristotle concerning logic were re-discovered. The p : The sun is a star
axiomatic approach to logic was first proposed by George Boole. On Similarly, we may denote the statement
this account logic relative to mathematics is sometimes called 14 – 5 =– 2.
Boolean logic. It is also called mathematical logic or more recently Quantifiers : The symbol  (stands for ‘for all’) and 
symbolic logic.
(stands for “there exists”) are known as quantifiers.
The dictionary meaning of the word ‘Logic’ is “the science of In other word, quantifiers are symbols used to denote a group of
reasoning”. It is the study and analysis of the nature of valid words or a phrase.
arguments. In the process of reasoning we communicate our ideas or The symbols  and  are known as existential quantifiers.
thoughts with the help of sentences in a particular language. The
An open sentence used with quantifiers always becomes a statement.
following types of sentences are normally used in our every day
communication. Quantified statements : The statements containing quantifiers
are known as quantified statements.
(1) Assertive sentence (2) Imperative sentence
(3) Exclamatory sentence (4) Interrogative sentence
x 2  0 .x  R is a quantified statement. Its truth value is T.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing about a specific type of Use of venn diagrams in checking truth and
sentences which will called as statement or propositions. falsity of statements
In this section, we shall discuss how Venn diagrams are used to
Statements or propositions represent truth and falsity of statements or propositions. For this, let us
Propositions : A statement or a proposition is an assertive (or consider the statement: “All teachers are scholars”. Let us assume that
declarative) sentence which is either true or false but not both a true this statement is true. To represent the truth of the above statement, we
statement is called valid statement. If a statement is false, then it is define the following sets
called invalid statement. U = the set of all human beings
Open statement : A declarative sentence containing variable (s) S = the set of all scholars
is an open statement if it becomes a statement when the variable (s) is And T = the set of all teachers
(are) replaced by some definite value (s). Clearly, S  U and T  U
Truth Set : The set of all those values of the variable (s) in an According to the above statement , if follows that T  S .
open statement for which it becomes a true statement is called the truth Thus, the truth of the above statement can be represented by the Venn
set of the open statement. diagram shown in
Truth Value : The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth U
value. S
If a statement is true, then we say that its truth value is ‘True’ or T
‘T’. On the other hand the truth value of a false statement is ‘False’ or
x
‘F’.
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1475
Now, if we consider the statement : “ There are some scholars Symbolically, if p and q are two simple statements, then p  q
who are teachers”, It is evident from the Venn diagram that there is a denotes the disjunction of p and q and is read as “ p or q”.
scholar x who is not a teacher. Therefore, the above statement is false (iii) Negation : The denial of a statement p is called its negation,
and its truth value is ‘F’. Thus, we can also check the truth and falsity written as ~ p.
of other statements which are connected to a given statement.
Negation of any statement p is formed by writing “ It is not the
Types of statements case that ..... “ or “ It is false that.......” before p or, if possible by
inserting in p the word “not”.
In Mathematical logic, we generally come across two types of
statements or proposition, namely, simple statements and compound  Negation is called a connective although it does not combine
statements as defined below. two or more statements. In fact, it only modifies a statement.
(i) Simple statements : Any statement or proposition whose truth (iv) Implication or conditional statements : Any two statements
value does not explicity depend on another statement is said to be a connected by the connective phrase “if.. then” give rise to a compound
simple statement. statement which is known as an implication or a conditional statement.
In other words, a statement is said to be simple if it cannot be If p and q are two statements forming the implication ‘if p then
broken down into simpler statements, that is, if it is not composed of q, then we denote this implication by
simpler statements. " p  q " or " p  q " .
(ii) Compound statements : If a statement is combination of two
In the implication " p  q " , p is the antecedent and q is
or more simple statements, then it is said to be a compound statement
or a compound proposition. the consequent.
Truth table for a conditional a statement
Truth tables pq
p q
Definition : A table that shows the relationship between the truth T T T
value of a compound statement S (p, q, r,..) and the truth values of its
sub-statement p, q, r, .....etc, is called the truth table of statement S. T F F
Construction of truth table : In order to construct the truth table F T T
for a compound statement, we first prepare a table consisting of rows F F T
and columns. At the top of the initial columns, we write the variables
(v) Biconditional statement : A statement is a biconditional
denoting the sub-statements or constituent statements and then we
statement if it is the conjunction of two conditional statements
write their truth values, in the last column. We write the truth value of
(implications) one converse to the other.
the compound statement on the basis of the truth values of the
