Professional Documents
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S PRISONERS 1
Name
Institution Affiliation
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 2
Abstract
Over recent years, prison officials have gradually turned to solitary confinement as a method
of handling inmates that are troublesome or violent. Many of the segregated prisoners, which
can last for years, have a severe mental illness, and solitary confinement conditions can
worsen their symptoms and cause recurrence[ CITATION Jer19 \l 2057 ]. Mental health
problems are another hallmark of the prison population in the United States and elsewhere –
and another source of the mounting toll of lifelong disabilities that incarceration imposes. In
the United States, 400, 000 to 600, 000 prisons inmates (15-20 percent of all prisoners) have
a significant acute or chronic psychiatric mental disorder, and severe psychiatric cases are
now recurrent in the prison systems[ CITATION Rog17 \l 2057 ]. Prison rules for segregated
inmates, however, significantly limit the type and amount of mental health services they will
obtain.
Introduction
The criminal justice system faces multiple mental illness issues that result from
solitary confinement affecting prisoners. This topic is very detailed, with a lot of questions to
be addressed and corrected. According to Metzner and Fellner Esq., (2010), isolation can be
psychologically harmful to any prisoner with the extent and severity of the impact depending
on the individual, period, and specific conditions, Anxiety, depression, frustration, mental
disorders, perceptual distortions, intrusive thinking, hysteria, and schizophrenia can include
psychological effects.
In the U.S. jail and prison systems, mentally ill people are overrepresented compared
to the general population. Within jails and prisons, there are three times more seriously
mentally ill people than in U.S. hospitals. Scholars debate the exact cause of this over-
of mentally ill people, insufficient funding for community mental health treatment, and the
criminalization of mental illness itself. Most U.S. prisons work with a psychiatrist and a
psychologist (Johnston, 2013). While many research claims that mentally ill criminals have
similar rates of recidivism to non-mentally offenders who are not mentally ill, many research
claims that mentally ill offenders have higher rates of recidivism. In disproportionate rates,
mentally ill people undergo solitary confinement and are more vulnerable to its adverse
psychological effects. Twenty-five states have laws dealing with the emergency treatment of
the mentally ill in jail, and the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the right of inmates to seek
mental health (.A Doc Sued On Behalf Of Prisoners with Serious Mental Illness, 2013)
Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international human rights organization. After the
following viewpoint, HRW argues that mental illness generally do not receive adequate
treatment in U.S prisons. HRW points especially to the widespread use of solitary
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 4
confinement in U.S prisons. HRW says that solitary confinement can exacerbate mental
illness; in otherwise healthy patients. The organization recommends eliminating the extensive
use of isolation and also suggests significantly reducing the U.S prison population by
discontinuing the imprisonment of people for nonviolent offenses. Without such changes, the
U.S is violating the human rights of mentally ill individuals in prison[ CITATION Noa13 \l
2057 ].
Physicians working in U.S. prison facilities face ethically difficult and challenges
arising from poor working conditions, dual loyalty to patients and employers, and the tension
between reasonable medical practices and prison rules and culture. In recent years, physicians
have steadily faced a new challenge: the extended solitary confinement of inmates with
serious mental illness, a method of punishment that has become widespread given the
psychological harm it may cause (Cloyes, 2007). There has been little professional or
academic exposure to doctors and other medical professionals' particular ethical dilemmas
The topic chosen for study is inmates who spend time in solitary confinement with a
higher risk of mental illness than inmates in the general population. In 1992, the National
Mental Health Alliance (NAM) and the Public Health Research Group identified high
numbers of people with severe mental illness imprisoned across the country (Erickson &
Erickson, 2008). The 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics estimated that most inmates have
mental health problems, including 705,600 in state prisons, 78,800 in federal prisons, and
479,900 in local jails (James & Glaze, 2006). To get to the root cause of linking prisoners
with mental illness and solitary confinement, the quasi-experimental models need to research
A new survey undertaken by Yale law researchers and the Association of State
Correctional Administrators (ASCA) reported that more than 4,000 prisoners in solitary
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 5
confinement suffer from severe mental illness in the United States. Prisoners are held in
solitary confinement every day for 22 hours, for 15 days or more, even though long-term
isolation can both cause mental health problems and exacerbate existing mental illness. The
Yale and ASCA survey also found that approximately 2,000 prisoners have been held in
solitary confinement for more than six years, described by the Guardian as a "crisis point."
According to Fettig, the risks associated with long-term solitary confinement of prisoners
with severe mental illness are "so well-known and well-established that it is a violation of the
8th amendment," protecting people from cruel mental illness (Freier, Singer, David, 2005).
He added that the number listed to the survey (4,000) is probably low due to "notoriously
privileges and lengthening their term in isolation, perpetuating their illness, and delaying
recovery.
