Physics 9 PDF

1 of 143
Nuclear medicine and patient

dose
2 of 143
Factors affecting absorbed dose

delivered to an organ
• Activity administrated
• Fraction taken up by the organ
• Effective half life of the activity in the organ
• Energy of β and γ radiation emitted
• Fraction of the energy escapes from the organ
– Almost all β energy is deposited inside the organ
and very little escapes
– Some of γ energy is deposited in the organ and
some leaves it
Www.ScoreTraining.net
3 of 143
Calculation of internal absorbed dose

1- monte carlo method
• Mathematical simulation of the patient anatomy
based on CT image
• Mathematical methods that consider the fate of
individual photons whose behavior determined in
terms of probabilities
4 of 143
2- Medical internal radiation dose (MIRD)
• Method of American society of nuclear medicine

• Assumes that there are source organ which
accumulates the activity , and target organs which
are irradiated by the source organ
Target Organ
Source Organ
Cardiac scan
Dose after colloid scan 5 of 143
Absorbed Effective dose

Target Organ wT
Dose (mGy) (mSv)
Gonads (F) 0.2 0.081 0.016
Red Marrow 0.12 0.41 0.049
Colon 0.12 0.07 0.008
Lung 0.12 0.2 0.024
Stomach 0.12 0.23 0.028
Bladder 0.05 0.04 0.002
Breast 0.05 0.1 0.005
Liver 0.05 2.74 0.137
Esophagus 0.05 0.1 0.005
Thyroid 0.05 0.03 0.0015
Bone
0.01 0.24 0.0024
Surfaces
Spleen 0.025 2.85 0.071
Remainder 0.05 0.21 0.005
Notes:
•Calculations are approximate (exact uptake is dependant on body size , age , sex , disease…..)
•dose can be measured based on activity uptake measured from gamma images
•After IV tracer injection most of organs receive dose (compare to x-ray)
•Target organs and organs of excretion receive highest dose
•Distribution of the dose is examination specific
Typical activities and doses 6 of 143
exam agent Activity (MBq) Effective dose

bone Tc MDP 600 5
LUNG VENTILATION Tc 99m DPTA aerosol 80 0.5
Lung perfusion Tc 99m HSA 100 1
Kidney Tc 99m DPTA 300 2
Infection Ga 67 150 15
Thyroid I-123 20 4
Heart Tl-201 80 18
Notes:
•Most nuclear medicine investigations deliver less than 5 mSv (in the range of annual dose
of natural radiation)
•Some exams (cardiac with thallium , abscess with gallium ) deliver higher doses and should
be only undertaken when other modalities are inappropriate
7 of 143
Radionuclide dose calibrator

• Re-enterent ionization chamber that is
used to check the activity of radionuclide
vial before patient administration
• Ionization current is dependant on
– Activity of the sample
– Sensitivity of the chamber to the energy of
the gamma rays assessed
– Geometry of the source within the calibrator
• Thus radionuclide and syringe type must be
selected on the control panel
• accuracy of the calibrator is checked
regularly using a long lived source (Co-57)
• Used also to measure radionuclide purity
8 of 143
Measures to decrease patient dose

• Patient should drink good deal of water and empty
the bladder frequently (reduce dose to gonads)
• Females should avoid conception for an appropriate
period following administration of long lived tracers
(t½ > 7ds)
• females who are or may be pregnant should avoid
examinations which will result in fetal dose > 10
mSv
• Interruption of breast feeding is recommended
after exam
• Patient’s identity must be checked against type of
study and the activity to be administered
9 of 143
Radionuclide handling precautions

• Types of hazards to staff while handling
tracers
– External radiation
– Internal radiation: accidental ingestion or
inhalation of radionuclide or its entry through a
wound
• Precautions include segregation and personal
protection
10 of 143
Segregation:
• There must be separate areas for
– Preparation and storage of radioactive materials
– Injections of patients
– Patient’s waiting (should be spaced apart in the waiting
area… why?)
– Imaging
– Temporary storage of radioactive waste
Personal protection: 11 of 143
• Staff should enter radioactivity areas only
when it is strictly necessary
• Radionuclide should be contained in
shielded generators or bottles inside lead
pots
• Syringes are handled with long handled
forceps, and protected by tungsten or lead
glass sleeves (decrease finger dose by 75%)
• Syringes are carried to the patient into a
special container
• Labeling of pharmaceuticals should be
carried out with the arms behind a lead
barrier and over a tray lined with absorbent
paper
• Before injection, syringes are vented into
swabs or closed containers
• Staff is monitored for external radiation
doses
• Waterproof surgical gloves are worn when 12 of 143
handling tracer
• Abrasions must be covered
• No eating or drinking inside the room
• Hands and work surfaces are routinely
monitored for radioactive contamination
• Air in the room must be sampled And
monitored
• Staff is monitored for internal contamination
• If there is slight spillage → decontamination by
water , mild detergents and swabs (sealed in
plastic begs and disposed as radioactive
waste)
• If contamination is obstinate → special
detergent solutions
• Hands is washed regularly at special hands
free designated washbasins
N.B: lead rubber aprons are ineffective against
high energy gamma radiation Www.ScoreTraining.net
13 of 143
Dealing with radioactive spill