constituent statements written in the initial columns. If a compound Thus, if p and q are two statements, then the compound statement
statement is made up of two simple statement, then the number of p  q and q  p is called a biconditional statements or an
rows in the truth table will be 2 2 and if it is made up of three simple equivalence and is denoted by p  q .
statements, then the number of rows will be 2 3 . In general, if the Thus, p  q : ( p  q )  (q  p )
compound statement is made up of n sub-statements, then its truth Truth table for a biconditional statement : Since p  q is
table will contain 2 n rows. the conjunction of p  q and q  p . So, we have the following
Basic logical connectives or logical operators truth table for p  q .
pq=
Definition : The phrases or words which connect simple p q pq qp
statements are called logical connectives or sentential connectives or ( p  q )  (q  p )
simply connectives or logical operators. T T T T T
In the following table, we list some possible connectives, their T F F T F
symbols and the nature of the compound statement formed by them. F T T F F
Connective Symbol Nature of the compound F F T T T
statement formed by using the
connective Logical equivalence
and  Conjunction Logically equivalent statement : Two compound
or  disjunction S 1 ( p, q, r,...) and S 2 ( p, q, r...) are said to be logically
If....then  or  Implication or conditional equivalent, or simply equivalent if they have the same truth values for
If and only  or Equivalence or bi-conditional all logically possibilities.
if (iff)  If statements S 1 ( p, q, r,...) and S 2 ( p, q, r...) are
not ~ or ┓ Negation logically equivalent, then we write
(i) Conjunction : Any two simple statements can be connected S 1 ( p, q, r,...)  S 2 ( p, q, r...)
by the word “and” to form a compound statement called the
It follows from the above definition that two statements S 1 and
conjunction of the original statements.
Symbolically if p and q are two simple statements, then p  q S 2 are logically equivalent if they have identical truth tables i.e., the
denotes the conjunction of p and q and is read as “p and q”. entries in the last column of the truth tables are same.
(ii) Disjunction or alternation Any two statements can be Negation of compound statements
connected by the word “or” to form a compound statement called the
disjunction of the original statements.
 1476 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
We have learnt about negation of a simple statement. Writing the (iv) Distributive laws : For any three statements p, q, r we
negation of compound statements having conjunction, disjunctions, have
implication, equivalence, etc, is not very simple. So, let us discuss the
negation of compound statement. (a) p  ( p  q )  ( p  q )  (q  r)
(i) Negation of conjuntion : (b) p  ( p  q )  ( p  q )  (q  r)
If p and q are two statements, then ~ ( p  q )  (~ p  ~ q ) (v) Demorgan’s laws : If p and q are two statements, then
(ii) Negation of disjuntion : (a) ~ ( p  q ) ~ p  ~ q (b) ~ ( p  q ) ~ p  ~ q
If p and q are two statements, then
(vi) Identity laws : If t and c denote a tautology and a
~ ( p  q )  (~ p  ~ q ) contradiction respectively, then for any statement p, we have
(iii) Negation of implication : (a) p  t  p (b) p  c  p (c) p  t  t (d)
If p and q are two statements, then ~ ( p  q )  ( p  ~ q ) p c  c
(iv) Negation of biconditional statement or equivalence : (vii) Complement laws : For any statements p, we have
If p and q are two statements, then p  ~ p  t (b) p  ~ p  c (c) ~ t  c
(a) (d)
~ ( p  q )  ( p  ~ q )  (q  ~ p )
~ ct
Tautologies and contradictions where t and c denote a tautology and a contradiction respectively.
(viii) Law of contrapositive : For any two statements p and q, we
have
Let p , q , r,.... be statements, then any statement involving
p, q, r ,....and the logical connectives ,, ~, ,  is called p  q ~ q ~ p
a statement pattern or a Well Formed Formula (WFF). (ix) Involution laws : For any statement p, we have
For example ~ (~ p )  p
(i) p  q
Duality
(ii) pq
Definition : Two compound statements S 1 and S 2 are said to
(iii) (( p  q )  r)  (s  ~ s)
be duals of each other if one can be obtained from the other by
(iv) ( p  q )  (~ q ~ p ) etc. replacing  by  and  by  .
are statement patterns.
A statement is also a statement pattern.
 The connective  and  are also called duals of each other
Thus, we can define statement pattern as follows.  If a compound statements contains the special variable
Statement pattern : A compound statement with the repetitive t (tautology) or c (contradiction), then to obtain its dual we replace t
use of the logical connectives is called a statement pattern or a well- by c and c by t in addition to replacing  by  and  by  .
formed formula.  Let S ( p, q ) be a compound statement containing two sub-
Tautology : A statement pattern is called a tautology, if it is
always true, whatever may be the truth values of constitute statements. statements and S * (p, q) be its dual. Then,
A tautology is called a theorem or a logically valid statement (i) ~ S ( p, q )  S * (~ p, ~ q )
pattern. A tautology, contains only T in the last column of its truth
table. (ii) ~ S * ( p, q )  S (~ p, ~ q )
Contradiction : A statement pattern is called a contradiction, if it  The above result can be extended to the compound statements
is always false, whatever may the truth values of its constitute having finite number of sub- statements. Thus, if
statements. S ( p1 , p 2 ,.... p n ) is a compound statement containing n sub-
In the last column of the truth table of contradiction there is
always F. statement p1 , p 2 ,...., p n and S * ( p1 p 2 ,...., p n ) is its
 The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and vice versa. dual. Then,