In this area of study, solitary confinement is critical as the nucleus to the issue of
mental illness within prisoners. In a small space, prisoners are enclosed and locked behind a
solid steel wall. The inmates spend 23 hours per day in one location, constrained by personal
property and reading material. While the interaction with the inmates is confined in isolation,
treatment, and educational programs are also provided. Prisoners encounter mental torture,
sensual deprivation, and forced insomnia. Side effects that are potentially life-threatening to
isolated inmates of the general population become problematic. Reports also confirmed that
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 6
some prisoners who are subject to solitary confinement would possibly have a mental illness.
According to Haney (2006), the rigid conditions of solitary confinement offer no opportunity
for individuals to engage in social reality testing. To test and validate their perceptions of the
environment, people rely on social contact. In the end, a total lack of social interaction makes
it difficult to differentiate reality from what is outside and what is not. The adverse effects of
solitary confinement seem to be mainly associated with internment length and circumstances
(Haney, 2003).
Over the last four decades, jail and prison policies have had an impact on nations to
the point where 25 percent of the U.S population is behind bars. There are many people
behind bars who are poor, uneducated, some suffering from mental health issues. Mental
health problems impact half of U.S inmates, with mental illness being diagnosed at 10 to 25
percent. (Nation of Incarceration, October 2014). Prisoners are reluctant to open up to their
i. What are the psychological impacts on prisoners for prolonged solitary confinement?
ii. Is it possible to regulate the use of solitary confinement and keep prisons safe?
iii. How does the re-entry of inmates into society affect mental illness while in solitary
confinement?
iv. What's the difference between the general population and solitary confinement?
v. What are the reasons for inmates being held in solitary confinement?
The Hypothesis
The hypothesis includes the assumption that those in solitary confinement are at
higher risk of mental illness compared to those in the general population. This is because
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 7
there is minimal contact with others. If the hypothesis is confirmed, the study should show
increased contact with those in solitary boredom reduces; inmates will have a lower risk of
mental illness than those with nothing to do in solitary confinement. The figures will
correspond with the population as a whole. If the assumption is not established, prisoners
without would still be higher than the general population, the likelihood of mental illness
Literature Review
Recidivism - is defined in this paper as the rates of recidivism or re-entry into prison.
Research shows that rates of recurrence and return to jail for mentally ill prisoners are not
significantly higher (Hamaludin, 2018). A 2004 study found that while 77 percent of surveyed
sick mentally prisoners were arrested or charged with a new crime within the follow-up period of
27-55 months, compared to the general population, mentally ill inmates were neither more likely
nor more severe than general population inmates. In comparison, a 2009 report analyzing the
criminal record of those in Texas Department of Criminal Justice facilities found that "Texas
inmates with significant psychiatric disorders were far more likely to have had prior
incarcerations than those without serious mental illness." Researchers noted in the analysis that
communicate with other prisoners (Immarigeon & Civil Research Institute, 2006). Prisoners
remain in their cell for 23 hours a day on average, and the only time they undergo any human
interaction is when prison guards escort them to and from their one-hour workout. The
contact, even then, is meaningless. More than 80,000 inmates are in solitary confinement,
ranging from 2 weeks to years; one man has been in solitary confinement for 40 years. As
social isolation is one of the critical factors in solitary confinement, attention must be given to
how this type of isolation leads to the mental health harm of an individual.
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 8
Brodsky and Scogin (1988) also point to social isolation as the cause of solitary
confinement's adverse mental health effects. They took 69- male in solitary confinement and
mental status of the inmates. The test results indicate that some form of psychiatric disorder
had formed by about two-thirds of the inmates: 45 percent were diagnosed with anxiety, and
36 percent had chronic depression (Brodsky and Scogin 1988, p. 279). Such findings,
however, do not describe the prevalence of mental illnesses before the inmates entered
solitary confinement. Brodsky and Scogin carried out the same experiment on a non-solitary
prison in a follow-up report, where group activities and spacious 2-man cells occurred (p.
279). The researchers found that these prisoners had no significant mental disorders, which
suggests that the disparity in social activity has a major impact on prisoner's psychological
well-being.
Mark Leary (1995) reaffirms that a human biological necessity is this idea of social
interpersonal relationships must be established and sustained by humans. Leary explains that
his hypothesis is validated by existing evidence and how a major human motive is the need to
belong. He has developed a meta-analysis of past research and ties a lack of social
confinement to a new perspective, and his findings suggest that some, if not all, negative
are deprived of external stimuli while being locked in their cells for 23 hours a day. They lack
physical contact, which only happens when they are placed in restraints by prison guards, and
their cells are unchanging and monotonous from the environment (Miller & Teresa, 2010).