• Clear area from non essential persons
• Wear gloves aprons and overshoes
• Mop the floor with absorbent pads and
seal swabs as radioactive waste
• Continue until monitoring show the
activity to be satisfactorily of low level
• If necessary cordon off the area or cover

it with impervious sheeting until
sufficient decay has occurred
14 of 143
Disposal of radioactive waste

principles:
• Containment and decay
• Dilution by dispersal to the environment
Roots:
• Disposal of gaseous waste:
– Ventilation to atmosphere
– Used with wastes of lung ventilation studies
• Xe-133 & Tc-99m aerosols: to the exterior of the building
• Kr-81m (very short t½): Ventilation to exterior is desirable but
not always necessary (adequate room ventilation is a must)
15 of 143
• Disposal of liquid waste:
– Well diluted with water via designated
sinks draining into foul drains (as long
as levels are within authorized levels)
• Disposal of solid waste (swabs
,syringes and bottles):
– Placed into designated sacs for disposal
in:
• authorized incinerators
• With ordinary waste if suitably diluted
– Used generators are kept in a secure
shielded store until returned to
manufacturer
– Contaminated clothing; stored in
protected area until the activity is
sufficiently decayed , then released to
laundry
16 of 143
Ultrasound physics
17 of 143
Sound Properties and

Parameters
18 of 143
Sound waves is Longitudinal Waves
i.e. Particle motion parallel to direction of wave travel
Motion of
Individual Coil
2
2
Wave Travel
19 of 143
Sound Waves are Compression Waves
• Regions of alternating low and high pressure

move through air
• Particles oscillate back & forth parallel to
direction of sound travel
Wave Travel Motion of Individual

Air Molecule
20 of 143
• N.B. In Transverse Waves:

– Particle moves perpendicular to wave travel
– Example: Electromagnetic waves
21 of 143
Medium
• medium is required for sound
– sound does not travel through vacuum
• Medium not required for electromagnetic
waves
22 of 143
Sound Frequency
# of complete cycles of sound waves per unit
time
• Units
cycles per second
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
1 kHz = 1000 cycles per second
1 MHz = 1,000,000 cycles per second
• Human hearing range
20 - 20,000 Hz
sound frequency corresponds to pitch
23 of 143
Sound Frequency
• Ultrasound definition
> 20,000 Hz
– not audible to humans
• Clinical ultrasound frequency range
1 - 10 MHz
1,000,000 - 10,000,000 Hz
24 of 143
Period
• Time between a given point in one cycle & the
same point in the next cycle (time of single cycle)
1
Period = ----------------
Frequency
• As frequency increases, period decreases
• Sound Period & Frequency are determined only by the
sound source. They are independent of medium
Magnitude of
acoustic
variable
period
time
25 of 143
Period = 1 / Frequency
• if frequency in Hz, period in seconds/cycle
• if frequency in kHz, period in msec/cycle
• if frequency in MHz, period in msec/cycle
If frequency = 2 MHz then sound period is 1/2 = 0.5 msec
If frequency = 10 kHz then sound period is 1/10 = 0.1 msec
If frequency = 50 Hz then sound period is 1/50 = 0.02 sec

26 of 143
Sound Speed
• Speed is only a function of medium
• Speed is dependant on material through which it
travels
• Speed is (nearly) constant for a given material
(independent on frequency)
• Material properties affecting sound velocity:
– Density: ↑density →↓velocity
– Compressibility: ↑ Compressibility (or ↓ elastic modulus)
→↓velocity
• Notes:
– Velocity also depends on temperature
– soft tissues sound take 7 μsec to travel for 1 cm (1.54mm/
μsec ) Www.ScoreTraining.net
27 of 143
Acoustic Impedance (Z)

• Definition
Acoustic Impedance = Density X Prop. Speed
Material Velocity (m/s) Density Acoustic impedance (Z)
)
Air 330 1.29 430
Soft tissue 1540 1000 1.5X10⁶
Bone 3200 1650 5.3x 10⁶
PZT 4000 7500 30 x10⁶
Note that:
•Air sound velocity is ↓ despite having↓ density (because it has ↑ compressibility)
•Frequency of ultrasound in different media is constant (= frequency of transducer) , so that
changes in velocity from one medium to another will change ……………..
•acoustic impedance is independent of frequency
•Differences in acoustic impedance determine fraction of ultrasound echoed at an interface
28 of 143
Wavelength
• distance in space over which single cycle occurs
= distance between a given point in a cycle &

corresponding point in next cycle
• Unit = length per cycle
• usually in millimeters or fractions of a millimeter
for clinical ultrasound
29 of 143
Wavelength Equation
Speed = Wavelength X Frequency
[c=lXn]
(dist./time) (dist./cycle) (cycles/time)
• As frequency increases, wavelength decreases

– because speed is constant
• Wavelength is a function of both the sound source
and the medium! (why?)
30 of 143
Sound intensity
• Quantity of ultrasound
• Unit = Watts/mm²
• Proportional to square of wave amplitude
• Under operator control
Note:
Ultrasound can undergo reflection ,refraction and focusing (unlike X & γ rays)
31 of 143
Piezoelectric effect
32 of 143
• Definition:
– conversion of electrical signals to mechanical energy
(ultrasound beam) and vice versa
• Uses: ultrasound transducer
– Made of piezoceramic disc that consists of either:
• compressed microcrystalline lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
• Or plastic polyvinylidine difluoride (PVDF)
– Two flat faces of the disc is made electrically
conducting with a very thin coating of silver
33 of 143
DC application to the piezoceramic disc:
• DC voltage is applied to the flat faces of the disc →
it expands
• If the voltage is reversed → it contracts
• The movement of the faces is proportional to the
voltage
34 of 143
The reverse is also possible:
• If disc is compressed → voltage is generated
• If pressure is reversed → voltage is reversed
• Voltage produced is proportional to the pressure
applied
-
-
+
35 of 143
AC application to the piezoceramic disc:
• Disc will alternately expands and contracts with
the same frequency of the AC→ production of
sound waves
• also: When the disc is subjected to alternating
pressure , an alternating voltage is produced of
the same frequency → receiving of sound waves
• This means that: The same transducer can act as
transmitter and receiver of the sound
36 of 143
Notes:
• Curie temperature: temperature above which
transducer lose its piezoelectric properties
• Transducer should not be autoclaved
• Thin slices of naturally occurring quartz
crystals also show piezoelectric effects (used
in digital timers)
37 of 143
Continuous and pulsed Ultrasound
38 of 143
Continuous mode ultrasound