Algebra of statements (i) ~ S ( p1 , p 2 ,...., pn )  S * (~ p1 , ~ p 2 ,...., ~ p n )

In the previous section, we have seen that statements satisfy many (ii) ~ S * ( p1 , p 2 ,...., p n )  S (~ p1 , ~ p 2 ,...., ~ p n )
standard results. In this section, we shall state those results as laws of
algebra of statements. Boolean Algebra
The following are some laws of algebra of statements. Introduction
(i) Idempotent laws : For any statement p, we have
(a) p  p  p (b) p  p  p Boolean algebra is a tool for studying and applying mathematical
logic which was originated by the English mathematician George
(ii) Commutative laws : For any two statements p and q, we Boolean. In 1854 he wrote a book “An investigation of the law of
have thought”, be developed a theory of logic using symbols instead of
(a) p  q  q  p (b) p  p  q  p words. This more algebraic treatment of subject is now called boolean
(iii) Association laws : For any three statements p, q, r, we have algebra
Definition : A non empty set B together with two operations
(a) ( p  q )  r  p  (q  r) (b)
denoted by ‘’ and ‘’ is said to be a boolean algebra if the following
( p  q )  r  p  (q  r) axioms hold :
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1477
(i) For all x , y  B contradiction c play the roles of 1 and 0, and the operation ‘~’ plays
the role of ‘’
(a) x  y  B (Closure property for )
 For P (A ) , the set of all subsets of a set A, the operations
(b) x  y  B (Closure property for )
(ii) For all x , y  B
 and  play the roles of ‘’ and ‘’, A and  play the role of 1
and 0, and complementation plays the role of ‘’.
(a) x  y  y  x (Commutative law for )
Boolean functions
(b) x  y  y  x (Commutative law for )
(iii) For all x, y and z in B, Definition : Any expression like x  x ' , a  b ' ,
(a) ( x  y )  z  x  (y  z ) (Associative law of [a  (b  c ' )]  (a'b '  c) consisting of combinations by
)  and  of finite number of elements of a Boolean Algebra B is
(b) ( x  y )  z  x  (y  z ) (Associative law of called a boolean function.
) Let B  {a, b, c,....} be a boolean algebra by a constant we
(iv) For all x, y and z in B, mean any symbol as 0 and 1, which represents a specified element of
(a) x  (y  z )  ( x  y )  ( x  z ) (Distributive law of B.
By a variable we mean a symbol which represents a arbitrary
 over )
element of B
(b) x  (y  z )  ( x  y )  ( x  z ) (Distributive law of
If in the expression x   (y  z ) we replace  by + and 
 over )
(v) There exist elements denoted by 0 and 1 in B such that for all by ., we get x   y .z . Here x  and y  z are called monomials
xB , and the whole expression x   (y  z ) is called a polynomial.
(a) x  0  x (0 is identity for )
Switching circuits
(b) x 1  x (1 is identity for )
One of the major practical application of Boolean algebra is to the
(vi) For each x  B , there exists an element denoted by x, switching systems (an electrical network consisting of switches) that
called the complement or negation of x in B such that involves two state devices. The simplest possible example of such a
(a) x  x '  1 device is an ordinary ON-OFF switch.
By a switch we mean a contact or a device in an electric circuit
(b) x  x'  0 (Complement laws)
which lets (or does not let) the current to flow through the circuit. The
Principle of duality switch can assume two states ‘closed’ or ‘open’ (ON or OFF). In the
The dual of any statement in a boolean aglebra B is the statement first case the current flows and in the second the current does not flow.
obtained by interchanging the operation  and , and simultaneously Symbols a, b, c, p, q , r, x , y , z ,..... etc. will denote
interchanging the elements 0 and 1 in the original statement. switches in a circuit.
In a boolean algebra, the zero element 0 and the unit element 1 There are two basic ways in which switches are generally
are unique. interconnected.
Let B be a boolean algebra. Then, for any x and y in B, we have (i) Series (ii) Parallel
(a) xxx (a) xxx (i) Series : Two switches a, b are said to be connected ‘in series’
(b) x  1  1 (b) x  0  0 if the current can pass only when both are in closed state and the
current does not flow if any one or both are open. The following
(c) x  ( x  y )  x (c) x  ( x  y )  x diagram will show this circuit.
(d) 0  1 (d) 1  0
a b
(e) (x )  x
(ii) Parallel : Two switches a, b are said to be connected ‘in
(f)( x  y )  x   y  (f) parallel’ if current flows when any one or both are closed, and current
does not pass when both are open. The following diagram will
( x  y )  x   y 
represent this circuit given by a  b .
Important points :
 In view of (i) (a) and (b) above, one may note that the a
operations + and . are infact binary operations on B.
 We sometimes designate a boolean algebra by (B, ‘’, ‘’, ‘’,
0, 1) in order to emphasise its six parts; namely the set B, the two
binary operations ‘’ and ‘’, the complement operation ‘’ and the
two special elements 0 and 1. These special elements are called the b
zero element and the unit element. However, it may be noted that the If two switches in a circuit be such that both are open (closed)
symbols 0 and 1 do not necessarily represent the number zero and one. simultaneously, we shall represent them by the same letter. Again if
 For the set S of all logical statement ,the operations + and . two switches be such that one is open iff the other is closed, we
play the roles of  and , respectively. The tautology t and the represent them by a and a.
The value of a close switch or when it is on is equal to 1 and
when it is open or off is equal to 0.
 1478 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
An open switch r is indicated in the diagram as follows :

r
S1 S2

A closed switch r is indicated in the diagram as follows :