There are no windows, and the lights are always on in most solitary confinement facilities;
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 9
inmates are deprived of new stimuli visually. There are usually no external distractions for
the inmates. Research suggests that higher levels of deprivation in prisons contribute to more
psychological problems.
Donald O. Hebb (1951) decided to explore how human beings, particularly in solitary
confinement, were influenced by a lack of sensory input. He proposed that humans needed a
continuous stream of sensory input. Hebb took volunteer male graduate students and placed
them with a little more than a bed in small rooms individually. Participants wore sunglasses,
headphones around their arms, playing white noise, gloves, and cardboard tubes to restrict the
senses. Participants, like inmates in solitary confinement, would also be escorted and given
food. Hebb was trying to simulate a situation similar to solitary confinement in which one's
senses are completely blocked. Hebb initially wanted to study his subjects for six weeks, but
none of the participants took more than a week to complete. The majority did not last longer
than a couple of days. When interviewed earlier, participants said they were planning to think
about work or school. Still, subsequently, they reported that for any length of time, it was
extremely difficult to focus or think clearly. Throughout the study, Hebb used cognitive tests,
and the tests showed that the subjects were mentally impaired temporarily. They had childish
Criticisms, while there is plenty of evidence that solitary confinement causes mental
health degradation for prisoners, some research questions this argument. One research by
Zinger and Wichmann took prisoners who were released from solitary confinement and after
their release monitored their lives. No significant health effects of free prisoners were found
by the researchers (Zinger, Wichmann & Andrew, 2001). Key aspects of solitary confinement
are already detrimental to the mental health of an individual, so how can it be that mental
health is not compromised by the combination of social isolation and sensory deprivation?
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 10
Studies of physical contact show that humans need this, and it has been demonstrated in
social psychology that humans are social creatures and anxious to be accepted into a group. If
solitary confinement does not have a negative impact on mental health, it -would not make
sense, even if there is not enough evidence to support this claim. The contrary evidence,
however, should not be ignored. Their finding was that there are no long-term effects of
solitary confinement.
confinement entails serious health risks, are these risks different from the effect of regular
prison? Several studies have contrasted the consequences of daily incarceration with solitary
mental illness and increasing prison restrictions. Zinger, Wichmann, and Andrews (2001)
findings showed that there was no difference in the inmates' mental deterioration, whether in
regular prison or solitary confinement. Their study supports the idea that mental illness is not
regular prisoners with solitary prisoners suggests that prisons, both solitary and regular, are
not the same. Research has been done around the world, and each institution has its system;
results cannot be drawn from a single study performed in just two prisons (Ginsberg & Betsy,
2009).
It may be accurate that inmates in solitary confinement are more likely to develop
mental illness than inmates in the general population. The primary use of solitary confines is
to help people commit suicide or injure others, but solitary confines can harm the inmate.
Prisoners are cut off from any contact with other individuals while in solitary confinement.
When needed, they receive meals and medical attention. Solitary confinement is believed to
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 11
be able to make a person mad because they are often alone. If a person has a psychological
problem, it can make it worse, or the reason for developing mental illness.
Methods
To get the best of the information for the research, I will involve three conflicts who
have been in the United States jail for at least a year. I will then pay a visit to at least four
cells that are well known to use confinement as a form of restricting inmates. I will involve
enquiring and interrogating directors and heads of cell blocks to get clarity of issues relating
to solitary confinement. I will persistently focus on how inmates are treated inside cell
blocks, how they interact with the outside world, their time limits, their freedoms, and right
being a prisoner. I will also get to gather more data on how the government of the United
States influences the accomplishment of solitary confinement and the kind of measures it is
taking to address the issue affecting prisoners. I will also figure out how the concerns of
prison states and prisoners affect the general people and population in the United States and
also clarify how measures the general population is taking to reach a peaceful conclusion
Most reports provide information about prisoners' lives spending time alone, but still,
there remain unanswered questions. Questions that need answers are what if the time frame in
which the solitary person starts to place the inmate at risk of mental illness. Are there ways of
measuring the on-set results? (Petersilia, Petersilia, et al., 2012). At what point is the inmate
going to be psychologically impaired by the provided treatment? If a time table was created,
using this method as a type of punishment with a lower risk of mental damage would be more
humane? Finally, is the reward worth the risk? If this strategy works to keep prisoners in line
and order inside the jail, perhaps it should be something that is held and used but done so as
The procedure is to determine whether or not the inmate's solitary confinement has a
mental illness or induces it. The techniques would look at issues from both sides of the
spectrum to see whether it is the actual act of isolation, time spent in isolated environments,
or lack of contact with others. Surveys between prison guards and inmates will be
administered. By doing these researchers get a comprehension of what the prison guards see
when the inmates are placed in solitary confinement, one can also get testimonies of the
emotions and mental state that the inmates are placed in solitary confinement. The next move
is to examine solitary prisoners. Seeing how the prisoners behave in this setting, researchers
get clear pictures of the actions of the prisoners. Researchers can see when the prisoner has a
break in a time consisting of hours and days. Another procedure that I will want to investigate
is to compare and contract facilities. The researcher should have a clear understanding that
isolation causes mental illness; the researcher should examine certain facilities for similarities
and differences between them in order to do this. Comparing and comparing services can be
used to assess how and why mental illness happens with solitary inmates. Investigating
whether the solitary cell or environment of each prison is the same could shed light on how
this disease could occur; could it be the small space, the fact that a person is alone in a room
I will then analyze the context of individuals spending time alone to see if there were
problems with mental illness before they were placed in solitary. Taking a review of medical
evidence to see if it supports the fact that mental illness is caused by solitary confinement,
deploys the prison health records to assess when and how the mental breakdown of the
inmates started. A correlation can be seen in evaluating the results to give the inmates a time
frame after being in isolation before and after health conditions. Analyze the surveys as well
as the inmates' conduct records while in solitary to see if what the inmates think about the
study fits what researchers remember the inmate doing while in solitary confinement.