• AC voltage is applied to the crystal
• The crystal face pulses forward & backwards (through
distance <1μm), producing successive compressions &
rarefactions waves
• Density (& pressure) of the material rise & fall above its
normal atmospheric value (can reach several atmospheres)
• Frequency with which compression waves pass through
material = frequency of AC voltage applied = frequency of
ultrasound produced
39 of 143
Pulse Mode Ultrasound

•Few hundred volts DC are suddenly applied to the
disc
•It expands , compressing a layer of material in
contact with it
•The compressed layer then expands compressing
layer of the material in contact with it
•So that: wave of compression travels with velocity
(v) through the material followed by corresponding
wave of decompression
•Short regular sound pulses are produced
•Every pulse produce spectrum of frequencies
(compare to continuous mode)
sound silence sound
40 of 143
•Sound is Pulsed on & off

On Cycle (speak)
Transducer produces short duration sound
Off Cycle (listen) = dead time
Transducer receives echoes
longer duration
ON OFF ON OFF
This means that the same transducer used for

• transmitting sound
•receiving echoes
41 of 143
Sound pulse Silence period Sound pulse
• one pulse cycle =

– one sound pulse
and
one period of silence
• The ultrasound frequency is dependant on the transducer

material (= resonant frequency) not on the current applied
(compare to continuous mode)
42 of 143
Parameters of pulsed ultrasound

• pulse repetition frequency
• pulse repetition period
• pulse duration
• duty factor
• spatial pulse length
• cycles per pulse
43 of 143
Pulse Repetition Frequency

• Number of sound pulses per unit time
= number of times ultrasound beam turned on & off per
unit time
≠ sound frequency
• determined by the source (the scanner) (= frequency of

applied voltage pulses)
• clinical range (typical values)

– 1 - 10 KHz
44 of 143
Pulse Repetition Period

• time from beginning of one pulse until beginning of
next
= time between corresponding points of adjacent
pulses
45 of 143

• Pulse repetition period is reciprocal of
pulse repetition frequency
PRF = 1 / PRP
– as pulse repetition frequency increases, pulse repetition period
decreases
• pulse repetition period & frequency

determined by source
46 of 143
• Pulse repetition frequency & period

independent sound frequency & period
Same sound Frequency

Higher Pulse
Repetition Frequency
Higher sound Frequency

Same Pulse
Www.ScoreTraining.net Repetition Frequency
47 of 143
Pulse Duration
• When transducer is pulsed → it continues to
vibrate for a short while with diminishing
amplitude as it lose energy
• Pulse Duration= Length of time for each
sound pulse
• units
– time per pulse
48 of 143
Pulse Duration
• equation
pulse duration = sound Period X # sound cycles per pulse
(time/pulse) (time/cycle) (cycles/pulse)
• typically 2-3 cycles per pulse (3 x t)
Pulse Duration Period
49 of 143
Pulse Duration
Longer Pulse Duration
Same frequency; pulse repetition frequency,

& pulse repetition period
Shorter Pulse Duration
Number of sound cycles/pulse is changed
50 of 143
Pulse Duration
• Pulse duration (ring down time) is a controlled by

the sound source
• Transducer tends to continue ringing

– This is minimized by dampening transducer element
51 of 143
Damping Material
• Goal:
– reduce cycles / pulse by damping out
vibrations after voltage pulse “ring-
down”
• Place:
– attached to near face of piezoelectric
element (away from patient)
Damping
Material
Piezoelectric
Element
52 of 143
no
air
N.B: if the block is omitted (disc is packed with air) → the pulse will last
for 20 or more periods
N.B: Additional damping may be performed electronically by applying a
second reverse voltage pulse very shortly after the first
53 of 143
Disadvantages of Damping
• Reduces beam intensity
• produces less pure frequency (tone)
• the shorter the pulse, the higher the range of frequencies
produced
• Range of frequencies produced called bandwidth
54 of 143
Bandwidth
• range of frequencies present in an ultrasound pulse
=FWHM of frequency spectrum
Continuous mode Pulsed mode
Intensity Intensity Operating

Frequency
Bandwidth
Frequency Frequency
Frequency = ……..
55 of 143
Quality Factor (“Q”) = mechanical coefficient
mean (resonance)frequency
Quality Factor = -----------------------------------------
bandwidth
Q is a Quantitative Measure of “Spectral Purity” (↑Q→ narrower
bandwidth)
Intensity Mean
Frequency
Bandwidth
Frequency
• N.B: Same graphs represent the resonance curve 56 of 143
i.e. the response of the transducer as a receiver to waves of

different frequencies
i.e. transducer with ↑Q produce a pure note and respond
only to that note
• Compare between pulsed and continuous ultrasound

according to Q & received frequencies
Intensity Mean
Frequency
Bandwidth
Frequency
57 of 143
Which has a Higher Quality Factor?