(iv) Circuit for : (r  s) q (u  v  w )
r S2
S1 r r
Boolean operations on switching circuits q v
S1 S2
(i) Boolean Multiplication : The two switches r and s in the w
series will perform the operation of Boolean multiplication. s
Simplification of circuits :
r s Simplification of a circuit would normally mean the least
S1 S2
complicated circuit with minimum cost and best results. This would be
Clearly, the current will not pass from point S 1 to S 2 when governed by various factors like the cost of equipment, positioning and
either or both r, s are open. It will pass only when both are closed. number of switches, types of material used etc. For us, simplification
of circuits would mean lesser number of switches which we achieve by
r s rs using different properties of Boolean algebra. e.g., Consider the
1 1 1 circuits given by (a  b )  (a  c)
1 0 0 This is represented by
0 1 0
a b
0 0 0

The operation is true only in one of the four cases i.e. when both
the switches are closed.
(ii) Boolean Addition : In the case of an operation of addition the a c
two switches will be in the parallel series as shown below.
Since (a  b )  (a  c)  a  (b  c)
r
 The circuit could be simplified to

S2 b
S1

r
s
The circuit shows that the current will pass when either or both
the switches are closed. It will not pass only when both are open.
c
r s rs Logic gates
1 1 1 (i) AND : It is the boolean function defined by
1 0 1 f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 1  x 2 ; x 1 , x 2  {0, 1} .
0 1 1 It is shown in the figure given below.
0 0 0 x1
The operation is not true only in one of the four cases i.e., when AND x1x2
x2
both r and s are open.
(iii) Circuits with composite operations : Input Output
(a) Circuit showing : r (s  q) x1 x2 x1  x 2
s 1 1 1
1 0 0
r 0 1 0
S1 S2
0 0 0
q
(ii) OR : It is the boolean function defined by
(ii) Circuit showing r  (s  q ) f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 1  x 2 ; x 1 , x 2  {0, 1} .
r
It is shown in the figure given below
x1
S1
OR x1 + x2
S2 x2
s q
(iii) Circuit showing (r  s)  (r  q ) Input Output
x1 x2 x1  x 2
r r