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 13
Obtaining data from these sources can provide a basis for solitary confinement as a result of
mental illness. This research will help to demonstrate one way or another through these
Additional research on the levels of violence and financial health of institutions that
changes as discussed above. Hitherto, research suggests that rates are declining, and overall
levels of violence are decreasing as fewer prisoners are housed in solitary units. Besides,
more work could be carried out to explore the impact of solitary confinement directly on
mentally ill people, as many studies have difficulty in distinguishing between those who have
undergone mental illness from those who have acquired mental illness due to solitary
confinement (Harrington, 1997). Finally, future research into the long-term effects of solitary
confinement on both the general population and mentally ill inmates would be useful.
Solitary confinement is an ancient punishment that had fallen out of favor by the end
of the nineteenth century and was deemed by the U.S. Supreme Court to be "an additional
punishment of the most significant and painful sort." However, it was again adopted in 1983,
after the murders of two prison guards in an Illinois state prison influenced the new supermax
prison.
It is hard to study prisoners in solitary confinement because the responses they give
may increase their stay due to partial confidentiality. One alternative is to study prisoners
externally using medical records and cameras, but without an interview or questionnaire, it is
difficult to conclude what their mental state is. Some studies are conducting interviews;
however, prison officers often select these prisoners. This choice automatically makes the
research unrepresentative of the entire prison population, and this selection is, unfortunately,
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 14
methodological concern is that, before incarceration, most studies do not monitor inmates.
This longitudinal method is crucial to compare the mental health of prisoners and to
determine whether solitary confinement is the only factor that contributes to mental illness.
Most studies on solitary confinement deal with percentages of mental illness inmates, but
their findings do not recognize that prisoners could obtain mental illness outside solitary
confinement.
flaws; however, research results still provide insight into the consequences of isolation.
Studies have demonstrated that people with severe mental illness after solitary
(Haney, 1993). Education for correctional officers should be introduced on how to respond to
ways that do not exacerbate such situations for people suffering from psychological
disorders. Solitary prisoners were found to mutilate themselves at rates higher than the
general population. Other research found that street-released conflicts had higher rates of
recidivism compared to those who spent time in the general population after solitary
illness if so why. Although prisoners in the general population may be affected in some way
offenders is much more prevalent, which makes research important. It is felt that prisoners
CONFINEMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS IN U.S PRISONERS 15
suffering from mental illness are susceptible to increased psychological abuse, physical
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Appendices
Most problems stem from mental illness brought about by prisoners placed in solitary
confinement. The effects felt after a period of confinement is particularly vulnerable and
magnified to two populations; prisoners with mental health issues and juveniles, whose brains
are still developing. When a person entering an isolation unit is not mentally ill, their mental
health has been severely compromised by the time they are released. Since, after spending
time in confinement, most inmates are released directly into the streets. Long-term solitary
public safety and community health issue. Therefore, long-term solitary confinement goes
beyond a problem of prison conditions, posing a tremendous challenge of public safety and
community health.
Prison confinement fits the definition of torture. The isolation thus constitutes abuse
and violation of human rights law. Although inmates in the general population may be
affected by mental problems in some way, finding the mental infection catalyst in solitary
confinement prisoners is much more prevalent. It is believed that mentally ill inmates
endured more psychological violence, physical abuse, and emotional abuse. Research results
may show how many inmates are suffering from mental illness while in solitary confinement
Prison isolation must come to an end — for the security of families, to uphold duties,
to abide by international human rights law, to stand up against violence wherever it takes