Which have less pulse duration?
Which have less damping?
A
B
Intensity Intensity
Frequency Frequency
Same Operating Frequency!
58 of 143
Conclusion
• More damping results in

– shorter pulses
– more frequencies
– higher bandwidth
– lower quality factor
– lower intensity
59 of 143
Duty Factor
• Fraction of time sound generated
• Determined by source
• Equations
Duty Factor = Pulse Duration / Pulse Repetition Period
Duty Factor = Pulse Duration X Pulse Repetition Freq.
Pulse Duration

60 of 143
Spatial Pulse Length

• distance in space traveled by ultrasound
during one pulse
Spat. Pulse Length = # sound cycles per pulse X wavelength
(dist. / pulse) (cycles / pulse) (dist. / cycle)
• depends on source & medium (why?)
61 of 143
Spatial Pulse Length

Spat. Pulse Length = # cycles per pulse X wavelength
Wavelength = Speed / Frequency
• as wavelength increases, spatial pulse length………

• as # cycles per pulse increases, spatial pulse length
……..
• as frequency increases spatial pulse length ………..
• Spatial pulse length determines axial resolution (see
later)
• Spat. Pulse Length = 3 λ or less
62 of 143
Sound interference
63 of 143
If two sound waves of the same

wavelength cross each other , the
pressure waves combine
•If they are exactly in-phase →

their amplitudes add up
•If they are exactly out of

phase → reduced intensity
64 of 143
Ultrasound Resonant Frequency
• Frequency at which the transducer vibrates most
violently and produce largest output of sound (AC)
• Frequency at which transducer is most sensitive as
receiver
• Resonant Frequency at which the transducer
vibrate when given DC pulse
= frequency which produce wave length = 2 x
transducer thickness
65 of 143
Explanation of resonant frequency

•Front face of the transducer emits sound in both the
forwards and the back direction
•The back-wave is reflected at the back face of the disc
•By the time it joins the front wave , it has traveled
distance = 2t →both are exactly in phase → constructive
interference
•If ultrasound frequency changes → some destructive
interference will occur
2t
66 of 143
Notes:
• Resonant Frequency is the
frequency at which the
transducer vibrate when given
DC pulse , other frequencies
produced die away quickly
because of the destructive
interference (what happens if
we apply AC?)
• The thicker the transducer , the
lower is the natural frequency
• Natural period = 1/f at λ = 2t
• A 3.5 MHz transducer has disc
of about 0.5 mm thick
67 of 143
Ultrasound Reflection
‘97
68 of 143
Perpendicular Incidence
• Sound beam
travels
perpendicular to
boundary 90o
between two Incident
Angle
media 1
2
Boundary
between
media
69 of 143
• at boundary part
of the sound
– reflected
• sound returns
toward source
– transmitted 1
• sound continues in
same direction 2
70 of 143
Intensity Reflection Coefficient (IRC)

&
Intensity Transmission Coefficient (ITC)
• IRC
– Fraction of sound intensity
reflected at interface
– <1
• ITC
– Fraction of sound intensity
transmitted through interface Medium 1
– <1
IRC + ITC = 1 Medium 2

71 of 143
• Fraction of intensity
reflected depends on
difference in acoustic
impedances between
the two media
1
Acoustic Impedance =
Density X Speed ofWww.ScoreTraining.net
Sound
72 of 143
IRC Equation
For perpendicular incidence
reflected intensity z2 - z 1 2
IRC = ------------------------ = ----------
incident intensity z2 + z1
• Z1 is acoustic impedance of medium #1