S1 S2
s q
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1479

1 1 1
1 0 1
Mathematical logic
0 1 1
0 0 0 1. Which of the following is a statement
(a) Open the door (b) Do your homework
(iii) NOT : It is the boolean function defined by (c) Switch on the fan (d) Two plus two is four
2. Which of the following is a statement
f ( x )  x , x  {0 .1} (a) May you live long !
It is shown in the figure given below: (b) May God bless you !
(c) The sun is a star
(d) Hurrah ! we have won the match
x NOT x 3. Which of the following is not a statement
(a) Roses are red
(b) New Delhi is in India
(c) Every square is a rectangle
Input Output
(d) Alas ! I have failed
x x 4. Which of the following is not a statement
1 0 (a) Every set is a finite set
0 1 (b) 8 is less than 6
(c) Where are you going ?
(d) The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees
Combinational circuit : 5. Which of the following is not a statement
(a) Please do me a favour (b) 2 is an even integer
x1 (c) 2 + 1 = 3 (d) The number 17 is prime
AND 6. Which of the following is not a statement
x2 s (a) Give me a glass of water
OR NOT
(b) Asia is a continent
x3 (c) The earth revolved round the sun
(d) The number 6 has two prime factors 2, 3
7. Which of the following is an open statement
In the above figure, output s in uniquely defined for each
(a) x is a natural number (b) Give me a glass of water
combination of inputs x 1 , x 2 and x 3 . Such a circuit is called a (c) Wish you best of luck (d) Good morning to all
combinatorial circuit or combinational circuit. 8. Negation of the conditional : “If it rains, I shall go to school” is
(a) It rains and I shall go to school
x1 (b) It rains and I shall not go to school
AND NOT s (c) It does not rains and I shall go to school
x3 (d) None of these
9. Negation of “Paris in France and London is in England” is
(a) Paris is in England and London is in France
(b) Paris is not in France or London is not in England
(c) Paris is in England or London is in France
In the above figure, if x 1  1, x 2  0 , then the inputs to the (d) None of these
AND gate are 1 and 0 and so the output of the AND gate is ‘0’ 10. Negation is “2 + 3 = 5 and 8 < 10” is
(Minimum of 1 and 0). This is the input of NOT gate which gives the (a) 2 + 3  5 and < 10 (b) 2 + 3 = 5 and 8 ≮ 10
output s  1 .
(c) 2 + 3  5 or 8 ≮ 10 (d) None of these
But the diagram states that x 2  s i.e. 0  1 , a contradiction. 11. Negation of “Ram is in Class X or Rashmi is in Class XII” is
The output s is not uniquely defined. This type of circuit is not (a) Ram is not in class X but Ram is in class XII
a combinatorial circuit. (b) Ram is not in class X but Rashmi is not in class XII
(c) Either Ram is not in class X or Ram is not in class XII
Two combinatorial circuits : Circuit having inputs
(d) None of these
x 1 , x 2 ,...... x n and a single output are said to be combinatorial
12. The conditional ( p  q )  p is
circuit if, the circuits receive the same input, they produce the same
output i.e., if the input/output tables are identical. (a) A tautology
(b) A fallacy i.e., contradiction
(c) Neither tautology nor fallacy
(d) None of these
13. Which of the following is a contradiction
 1480 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
(a) ( p  q ) ~ ( p  q ) (b) p  (~ p  q ) (a) A contradiction (b) A tautology
(c) Either (a) or (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
(c) ( p  q )  p (d) None of these 27. Which of the following is not logically equivalent to the
14. Which of the following is logically equivalent to proposition : “A real number is either rational or irrational”.
~ (~ p  q ) (a) If a number is neither rational nor irrational then it is not
real
(a) p q (b) p ~ q (b) If a number is not a rational or not an irrational, then it is
pq not real
(c) ~ (d) ~ p  ~ q
(c) If a number is not real, then it is neither rational nor
15. ~ ( p  q ) is equal to irrational
(d) If a number is real, then it is rational or irrational
(a) ~ p  ~ q (b) ~ p  ~ q 28. If p : It rains today, q : I go to school, r : I shall meet any
(c) ~ p  q (d) p ~ q friends and s : I shall go for a movie, then which of the
following is the proposition :
16. ~ ( p  q ) is equal to If it does not rain or if I do not go to school, then I shall meet
(a) ~ p  ~ q (b) ~ p  ~ q my friend and go for a movie.
(a) ~ ( p  q )  (r  s) (b)
(c) ~ p  q (d) p ~ q
~ ( p  ~ q )  (r  s)
17. (~ (~ p ))  q is equal to
(c) ~ ( p  q )  (r  s) (d) None of these
(a) ~ pq (b) pq
29. The negation of the compound proposition p  (~ p  q ) is
(c) p ~ q (d) ~ p  ~ q (a) ( p  ~ q )  ~ p (b) ( p  ~ q )  ~ p
18. ~ ( p  (~ q )) is equal to (c) ( p  ~ q )  ~ p (d) None of these
(a) ~ p  q (b) (~ p )  q 30. Which of the following is true
(a) p  q  ~ p  ~ q
(c) ~ p  ~ p (d) ~ p  ~ q
(b) ~ ( p  ~ q )  ~ p  q
19. ~ ((~ p )  q ) is equal to
(c) ~ (~ p  ~ q ) ~ p  q
(a) p  (~ q ) (b) pq (d) ~ ( p  q )  [~ ( p  q ) ~ (q  p )]
(c) p  (~ q ) (d) ~ p  ~ q 31. ~ ( p  q )  (~ p  q ) is logically equivalent to
20. ~ ( p  q) is (a) ~p (b) p
(c) q (d) ~q
(a) ~ p  ~ q (b) ~ p  ~ q 32. The inverse of the proposition ( p  ~ q )  r is
(c) ( p  ~ q )  (~ p  q ) (d) None of these (a) ~ r  ~ p  q (b) ~ p  q  ~ r
21. p  q can also be written as (c) r  p  ~ q (d) None of these
33. When does the current flow through the following circuit
(a) p ~ q (b) ~ p  q
(a) p, q, r should be closed q
(c) ~ q ~ p (d) None of these (b) p, q, r should be open
22. If p, q, r are simple propositions with truth values T, F, T, then (c) Always p r
the truth value of (~ p  q )  ~ r  p is (d) None of these
q
34. Which Venn diagram represent the truth of the statement
(a) True (b) False
“All students are hard working.”
(c) True if r is false (d) True if q is true
Where U = Universal set of human beings
23. If ( p  ~ r)  (q  r) is false and q and r are both false, S = Set of all students
then p is H = Set of all hard workers
(a) True (b) False U S H U
(c) May be true or false (d) Data insufficient H
S
(a) (b)
24. If p, q, r are simple propositions, then ( p  q )  (q  r) is
true then
(a) p, q, r are all false
U
(b) p, q, r are all true
S=H
(c) p, q are true and r is false (c) (d) None of these
(d) p is true and q and r are false 35. Which Venn diagram represent the truth of the statements “No
25. ~ ( p  q ) ~ p  ~ q is child is naughty”
(a) A tautology Where U = Universal set of human beings
(b) A contradiction C = Set of children
(c) Neither a tautology nor a contradiction N = Set of naughty persons
(d) Cannot come to any conclusion
26. ( p  ~ q )  (~ p  q) is N C
N
C

U U
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1481
(a) (b) (a) ( p  q )  ~ q  ~ p (b)
~ (p  q)   p  ~ q
N C (c) ~ ( p  q )  p  ~ q (d)
(c) (d) None of these ~ ( p  q)  ~ p  ~ q
42. The contrapositive of ( p  q )  r is [Karnataka CET 1999]
U
(a) r  (p  q) (b) ~ r  ( p  q )
36. Which Venn diagram represent the truth of the statement
“No policeman is a thief” (c) ~ r  ~ p  ~ q (d) p  (q  r)
43. If p  (q  r) is false, then the truth values of p, q, r are
respectively [Karnataka CET 2000]
P T P T
(a) (b) (a) T, F, F (b) F, F, F
U U (c) F, T, T (d) T, T, F
44. The logically equivalent proposition of p  q is
P [Karnataka CET 2000]
(c) T (d) None of these (a) ( p  q)  ( p  q) (b) ( p  q )  (q  p )

