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2.0 Introduction
Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and
Systems
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2.1 Discrete-Time Signals: Sequences
Discrete-Time signals are represented as
Cumbersome, so just use
In sampling of an analog signal xa(t):
1/T (reciprocal of T) : sampling frequency
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EXAMPLE Sampling the analog waveform
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Signal: something conveys information,
represented mathematically as
functions of one or more independent
variables. Classified as:
Continuous-time (analog) signals,
discrete-time signals, digital signals
Signal-processing systems are classified
along the same lines as signals:
Continuous-time (analog) systems,
discrete-time systems, digital systems
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Figure 2.1 Graphical representation
of a discrete-time signal
Abscissa: continuous line
: is defined only at discrete instants
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Basic Sequence Operations
Sum of two sequences
Product of two sequences
Multiplication of a sequence by a number α
Delay (shift) of a sequence
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Basic sequences Basic sequences

Unit sample sequence
(discrete-time impulse,
impulse, Unit impulse)

A sum of scaled, delayed impulses

arbitrary
sequence
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Basic sequences Basic Sequences

Unit step sequence Exponential sequences
A and α are real: x[n] is real
A is positive and 0<α<1, x[n] is positive and
decrease with increasing n
-1<α<0, x[n] alternate in sign, but decrease
in magnitude with increasing n
 : x[n] grows in magnitude as n increases

First backward difference

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EX. 2.1 Combining Basic sequences Basic sequences

If we want an exponential sequences that is Sinusoidal sequence

zero for n <0, then

Cumbersome

simpler

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Exponential Sequences difference between continuous-time

and discrete-time complex
exponentials or sinusoids

Exponentially weighted sinusoids

Exponentially growing envelope
Exponentially decreasing envelope  : frequency of the complex sinusoid
or complex exponential
is refered to
 : phase
Complex Exponential Sequences
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Periodic Sequences EX. 2.1 Examples of Periodic Sequences

A periodic sequence with integer period N

Suppose it is periodic sequence with period N

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EX. 2.1 Examples of Periodic Sequences EX. 2.1 Non-Periodic Sequences

Suppose it is periodic sequence with period N

Suppose it is periodic sequence with period N

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High and Low Frequencies in Discrete-time signal 2.2 Discrete-Time System

(a) w0 = 0 or 2
Frequency: The rate at which a
repeating event occurs.
(b) w0 = /8 or 15/8
(c) w0 = /4 or 7/4
Discrete-Time System is a trasformation
or operator that maps input sequence
x[n] into an output sequence y[n].
y[n]=T{x[n]};
x[n], y[n]: discrete-time signal
x[n] y[n]
T{‧}

Discrete-Time System
(d) w0 = 
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EX. 2.2 The Ideal Delay System EX. 2.3 Moving Average

If is a positive integer: the delay of the

system, Shift the input sequence to the
for n=7, M1=0, M2=5 y[7]
right by samples to form the output .
x[m]
If is a negative integer: the system will
shift the input to the left by samples, n-5
n m
corresponding to a time advance. dummy
index m
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Properties of Discrete-time systems Properties of Discrete-time systems

2.2.2 Linear Systems
2.2.1 Memoryless (memory) system
If T{‧}
Memoryless systems:
T{‧}
the output y[n] at every value of n depends and only If:
only on the input x[n] at the same value of n additivity property
T{‧}
Example 2.4 A Memoryless System homogeneity or scaling
T{‧} property
principle of superposition

T{‧}
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Example of Linear System Example 2.6 Nonlinear Systems

Ex. 2.5 Accumulator system Method: find one counterexample
for arbitrary  For

 counterexample

when
 For

 counterexample

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Properties of Discrete-time systems Example of Time-Invariant System

2.2.3 Time-Invariant Systems
Ex. 2.7 The Accumulator as a Time-Invariant
Shift-Invariant Systems System

T{‧}

T{‧}

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Ex. 2.8 The compressor system Properties of Discrete-time systems

T{‧} 2.2.4 Causality

T{‧} A system is causal if, for every choice

0
of , the output sequence value at
0
the index depends only on the
input sequence value for .
0 0
T{‧}

0 0

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Ex. 2.9 The Forward and Backward Properties of Discrete-time systems

Difference Systems 2.2.5 Stability
Forward difference system is not Causal
Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO)
Stability: every bounded input sequence
produces a bounded output sequence.