• Z2 is acoustic impedance of medium #2
Medium 1
Medium 2
• Probabilities: 73 of 143
–Z1=Z2:
• no reflections
• materials are acoustically matched
–Impedances are similar
• little reflected
–Impedances are so different
• Example: soft tissue and air
• virtually all reflected
reflected intensity z2 - z1 2
IRC = ------------------------ = ----------
incident intensity z2 + z 1
Applications 74 of 143
1- ultrasound gel:
reflected intensity z2 - z1 2
IRC = ------------------------ = ----------
incident intensity z2 + z 1
• Acoustic Impedance of air & soft tissue very different
• Acoustic Impedance of gel & soft tissue very similar
• Without gel virtually no sound penetrates skin
Fraction Reflected: 0.9995
Acoustic
Impedance
(rayls)
Air 400
Soft Tissue 1,630,000
75 of 143
2- matching plate:
• Z of transducer and tissues are mismatches →
only 20% of sound waves are transmitted in
either directions
• Solution: insertion of matching plate
– Characteristic: made of plastic (Z is intermediate
between transducer and tissues)
– Place: at the front face of the transducer
– plate thickness: ¼λ
76 of 143
Notes:
• There is subtle differences in Z between different soft
tissues → small fraction is reflected at interfaces
between soft tissues (e.g. 1% at fat kidney interface)
• Reflections less than 0.01% are unlikely to be detected
• At interface between bone and tissues 30% is reflected
, yet , it is not possible to image through the bone
77 of 143
Oblique Incidence
• Sound beam travel not
perpendicular to
boundary
• Three probabilities:
1- specular reflection Oblique
Incident
2-diffuse reflection Angle
(not equal 1
3- scattering to 90o)
2
Boundary
between
media
78 of 143
Specular Reflections
• Occur when the beam strikes a
large smooth interface at an angle
• The sound undergoes reflection
and rarefaction
1) reflection similar to light reflection
from mirror
• Angle of reflection = angle of incidence
2) rarefaction: θ θ
– snell’s law: ratio of sines of the
incident and rarefaction angles is
equal to ratio of sound velocity in θ1
the two materials
i.e. Sinθ/Sinθ1= C/C1
79 of 143
Diffuse reflection
• Tissue interface is rough and has undulations ≈λ
• The reflected beam spread out over an angle
• Same effect seen with light and frosted glass
• The spread become wider with:
– Shorter λ
– Rougher surface
• Result: transducer will receive some reflections even if the
beam does not strike the interface exactly at a right angle
80 of 143
Scattering
• Condition: structure size is just < λ
• Result: sound is scattered equally in all directions
• This allows even small structures to be visualized
(some scatter will reach the transducer)
• Examples:
– echo signals produced inside tissue
parenchyma (e.g. liver), which is about 1-10%
as strong as those produced at organ
boundaries
– RBCs (basis of Doppler)
• Why does Doppler require high frequency?
– higher frequency results in more backscatter
N.B:
– specular reflection very angle dependent
– backscatter not angle dependent
81 of 143
Sound Attenuation
82 of 143
Attenuation
• Definition:
– Reduction in amplitude & intensity as sound
travels through medium
– Sound is Attenuated exponentially with the
depth the sound travels
• Causes
– absorption
• sound energy converted to heat by frictional forces
– reflection
– Scattering
83 of 143
Unit of attenuation
decibels (dB)
No. of decibels = 10 x log power ratio
Power Ratio = Power Out / Power In
Power In Tissue Power Out
(attenuation)
Notes:
•+ve dB means sound amplification
•-ve dB means sound attenuation (dB
indicates fraction of intensity lost)
•Decibel values are additive
84 of 143
Power Ratio = Power Out / Power In

dB =10 X log10 [power ratio]
Decibel calculation
Power ratio dB
1 0
10 10
100 20
1/100 -20
2 3
85 of 143
dB =10 X log10 [power ratio]
Notes:
• Every decrease of 10 dB indicates another
factor of 10 times attenuation
• Thickness of tissues that reduce sound
intensity to half of its original value (result in
-3dB) = half value layer = half intensity depth
• Ultrasound attenuation limits maximum
imaging depth
180
HID 150
100
66
39
86 of 143
• Attenuation affected by
– Medium (see next)
– frequency
• As frequency increases, attenuation increase
• high frequency = poorer penetration
N.B: Beam penetration (cm) = 40/Frequency

= depth at which the beam intensity has fallen too low to
be useful
87 of 143
Attenuation In Soft Tissue

– Sound lose 1 dB / cm depth / MHz
• →For 1MHz U/S : half value layer of soft tissues = ………..
• →for 3.5 MHz U/S: sound loss is …….. dB/cm
• →for 3.5 MHz U/S: total sound loss during imaging an
object at 15 cm depth = ……….. dB
N.B:
Attenuation Coefficient: indicates fraction of beam
intensity lost per unit distance of sound travel
Attenuation Coefficient = 1 * Freq.

(dB/cm) (dB/cm/MHz) * (MHz)
→Attenuation = Attenuation Coefficient X Path Length

88 of 143
Attenuation In water
– There are little attenuation of ultrasound in water
– Q. why pelvic U/S is done with full UB?
Attenuation In bone
– 35 dB /cm at 2.5 MHz
Attenuation In air
– 40 dB /cm at 1 MHz
89 of 143
Beam geometry
www.scoretraining.net
1- Unfocussed beams 90 of 143
Probe diameter and beam shape:

• If transducer has diameter ≤ λ (≈0.5mm) → sound would spread out equally
in all directions
• If probe has diameter D (e.g. 10 λ) → sound is projected forwards , with the
beam diameter ≈ D (HUYGEN’S principle)
• Explanation:
– Waves are in phase (with constructive interference) in the forward direction
– Waves are out of phase (with destructive interference) in any other direction
Zones of unfocused beams 91 of 143
•Near (frensel) zone:

•The portion of the beam close to the face of the transducer
has a width ≈ crystal width
•Width of the field changes little in it
•Far (fraunhofer) zone: zone in which the field diverge
(interference effect is lost)
•Focal region: junction of the two zones
•Side lobes: small low intensity beams outside the main beam ,
due to vibration of the edge of the disc (cause artifacts)
92 of 143
Factors affecting location of focal region
1) crystal diameter (D):
near zone length α D²
Far zone Angle of divergence α 1/D
93 of 143
2) ultrasound frequency :
near zone length α F
Angle of divergence α 1/F
i.e. ↑F→ (more collimated
beam)
94 of 143
Equation:
NZL= near zone length

