Discrete Mathematics Notes for 1st Quarter
variables that can be replaced by real numbers,
Lesson 1: Logic Part
Logic
- deals with the methods of reasoning. It is
specifically concerned with whether the
reasoning is correct.
- determine the validity of an argument.
The validity of an argument depends on
its logical form, not on the particular
meaning of the terms it contains.
Logical Methods
- used in mathematics to prove theorems,
in computer science to verify the
correctness of programs, in the natural
and physical sciences to draw
conclusions from experiments, in the
social sciences and in our everyday lives
to solve a multitude of problems.
Propositions
- (or statement) is a declarative sentence.
It assigns one and only one of the two
possible truth values TRUE or FALSE.
In mathematics, the letters x, y, z, … denote
and these variables can be combined by the
familiar operations +, x, - and ÷.
In logic, statements are usually represented
symbolically by the lowercase letters (p, q, r, s, t)
to represent propositional variables, that is,
variables that can be replaced by statements.
Two Types of Propositions:
1. Atomic Proposition - statement that is
not decomposable into simple statement.
2. Compound Proposition - formed over
the composition of different statements
through logical connectives
Logical Connectives
These are the devices used to link or join pairs
of statement.
• Negation [“not”]
• Conjunction [“and”]
• Disjunction [“or”]
• Inclusive Disjunction
• Exclusive Disjunction
Negation
The negation of p, denoted ~p, is the proposition
not p.
• Not
• It is not the case that …
• It is false that ...
 Disjunction

- Let p and q be propositions. The

disjunction of p and q, denoted p v q, is
the proposition “ p or q “.
➢ or
➢ unless

Conjunction

- Let p and q be propositions. The

conjunction of p and q is the proposition
p and q and it is denoted by p ˄ q
➢ and
➢ but,
➢ moreover
➢ furthermore
➢ yet
➢ still
➢ however
➢ also
➢ nevertheless
➢ although
➢ and so forth
Words, like “both” that goes with “and” and
“either” that goes with “or” have parenthetical
meaning. They indicate certain groupings.
Conditional Propositions
- If p and q are propositions, the compound
statement “if p, then q” is called an
implication or conditional statement and
is denoted by p q.
- p is called the hypothesis
q is called the conclusion.

NOTE:

𝑝→𝑞 is equivalent to the following expressions:

𝑝 implies 𝑞, If 𝑝 then 𝑞, 𝑞 if 𝑝, 𝑞 whenever 𝑝, 𝑝 is

sufficient for 𝑞, 𝑝 is necessary for 𝑞

Truth Table

- which summarizes the truth values of

propositions. Its entries are T (1) if the
truth value of the proposition is true, and
F (0) if the truth values is false.

Biconditional Proposition
- If p and q are propositions, the
compound proposition “p if and only
if q” is called is called a biconditional
proposition and is written p
Argument
- a sequence of propositions written as p1,
p2, …, pn / q
- Deductive or indirect reasoning is a
process of reaching a conclusion from
one or more statements called
q.
hypothesis.
- set of statements in which one of the
statements is called the conclusion and
the rest comprise the hypothesis. The
propositions p1, p2…,pn, are called the
hypotheses (or premises) and; The
proposition q is called the conclusion.

The propositions p1, p2, …, pn are called the

NOTE:
𝑝↔𝑞 is equivalent to the following expressions:
𝑝 is equivalent to 𝑞, 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, 𝑝 is
necessary and sufficient for 𝑞, if 𝑝 then 𝑞 and
conversely
hypothesis and the proposition q is called the
conclusion. An argument is valid argument if all
the premises p1^p2^…^pn are all true (1) and truth
value of the conclusion q, must also be true (1);
otherwise, the argument is invalid if the truth
value of all premises is true (1) but the truth value
of the conclusion is false (0). An argument is
valid if it is tautology
 statements. 1 is used for closed switch,
while 0 for an open switch.

Application of Logic to Circuits

- One of the most nonmathematical

applications of symbolic logic was seen
in the master’s thesis of Claude Shannon
in 1937. Shannon showed how logic
could be used as an aid in designing
electrical circuits. His work was
immediately taken up by the designers of
computers. (Lial et. al., 2002)

Equivalent Statement Used to Simplify

Circuits

- Logic is used to simplify an electrical

circuits and it depends on the idea of
equivalent statements. Circuits can be
used as models of compound