Backward difference system is Causal if

then

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Ex. 2.10 Testing for Stability or Instability Ex. 2.10 Testing for Stability or Instability

Accumulator system
is stable

if

then

Accumulator system is not stable

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2.3 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) LTI Systems: Convolution

Systems Representation of general sequence as a
linear combination of delayed impulse
Impulse response

T{‧} principle of superposition

T{‧}

An Illustration Example(interpretation 1)
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Computation of the Convolution

（interpretation 2）

reflecting h[k] about the origion to obtain h[-k]

Shifting the origin of the reflected sequence to
k=n

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Convolution can be realized by

–Reflecting(reversing) h[k] about the origin to obtain h[-k]. Ex. 2.11 Analytical Evaluation
–Shifting the origin of the reflected sequences to k=n. of the Convolution
–Computing the weighted moving average of x[k] by using
the weights given by h[n-k]. For system with impulse response

input h(k)

Find the output at index n

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h(-k) h(k)

0 0
h(-k) h(k)
x(k)
h(n-k)
0 0
h(n-k) x(k)

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h(-k) h(k)

0 0

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2.4 Properties of LTI Systems Parallel connection of systems

Convolution is commutative

x[n] h[n] y[n]

h[n] x[n] y[n]

Convolution is distributed over addition

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Cascade connection of systems Stability of LTI Systems

associative property LTI system is stable if the impulse response
is absolutely summable .
commutative

x [n] h1[n] h2[n] y [n]

x [n] h2[n] h1[n] y [n]

x [n] h1[n] ]h2[n] y [n]

Causality of LTI systems

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Impulse response of LTI systems Impulse response of Moving

Average systems
Impulse response of Ideal Delay systems

Impulse response of Accumulator

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Impulse response of Moving

Average systems
Impulse response of Forward Difference

Impulse response of Backward Difference

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Finite-duration impulse Infinite-duration impulse

response (FIR) systems response (IIR)
The impulse response of the system has The impulse response of the system is
only a finite number of nonzero samples. infinite in duration
such as:

Unstable system

Stable IIR System:

The FIR systems always are stable.

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Useful ideal delay system Equivalent systems

Output of the ideal delay system

The convolution of a shifted impulse sequence

with any signal x[n] is easily evaluated by
simply shifting x[n] by the displacement of the
impulse shifted.
Any noncausal FIR system can be made causal
by cascading it with a sufficiently long delay.

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Inverse system 2.5 Linear Constant-Coefficient

Difference Equations
An important subclass of LTI systems
h[n] y[n]= x[n]*]= x[n]
x[n] hi[n] consist of those system for which the
δ[n] input x[n] and output y[n] satisfy an
Nth-order linear constant-coefficient
difference equation.

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Ex. 2.12 Difference Equation Block diagram of a recursive

Representation of the Accumulator difference equation representing an
accumulator

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Ex. 2.13 Difference Equation

Representation of the Moving-
Average System with

representation 1

another representation 1
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Difference Equation Solving the difference equation

Representation of the System
Without additional constraints or
information, a linear constant-coefficient
We will see that many (unlimited
difference equation for discrete-time
number of ) distinct difference systems does not provide a unique
equations can be used to represent a specification of the output for a given
input.
given linear time-invariant (LTI) input-
output relation.

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Solving the difference equation Solving the difference equation recursively

Output form : If the input and a set of auxiliary value
are specified for
 : Particular solution, one output sequence
for the given input .
y(n) can be written in a recurrence formula:
 Homogenous solution: solution for the
homogenous equation( ):

where is the distinct roots of

can be chosen for a set of auxiliary value of
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Example 2.16 Recursive Computation of Example 2.16 Recursive Computation of

Difference Equation Difference Equation

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Example 2.16 Recursive Computation of Summary

Difference Equation

The system for which the input and

The system is noncausal.
The system is not linear.
is not time invariant.
When
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output satisfy a linear constant-
coefficient difference equation:
The output for a given input is not
uniquely specified. Auxiliary conditions
are required.
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Summary Summary
If auxiliary conditions are given as N sequential Given for
values of the output, for

prior values can be obtained by rearranging

later value can be obtained by rearranging the difference equation as a recursive relation
the difference equation as a recursive relation running backward in n.
running forward in n,

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initial-rest conditions Summary

If a system is characterized by a linear LTI (Linearity, Time Invariance), and

constant-coefficient difference equation and
is further specified to be LTI (Linear, Time
Invariant), and causal, the solution is unique.
In this case, the auxiliary conditions are
stated as initial-rest conditions:
i.e.: The auxiliary information is that if the
input is zero for , then the output
is constrained to be zero for . and causal.
( )
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causality of the system will depend on
the auxiliary conditions.
If an additional condition is that the
system is initially at rest, then the
system will be linear, time invariant,
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Review Finite-duration impulse Review Infinite-duration impulse

response (FIR) systems response (IIR)
The impulse response of the system has The impulse response of the system is infinite
only a finite number of nonzero samples. in duration
such as: Accumulator
system:
Moving
Average Unstable system
systems
Stable IIR System:
The FIR systems always are stable.

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Ex. 2.16 with initial-rest conditions Discussion

If input is , with initial-rest conditions:
by recursing
backward

causal， linear
Note that for , initial rest implies that
If the input is , again with initial-rest
conditions, then recursive solution is carried Initial rest does not always means
out using the initial condition

time invariant It does mean that

if .
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