D= crystal diameter
λ = ultrasound wavelength
95 of 143
Focused beams
Goal of focusing: focusing the beam at a particular depth corresponding to region
of diagnostic interest will cause:
•Improvement in lateral resolution
•Concentration of intensity to that region , so that producing strongest echoes
Methods of focusing:
1- using concave piezoelectric element: the greater the curvature , the shorter the
focal lens
2- mechanical focusing : see later
3- electronic focusing: see later
96 of 143
Ultrasound modes
97 of 143
A-Mode (amplitude mode)
• Idea: simply show positions of tissues interfaces
• Process:
– When probe is pulsed , 2 simultaneous processes occur:
• Ultrasound pulse travel in the patient by certain velocity
• Light spot start to move from the left edge of the display screen at a constant speed
– U/S pulse reach interface (2) at time t (at the same time light spot is at point p)
– Echo pulse take another time t to return to probe (light spot at point B)
– A short vertical blip is produced at point B in response to the received echo (its
height α echo strength)
– Other interfaces (3&4) produce blips at C & D respectively
– Position of the blip indicates the depth of the corresponding interface (a ruler is
used to superimpose on the horizontal trace)
A p B C D
a
98 of 143
99 of 143
• Uses: eye examination , identifying breast cyst

and brain midline displacement
• To provide sustained image:
– Pulse repetition frequency of 1KHz is used ( pulse
duration = 1 ms)
– Transducer is in transmit mode for 1 μs , and in
listening mode for 999μs
Problem: deeper interfaces in the body 100 of 143
produce weaker echo than identical

interface near the surface
Explanation: Amplitude of sound Before
TGC
pulses decrease as it travel in tissues
(due to attenuation) , and echo pulse After
TGC
is also attenuated
Solution: Time gain compensation d2
(TGC):
d1
– A sound amplifier (+ve dB gain)
automatically increasing echo
intensity in proportion to time elapsed
(distance traveled)
– TGC is varied typically from 0 – 50 dB
– Gain is not applied until the region of
interest is reached at threshold depth
(d1) , then increased linearly until
depth (d2)
– Threshold and slope of TGC can be
changed manually www.scoretraining.net
101 of 143
B-Mode (brightness mode)
1) A slice of the patient is imaged
• Method:
• U/S pencil beam (scan line) scans back and forth
across 2D section of the patient
• Complete sweep (complete set of scan lines) = one
displayed frame
compare to A mode
102 of 143
2-echoes from interfaces at each scan lines will
be displayed Just like A-mode, but:
– Seen as bright dots (not blip)
– brightness α echo strength
– Trace itself will be suppressed
– TGC is also used
103 of 143
3- Succession of frames is sufficiently rapid to demonstrate

tissue motion (real time imaging)
104 of 143
probe construction and types
105 of 143
Earthed metal case
Probe construction:
•Piezoelectric element:
In the transmitting mode:
– The energizing voltage is applied between the back face of the piezoelectric disc (via
insulated wire) and the front face (via earthed metal case)
In the receiving mode:
– Signal produced by the returning echo is led away along a wire
• Backing block:
– made of epoxy resin in which are suspended fine particles of tungsten
– Matched to the transducer (admit backwards travelling waves which is then absorbed
within the block) → ………. Pulse , and ……… Q
• Matching layer
– Decrease U/S reflection
– Protect the disc
106 of 143
Types of probes
• 1) mechanical probes: probe has moving parts
that oscillate
• 2) electronic or phased probes: no moving
parts
107 of 143
Mechanical probes
1) mechanical sector probe:
• Contains single piezoelectric
element
• Crystal is attached to a motor
that mechanically move it back
and forth
• Each sweep = image frame
• Rate of oscillation (and frame
rate) can be varied
• Ultrasound beam geometry is
that of a sector
• Sector angle (and so field size)
can be varied www.scoretraining.net
108 of 143
2) rotating head transducer

• One or several transducers crystals are
mounted on a cylinder that is rapidly rotated
over 360⁰ using a motor
109 of 143
3) mechanical probes with rotating mirrors:
• Transducer crystal is steady
• Rotating mirror reflect the sound beam and
direct it out of the probe
110 of 143
mechanical probes Focusing (mechanical focusing):
• Using acoustic lens or curved mirror
• Creates a beam with fixed focal length specific for each probe
• Transducers may have strong , intermediate or weak focusing
• The price of short focal length is increased divergence of far
field
111 of 143
Electronic probes = annular arrays

• Crystals are arranged in arrays
– i.e. row of several small transducers
• Each crystal can transmit or receive
individually
• Sweep ,focusing and steering of the beam is
controlled by timing patterns
112 of 143
Types of electronic probes
1) sequential (stepped) linear array:
• Elongated transducer divided into
large number of separate narrow
transducer elements (about a
wavelength in width)
• Individually they produce poor beam
with short near field and widely
divergent far field
• They are energized in overlapping
groups in succession (1-6 , 2-7 , 3-8….)
• Results
– At each given time a well defined
ultrasound beam scan a rectangular area
in the body
– Formation of rectangular shaped images
113 of 143
Electronic focusing in stepped linear array:
• Each group of crystals are not energized in exactly the same time
• Outermost pair is energized first , then after a very short delay the
next pair , and finally the innermost pair
• Result
– All pulses arrive at the point p (focal point) at the same time and
reinforce
• Focal depth can be alter by the operator: the greater the time delay
between energizing successive pairs of elements , the shorter is the
focal length
p p
114 of 143
2) steered or phased sector
linear array:
• Similar but shorter transducer
(contains fewer elements)
• Transducers work all together
(compare to the previous
type)
• if all elements energized
simultaneously → beam travel
forwards
115 of 143 only in
If Elements energized separately in rapid sequence (1,2,3…) → pulses reinforce
one direction ( interfere destructively in all other planes) = beam steering
timing variations. Beam steered upward
If this process is reversed → steering in the opposite direction
timing variations.
Beam steered downward
By changing the time delay in the successive sequences → scan line is swept across
the patient covering a sector field (remember mechanical scanning?)
Focal point can be changed by the adjustment of phase delay pattern