U (c) ( p  q )  (q  p ) (d) ( p  q )  (q  p )
37. Which Venn diagram represent the truth of the statement 45. The false statement in the following is
[Karnataka CET 2002]
“Some teenagers are not dreamers”
(a) p  (~ p ) is a contradiction
T D
(b) ( p  q )  (~ q  ~ p ) is a contradiction
(a) T D (b) (c) ~ (~ p )  p is a tautology
U U p  (~ p )  is a tautology
(d)
T D 46. If p  (~ p  q ) is false, the truth values of p and q are
(c) (d) None of these respectively [Karnataka CET 2002]
(a) F, T (b) F, F
U (c) T, T (d) T, F
38. Which of the following Venn diagram corresponds to the 47. Which of the following is not a proposition
statement [Karnataka CET 2002]
“All mothers are women” (a) 3 is a prime
(M is the set of all mothers, W is the set of all women) (b) 2 is irrational
W M (c) Mathematics is interesting
(a) (b)
W M (d) 5 is an even integer
48. ( p  ~ q )  (~ p  q) is [Karnataka CET 2003]
U U
(a) A tautology
(b) A contradiction
W M
(c) M (d) W (c) Both a tautology and a contradiction
(d) Neither a tautology nor a contradiction
U U 49. ~ p  q is logically equivalent to [Karnataka CET 2004]

39. The negative of q  ~ ( p  r) is (a) p  q (b) q  p

[Karnataka CET 1997] (c) ~ ( p  q ) (d) ~ (q  p )
(a) ~ q  ~ ( p  r) (b) ~ q  ( p  r) 50. Which of the following is the inverse of the proposition : “If a
number is a prime then it is odd.” [Karnataka CET 2004]
(c) ~ q  ( p  r) (d) None of these
(a) If a number is not a prime then it is odd
40. The propositions ( p  ~ p )  (~ p  p ) is a (b) If a number is not a prime then it is odd
[Karnataka CET 1997] (c) If a number is not odd then it is not a prime
(a) Tautology and contradiction (d) If a number is not odd then it is a prime
(b) Neither tautology nor contradiction
(c) Contradiction Boolean algebra
(d) Tautology
1. In Boolean Algebra, the zero element ‘0’
41. Which of the following is always true [Karnataka CET 1998]
(a) Has two values (b) Is unique
 1482 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
(c) As atleast two values (d) None of these 17. (a) aa  0 (b) aa  a
2. In Boolean Algebra, the unit element ‘1’
(c) a1  a (d) None of these
(a) Has two values (b) Is unique
(c) Has atleast two values (d) None of these 18. (a) aa 1 (b) aa  a
3. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, xx  (c) aa  0 (d) None of these
(a) 0 (b) 1 19. (a) a  1  a (b) a  1  1
(c) x (d) None of these
(c) a1  0 (d) None of these
4. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, xx 
(a) 0 (b) 1
20. (a) a  a  0 (b) a  a  1
(c) x (d) None of these (c) a  a  a (d) None of these
5. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, x  1  21. (a) a  a  1 (b) a  a  0
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) x (d) None of these (c) a  a  a (d) None of these

6. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x, y in B, x  ( x  y )  22. (a) 0  0 (b) 0  1

(a) y (b) x (c) 1  1 (d) None of these
(c) 1 (d) 0
23. (a) (a  b)  a  b  (b) (a  b)  a  b 
7. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x, y in B, x  ( x  y ) 
(a) y (b) x (c) (a  b)  a  b (d) None of these
(c) 1 (d) 0
24. (a) (a  b )  a  b (b) (a  b )  a  b
8. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, ( x ) 
(c) (a  b )  a  b (d) None of these
(a) x (b) x
25. (a) a  (a  b )  a (b) a  (a  b )  b
(c) 1 (d) 0
9. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x, y in B, ( x  y )  (c) a  (a  b )  a  b (d) None of these

(a) x   y (b) x   y 26. (a) a  (a  b )  b (b) a  (a  b )  a

(c) 1 (d) None of these (c) a  (a  b )  0 (d) None of these
10. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x, y in B, ( x  y )  27. (a) x  x x  x (b) x  x x  x
(a) x   y (b) x   y (c) x  x x  1 (d) None of these
(c) 1 (d) None of these
28. (a) x  x y  x (b) x  x y  y
11. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, 0 is equal to
(c) x  x y  x  y (d) None of these
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) x .0 (d) None of these 29. (a) x  (x  y )  x (b) x  (x  y )  y
12. In a Boolean Algebra B, for all x in B, 1  (c) x  (x  y)  1 (d) None of these
(a) 0 (b) 1 30. An OR gate is the Boolean function defined of
(c) x 1 (d) None of these (a) f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 1  x 2 ; x 1 , x 2 {0, 1}
13. Dual of ( x   y )  x  y is f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 1  x 2 ; x 1 , x 2 {0, 1}
(b)
(a) (x   y )  x  y (b) ( x   y )  x  y f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 1 ; x 1 , x 2 {0, 1}
(c)
(c) ( x   y )  x  y (d) None of these
(d) f ( x 1 , x 2 )  x 2 ; x 1 , x 2 {0, 1}
14. Dual of x  (y  x )  x is
31. A NOT gate is the Boolean function defined by
(a) x  (y  x )  x (b) x  (y  x )  x f ( x )  x , x  {0, 1}
(a) (b)
(c) (x  y )  ( x  x )  x (d) None of these f ( x )  x , x  {0, 1}
Let B={p, q, r, .....} and let two binary operations be denoted
by ‘' and ‘’ or ‘+’ or ‘.’, then (c) f ( x )  x  x , x  {0, 1} (d)
15. (a) p  p  0 (b) p  p  1 None of these

