LESSON 10: Basic Concepts of Logic

LOGIC:

• defines a formal language for representing knowledge and for making logical inferences

• It helps us to understand how to construct a valid argument

LOGIC DEFINES:

• Syntax of statements

• The meaning of statements

• The rules of logical inference (manipulation)

PROPOSITION

 A declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.

 A true proposition has a truth of “true”, otherwise, its truth value is “false”. Oftentimes, a smaller letter is used
to denote a preposition. That is, the proposition
 a : It is getting clearer may be read as a is the proposition “it is getting clearer.”

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PROPOSITION

A Simple Proposition that cannot be broken down into more than one proposition and conveys one thought.
Otherwise, it is a Compound Proposition. The latter is a proposition that is formed by joining simple propositions
using logical connectors (and, or, if then, not and if and only if). Given propositions p and/or q, some logical
connectors may be expressed in terms of the following: not p, p or q, p and q, if p, then q

SIMPLE PROPOSTION - or atomic, a proposition which is not compound that conveys one thought.

COMPOUND PROPOSITION - Is a proposition composed of two or more simple proposition connected by logical
connectives. (and, or, if then, not and if and only if)

CONJUCTION (and)

 Two simple proposition joined by the word “and”. The connective and implies the idea of “both”.
 The proposition p and q is the compound proposition of “p and q”. Symbolically, p ^ q, where ^ is the symbol for
“and”.
 Proposition p and proposition q are called Conjuncts.

p q p ∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

DISJUCTION (or)

 Two or more simple proposition joined by the word “or”

 Two simple propositions connected using the word “or”. The use of or in this case is called the inclusive or
(inclusive disjunction)
 A proposition p, q is the compound proposition “p or q”. Symbolically, p v q, where v is the symbol for “or”
 Propositions p and q are each called Disjunct

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

NEGATION

 The proposition p is denoted by ~p where ~ is the symbol for “not”.

 p ~p
T F
F T

TAKE NOTE!

Either – or : same as disjunction statement

Neither – nor : negation of the disjunction p or q

 Negation of the Disjunction p or q

( p ∨ q)means p ∧ q
 Negation of the Conjunction p and q
( p ∧ q)means p ∨ q

CONDITIONAL

 Two simple propositions connected using the words “if…then.”

 (or implication) a proposition p and q is the compound proposition “if p then q.”
 Symbolically p → q, where → is the symbol for “if then.” called hypothesis and q is the called conclusion

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

BICONDITIONAL

 Conjunction of two conditional statements where the hypothesis and conclusion of the first statement have
been switched in the second statement.
 A proposition p and q are the compound proposition “p if and only if q”. Symbolically, p ↔ q where ↔ is the
symbol for “if and only if” or iff.

p q p↔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Parentheses in symbolic statements are used to tell what type of statements are being considered. If there are no
parentheses, we follow the dominance of connectives. The list below gives the connectives in their dominant order
(from the strongest to the weakest).

1. Biconditional
2. Conditional
3. Disjunction, Conjunction
4. Negation The conjunction and disjunction are of equal value.

Conditional Propositions - are compound statements. We denote them as p →q that means that "if p then q". These
are sometimes called implications, where p is called the hypothesis and q is called the conclusion.

Conditional Statement - are subdivide into two parts namely hypothesis which is the “If” part and denoted by the
variable p and conclusion which is the “Then” part and denoted by the variable q. To represent a conditional, we write if
p, → then q or p → q, read as “p implies q. ” The symbol → indicates an implication.

FORMS OF CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

 Converse Statement - formed by the interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion. Thus, p → q is q → p.
 Inverse Statement - Inverse the hypothesis and the conclusion is being negated or the word “not” . Thus, the inverse
of p → q is ~p → ~q.
 Contrapositive Statement - Contrapositive the hypothesis and conclusion are being interchange and negated. Thus,
the contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p.

TAKE NOTE: A conditional and its contrapositive are logically equivalent. In the same manner, based on a given
conditional proposition, its converse and inverse are logically equivalent.