116 of 143
N.B: Listening direction can be

also steered & focused
similarly
–appropriate timing variations
applied to echoes received by
various elements of a group
–listening focus depth can be
changed electronically
between pulses by applying
timing variations as above
117 of 143
3) phased annular array:
• Five to ten Circular
shaped crystals arranged
concentrically
• Focusing of annular
arrays:
– Outermost ring is
energized first , followed
by subsequent rings , and
finally the central
element
118 of 143
Stepped Linear scanner Sector (phased) scanner
Patient contact area Large Small
(acoustic window required)
Image quality Better Less
Field of view need skin Wide Narrow
Field at Depth Relatively narrow wide
Uses Abdomen , thyroid Neonatal brain, scanning
obstetrics the heart through
intercostal space
119 of 143
N.B: Convex linear stepped array:
• Same as linear stepped array but the face of the probe is curved
into arc shape → sector type image (wide view at depth)
• advantage: no complications of beam steering (no loss of focus at
edge) because scan lines are perpendicular to the array surface
• Disadvantage: at depth there are diversions with reduced line
density
120 of 143
Mechanical scanners Electronic scanners
cost cheaper more
resolution better less
Moving parts Yes no
N.B: Endoscopic ultrasound:

•advantage: avoid effects of bone or gas
•Types : single high frequency transducer rotating
through 360⁰
•Examples: trans-esophageal ECHO , Trans-rectal
prostatic ultrasound
Trans-vascular transducer:
•very small crystal array at the end of the vascular
catheter
•Operate at 10-20 MHz
121 of 143
Ultrasound electronic focusing in different planes
1) azimuthal plane:
• The plane parallel to the
length of the probe
• Electronic Focusing is
Possible with both linear and
annular arrays
122 of 143
2) Elevation plane:
• The plane perpendicular to the long
axis of the probe
• Focusing in that plane Define the
slice thickness
• linear array: Electronic focusing in
this plane is Not possible (done by
shaping each transducer or by lens)
• Annular array: can be done
123 of 143
New 1.5D transducers:
• Seven rows of small elements replace single row
of conventional linear array
• Focusing in the 2 planes can be done
• Element selection is used rather than beam
steering
• Produce better resolution of small lesions
• Produce greater uniformity at depth
• Inter row spacing = 10 λ
• Inter-element spacing = λ/2
124 of 143
Problem: focusing of the beam improve the image in

the focal region , but make it worse beyond it
Solution: Multiple zone focusing
Multiple zone focusing 125 of 143
• Method:
– along each scan line , more than one pulse are sent in succession
– In each pulse, the phase delays are altered to focus at different depth
– This is done for both transmission and receiving)
• Advantage:
– focal zones overlap producing good resolution at deep and superficial
area
• Disadvantage:
– Decrease frame rate
126 of 143
Scan line density

• Number of scan lines per
frame
• Depends on the number of
elements in the array
• ↑scan line density
→↑image quality and
resolution
• 100 lines/frame is usually
sufficient (as lateral
resolution is dependant on
other factors)
Frame rate 127 of 143
• Number of frames displayed per second

• ↑frame rate → better following of moving
structures
128 of 143
Which has less frame rate?
129 of 143
Important equation
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) =
Frame rate x scan line density
Example: to achieve
Frame rate = 30 frames/s
With 100 lines per frame
We need PRF of ………………MHz
130 of 143
Depth of view
Depth of view = 0.5 x sound velocity / PRF
Explanation:
When the next pulse is generated , the previous
pulse must make the complete return journey
(from and to the transducer)
131 of 143
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) =
Frame rate x scan line density
Depth of view = 0.5 x sound velocity / PRF
Depth of view x scan line density x frame rate = constant
i.e. it is not possible to achieve both high frame rate with