(c) p  p  1 (d) None of these

16. (a) p  p  1 (b) p  p  0
(c) p  p  0 (d) None of these
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1483

26 a 27 b 28 a 29 a 30 c
1. Negation of the proposition : If we control population growth,
we prosper 31 a 32 b 33 a 34 a 35 a
(a) If we do not control population growth, we prosper 36 a 37 c 38 c 39 b 40 c
(b) It we control population growth, we do not prosper 41 c 42 c 43 a 44 b 45 b
(c) We control population but we do not prosper
46 d 47 c 48 b 49 d 50 b
(d) We do not control population, but we prosper
2. Which Venn diagram represent the truth of the statement Boolean Algebra
“All smokers are drinkers and all drinkers are smokers”
U U 1 b 2 b 3 c 4 c 5 b
(a) S=D
(b) S D 6 b 7 b 8 b 9 b 10 b

11 b 12 a 13 b 14 a 15 c
S D U 16 b 17 b 18 b 19 b 20 b
(c) (d) None of these
21 b 22 b 23 b 24 a 25 a

26 b 27 b 28 c 29 a 30 b
3. For the circuits shown below, the Boolean polynomial is
[Karnataka CET 1999] 31 b
(a) (~ p  q )  ( p  ~ q )
~p q
(b) (~ p  p )  (q  q ) Critical Thinking Questions
p ~q
(c) (~ p  ~ q )  (q  p)
1 c 2 a 3 d 4 c 5 a
(d) (~ p  q )  ( p  ~ q )
4. Let p be the proposition : Mathematics is a interesting and let q
be the propositions that Mathematics is difficult, then the
symbol p  q means [Karnataka CET 2001]
(a) Mathematics is interesting implies that Mathematics is
difficult
(b) Mathematics is interesting implies and is implied by Mathematical logic
Mathematics is difficult
(c) Mathematics is interesting and Mathematics is difficult
1. (d) “Two plus two is four” is a statement.
(d) Mathematics is interesting or Mathematics is difficult
5. An AND gate is the Boolean function defined by 2. (c) “The sun is a star” is a statement.
3. (d) “Alas ! I have failed” is not a statement.
(a) f (x 1 , x 2 )  x 1 : x 2 , x 1 , x 2  {0, 1}
4. (c) “Where are you going?” is not a statement.
(b) f (x 1 , x 2 )  x 1  x 2 , x 1 , x 2  {0, 1} 5. (a) “Please do me a favour” is not a statement.
(c) f (x 1 , x 2 )  x 1 , x 1 , x 2  {0, 1} 6. (a) “Give me a glass of water” is not a statement.
7. (a) “x is a rational number” is an open statement.
(d) f (x 1 , x 2 )  x 2 , x 1 , x 2  {0, 1}
8. (b) p : It rains, q : I shall go to school
Thus, we have pq
Its negation is ~ ( p  q ) i.e. p  ~ q
i.e. It rains and I shall not go to school.
9. (b) Let p : Paris is in France, q : London is in England
 we have p  q
Its negation is ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  ~ q
Mathematical logic
i.e. Paris is not in France or London is not in England.
1 d 2 c 3 d 4 c 5 a 10. (c) Let p : 2+ 3 = 5, q : 8 < 10
6 a 7 a 8 b 9 b 10 c Given proposition is : pq
11 d 12 a 13 a 14 d 15 b Its negation is ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  ~ q
16 a 17 b 18 b 19 a 20 c  we have 2+ 3  5 or 8 ≮ 10.
21 b 22 a 23 a 24 b 25 c 11. (d) Let p : Ram is in Class X, q : Rahim is in class XII
 1484 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
Given proposition is p  q T F F T T F F
Its negation is ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  ~ q F T T F F T F
F F T T F T F
i.e. Ram is not in class X and Rahim is not in class XII.
12. (a) Clearly, ( p  ~ q )  ( p  ~ q ) is a contradiction.
p q pq (p  q)  p 27. (b) It is correct.

T T T T  3 is not rational but it is real.

T F F T
28. (a) Correct result is (~ p  ~ q )  (r  s)
F T F T
F F F T So, ~ ( p  q )  (r  s) .
 ( p  q )  p is a tautology.
29. (a) ~ [ p  (~ p  q )]  ~ p  ~ (~ p  q )
13. (a)
p q ~ ( p  q )( p  q )  ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  (~ (~ p )  ~ q )
pq pq
T T T T F F ~ p  ( p  ~ q ) .
T F F T F F
F T F T F F 30. (c) ~ ( p  q )  p  ~ q
F F F F T F  ~ (~ p  ~ q )  ~ p  ~ (~ q )  ~ p  q
 ( p  q )  (~ ( p  q )) is a contradiction.
Thus ~ (~ p  ~ q )  ~ p  q .
14. (d) Since ~ ( p  q )  p  ~ q
~ (~ p  q)  ~ p  ~ q 31. (a) ~ ( p  q )  (~ p  q ))

15. (b) ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  ~ q .  (~ p  ~ q )  (~ p  q )

16. (a) ~ ( p  q )  ~ p  ~ q .  ~ p  (~ q  q )  ~ p .
17. (b) (~ (~ p ))  q  p  q .
32. (b) Inverse of p  q is ~ p  ~ q
18. (b) ~ ( p  (~ q ))  ~ p  ~ (~ q )  (~ p )  q .
 inverse of ( p  ~ q )  r is
19. (a) ~ ((~ p )  q )  ~ (~ p )  ~ q  p  (~ q ) .
~ ( p  ~ q )  ~ r i.e. (~ p  q )  ~ r .
20. (c) ~ ( p  q )  ( p  ~ q )  (q  ~ p ) .
21. (b) p q ~ pq. 33. (a) p, q, r should be closed for the current to flow.
22. (a) ~ pq means F F = F, ~r means F 34. (a) All students are hard working means S  H.
(~ p  q ) ~ r means F 35. (a) “No child is naughty” means C  N = 
 [(~ p  q )  ~ r]  p means T i.e. there is no common element between C and N.
[ in p  q we have 36. (a) No policeman is a thief means P  T = 
FTT]
i.e. there is no common element between P and T.
23. (a) Given result means p  ~ r is true, q  r is false.
37. (c) Some teenagers are not dreamers means teenagers which
24. (b) ( p  q )  (q  r) is true means p  q , q  r are
are not dreamers.
both true.  p, q, r are all true.
25. (c) 38. (c) All mothers are women.
p q pq ~(pq) ~p ~q ~p~q ~(pq) M  W.
 39. (b)
~p~q
~ (q  ~ ( p  r))  ~ q  (~ (~ ( p  r))  ~ q  ( p  r)
T T T F F F F T
.
T F F T F T T T
F T T F T F T F 40. (c)
F F T F T T T F p ~p p~p ~p p ( p  ~ p )  (~ p  p )
Last column shows that result is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction. T F F T F
26. (a) F T T F F
p q ~p ~q p~q ~pq (p~q)(~pq) Clearly, ( p  ~ p )  (~ p  p ) is a contradiction.
T T F F F T F
 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra 1485
41. (c) p  q  ~ p  q  ~ ( p  q)  p  ~ q . 8. (b) It is obvious.
9. (b) It is obvious.
42. (c) Contrapositive of p  q is ~ q  ~ p
10. (b) It is obvious.
 contrapositive of ( p  q )  r is
11. (b) It is obvious.
~ r  ~ ( p  q ) i.e. ~ r  (~ p  ~ q ) . 12. (a) It is obvious.
43. (a) p  q is false only when p is true and q is false. 13. (b) Change ‘’ to ‘’ and ‘’ to ‘’.

 p  q is false when p is true and q  r is false, 14. (a) Change ‘’ to ‘’ and ‘’ to ‘’.
and q  r is false when both q and r are false.
15. (c) p  p  1 .
Hence truth values of p, q and r are respectively T, F, F.
16. (b) p  p  0 .
44. (b) ( p  q )  (q  p ) means pq.
45. (b) p  q is logically equivalent to ~ q  ~ p 17. (b) aaa.
 ( p  q )  (~ q  ~ p ) is a tautology but not a 18. (b) aaa.
contradiction. 19. (b) a  1  1 .
46. (d) p  (~ p  q ) is false means p is true and ~ p  q
is false.
20. (b) a  a  1 .
 p is true and both ~p and q are false. 21. (b) a  a  0 .
 p is true and q is false. 22. (b) 0  1 .
47. (c) Mathematics is interesting is not a logical sentence. It may
be interesting for some persons are may not be interesting 23. (b) (a  b )  a   b  .
for others.
24. (a) (a  b )  a   b  .
 This is not a propositions.
48. (b) 25. (a)
( p  ~ q )  (~ p  q )  ( p  ~ p )  (~ q  q )  f  f  f a  (a  b )  a  1  a  b  a  (1  b)  a  1  a .
.
26. (b) a  (a  b )  a  a  a  b .
(By using associative laws and commutatine laws)
 a  1  a  b  a  (1  b )  a  1  a .
 ( p  ~ q )  (~ p  q ) is a contradiction.
27. (b)
49. (d) ~ p  q ~ (q  p ) .
x  x   x  (x  x )  (x  x )  1  ( x  x )  1  x  x
50. (b) p : A number is a prime.
Q : It is odd. 28. (c)

We have p  q
x  x   y  (x  x )  ( x  y )  1  (x  y )  x  y

The inverse of p  q is ~ p  ~ q 29. (a) x  (x  y )  x  x  x  y  x  x  y

i.e., If a number is not a prime then it is not odd.
 x  1  x  y  x  (1  y )  x  1  x .
Boolean algebra
30. (b) It is definition.
1. (b) It is obvious.
31. (b) It is definition.
2. (b) It is obvious.
3. (c) It is obvious. Critical Thinking Questions
4. (c) It is obvious.
1. (c) p : we control population, q : we prosper.
5. (b) It is obvious.
 we have pq
6. (b) It is obvious.
7. (b) It is obvious. Its negation is ~ ( p  q ) i.e. p  ~ q
 1486 Mathematical Logic and Boolean Algebra
i.e. we control population but we do not prosper.
2. (a) All smokers are drinkers and all drinkers are smokers.
 S  D and D  S
This means S = D.
3. (d) For the given circuit, Boolean polynomial is
(~ p  q)  ( p  ~ q) .

4. (c) p q means Mathematics is interesting and

Mathematics is difficult.
5. (a) It is definition.