high scan line density (need high PRF), and in the same
time scan at large depth
i.e. one aspect must be compromised
132 of 143
Ultrasound contrast agents
133 of 143
Ultrasound contrast agents
• Advantage: improve
ultrasound image quality
• Must be:
– of low toxicity
– Readily eliminated from the
body
• Size:
– micro-bubbles: less than 4 μm
– Nanoparticles: less than 1 μm
134 of 143
• Mechanism of action:
– increase reflections from tissues containing the contrast
agent
– Although smaller than U/S λ, they can resonate at U/S
frequency and at harmonic frequencies, enhancing
echoes from the tissue of interest
– After exam.: normal static diffusion leads to total
bubble destruction within few hours
• Examples: 135 of 143
1- ultrasound-targeted microbubble:
– contrast agent with attached bioactive
substance will distribute in capillaries of
target organ.
– U/S then destroy microbubbles , releasing
the substance into surrounding tissue.
2- air filled microspheres encapsulated in a thin
shell of albumin:
– Increase backscatter from ventricular
border → increase visualization
– adhere to thrombi , assist in DVT
diagnosis
3- Low solubility gas encapsulated in lipid shell:
– Used in all vascular applications (assist in
visualization of small vessels)
4- per-fluoro carbon nano-particles:
– Slowly uptake by liver →improve
metastasis visualization
5- Gold bound colloid micro-tubes:
– conjugated with Abs → immunologically
136 of 143
Harmonic imaging
Definition:
• imaging of harmonic frequencies =
2f , 3f, …..
Generation of harmonics:
• Not generated by U/S scanner itself
• Generated in the body by two
methods:
1) Interaction with contrast agents
– When U/S pulse (with frequency f)
encounter a bubble , there are two
types of response:
• Echo returns normally
• Bubble vibrates in response to the shock
from the pulse → this will generate a
second harmonic a twice frequency of
the original pulse (2f)
– Advantage: increased contrast of
ultrasound image (2nd harmonic is
received only from place ofwww.scoretraining.net
bubbles)
2) Interaction with tissues (tissue harmonics): 137 of 143
– When ultrasound pass through the tissue , it compress and expand the tissue
– When the tissue is compressed → ↑ sound speed
– When tissue is expanded → ↓ sound speed
– Result: top of the waveform is pulled forwards as the wave pass through the
tissues → distortion with generation of harmonics (change in U/S frequency)
– These changes become more pronounced with depth, and degrade the normal
imaging process
– Distortion is more pronounced in fat tissues (especially in obese persons)
– The resultant a waveform contains both fundamental frequency (first harmonic
= f) and subsequent harmonics (integral multiples of first harmonic i.e. 2f, 3f ,
4f)
Harmonics are seen to varying degree 138 of 143
throughout U/S field of view:
– Near field: no harmonics (signal has
not traveled enough to distort)
– Near mid field: harmonics increasing
(begin to be produced)
– Mid field: harmonics unchanging
(generation = attenuation)
– Far mid field: harmonics decreasing
(attenuation » generation)
– Far field : fundamental frequency
only is present
• This means that harmonic imaging
effect is most pronounced in the
mid-field
139 of 143
Methods of isolation of 2nd harmonic to form the image:
A) harmonic band filtering:
• Fundamental frequency is removed using filter , leaving the tissue
generated harmonics to form the image
• transmitted pulse should not contain higher frequencies (this could corrupt
the received signal) , and the Pulse produced must have narrow bandwidth
at lower frequency
• receiving bandwidth of the transducer cover frequencies of harmonics
• Disadvantage: decreased axial resolution (transmitted pulse has narrow ↓
f) , but this is compensated by the high quality of harmonic imaging
B- pulse inversion: 140 of 143
• Two pulses are sent with reversed polarity

• Echoes received from each pair of pulses are summed
– Fundamental harmonics disappear (two received echoes cancel
each other)
– Amplitude of harmonics is doubled (↑SNR of harmonic)
• Disadvantage: motion artifacts (frame rate is two times
slower)
141 of 143
Advantages of harmonic imaging:
a) Harmonic beam is narrower than conventional
beam
b) Side lobes are lower than conventional beam
• A & b → increase lateral resolution and contrast
resolution
C) reverberation artifacts (caused by subcutaneous142fat),
of 143
fatty
tissue distortion and scattering are reduced :
– because 2nd harmonic pass through fat layer once only
(during receiving) , not twice as fundamental frequency
d) Low acoustic noise →↑visualization of low contrast lesions
c & d → increase ↑ contrast resolution
143 of 143

Physics 9 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics 9 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 of 143

Nuclear medicine and patient

Factors affecting absorbed dose

Calculation of internal absorbed dose

• Method of American society of nuclear medicine

Absorbed Effective dose

exam agent Activity (MBq) Effective dose

Radionuclide dose calibrator

Measures to decrease patient dose

Radionuclide handling precautions

Dealing with radioactive spill

• If necessary cordon off the area or cover

Disposal of radioactive waste

Sound Properties and

Sound waves is Longitudinal Waves

i.e. Particle motion parallel to direction of wave travel

Sound Waves are Compression Waves

• Regions of alternating low and high pressure

Wave Travel Motion of Individual

• N.B. In Transverse Waves:

• if frequency in kHz, period in msec/cycle

• if frequency in MHz, period in msec/cycle

If frequency = 2 MHz then sound period is 1/2 = 0.5 msec

If frequency = 10 kHz then sound period is 1/10 = 0.1 msec

If frequency = 50 Hz then sound period is 1/50 = 0.02 sec

Acoustic Impedance (Z)

Soft tissue 1540 1000 1.5X10⁶

Bone 3200 1650 5.3x 10⁶

PZT 4000 7500 30 x10⁶

= distance between a given point in a cycle &

• As frequency increases, wavelength decreases

Continuous and pulsed Ultrasound

Continuous mode ultrasound

Pulse Mode Ultrasound

•Sound is Pulsed on & off

This means that the same transducer used for

Sound pulse Silence period Sound pulse

• one pulse cycle =

• The ultrasound frequency is dependant on the transducer

Parameters of pulsed ultrasound

Pulse Repetition Frequency

• determined by the source (the scanner) (= frequency of

• clinical range (typical values)

Pulse Repetition Period

Pulse Repetition Period

Pulse Repetition Period

• pulse repetition period & frequency

• Pulse repetition frequency & period

Same sound Frequency

Higher sound Frequency

(time/pulse) (time/cycle) (cycles/pulse)

• typically 2-3 cycles per pulse (3 x t)

Pulse Duration Period

Longer Pulse Duration

Same frequency; pulse repetition frequency,

Shorter Pulse Duration

• Pulse duration (ring down time) is a controlled by

• Transducer tends to continue ringing

Continuous mode Pulsed mode

Intensity Intensity Operating

i.e. the response of the transducer as a receiver to waves of

• Compare between pulsed and continuous ultrasound

Which has a Higher Quality Factor?