11/7/2021

Digital Signal Processing

(EE-493)
Week-3 (Lect. 1&2)

Resource Persons:
Prof. Dr. Saad Ahmed Qazi
Dr. Krishan Lal Khatri

Summary of Previous Lecture

• Concepts of frequency in CT signals ‘F in Hz’ and that in DT ‘fd’ in
Cycles/sample and their relationship
• Not DT sinusoid is periodic – only those where fd is a rational number
   
1 1
  fd 
2 2

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Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC)

• Sampling: A process to convert a CTCV signal into DTCV signal.
• Quantization: A process to convert a DTCV signal into a DTDV signal.
• Coding: Output will be a bit stream like 0010100011101010….

Sampling of an Analog Signal

Sampling is performed to convert an analog (CT) signal into DT signal. It
is like passing a CT through a switch that turns on an off at constant
frequency.
Mathematically,
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇
Where,
𝑛 = 0,±1, ±2, ±3, … .
𝑇 = Sampling Period, which is, the time period of oscillation of the
switch

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Sampling of an Analog Signal

The sampling frequency is defined as,
1
𝐹 =
𝑇
It is also called sampling rate and measured in samples/second
Let’s see how 𝑓 is related to 𝐹
Consider an analog sinusoid given by,
𝑥 (𝑡) = Cos(2π𝐹𝑡)
When this signal is samples at sampling frequency 𝐹 ,
𝑥 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑛 = Cos 2π𝐹𝑛𝑇

Sampling of an Analog Signal

𝐹
𝑥 𝑛 = Cos2π 𝑛 → (1)
𝐹
Since we know that a DT sinusoid is given by,
𝑥 𝑛 = Cos 2π𝑓 𝑛 → 2

𝐹
𝑓 = → 3
𝐹
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐹( )
𝑓( )= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐹( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
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Sampling of an Analog Signal

From Eq. (3),
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑓
Recall,
1 1
− ≤𝑓 ≤
2 2
Thus,
𝐹 𝐹
− ≤𝐹≤
2 2
Since the highest frequency in DT signal is ½, the highest analog frequency
corresponding to a given sampling frequency𝐹 is,
𝐹
𝐹 ≤
2
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Sampling of an Analog Signal

𝐹
𝐹 ≤
2

⇒ 𝐹 ≥ 2𝐹
This minimum value of 𝐹 , which is at least twice of the highest
frequency in analog signal, is known as Nyquist Frequency or Nyquist
rate. If an analog signal is sampled below Nyquist Frequency, there will
be errors in corresponding DT signal.
This process of errors in DT signal when corresponding analog signal is
sampled at the rate below Nyquist Rate is known as Aliasing
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Solved Examples in Sampling

Sampling

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Sampling

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Aliasing
It is an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when sampled.
It also refers to the distortion or artifact that results when the
signal reconstructed from samples is different from original CT
signal

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Aliasing
• Illustration of Aliasing

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Example
Consider 𝑥 𝑡 = 3 cos 100𝜋𝑡 , compute,
a) Minimum Fs required
b) If Fs = 200 Hz, what is DT signal
c) If Fs = 75 Hz, what is DT signal
d) What is the frequency F of an sinusoid that yields samples identical
to those obtained in part (c) ?

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Solution:

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Sampling

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Sampling

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A/D Conversion

Quantizer

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Quantization
Quantization:
The process of converting a CVDT signal into a digital signal by
expressing each sample value as a finite (instead of infinite)
number of digits is called quantization.
Quantization Error:
It is the error introduced in representing a CV signal by a finite
set of discrete value levels. Also called Quantization Noise

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Quantization Operator
The quantizing operation on a DT signal 𝑥 𝑛 is denoted as,
𝑥 𝑛 = Q[𝑥 𝑛 ]
Where, 𝑥 𝑛 is a quantized signal

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Quantization Error
Quantization error is the difference between quantized value and
actual sample value, i.e.

𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥(𝑛)

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Quantization Error Example

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Quantization Step: The difference between two successive

quantization levels is called quantization step size, or resolution,
denoted by Δ.
And, in case of rounding
Δ Δ
− ≤𝑒 𝑛 ≤
2 2

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More about Resolution

Mathematically,

Where,
= Highest level
= lowest level
= Number of quantization levels
= dynamic range

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Coding
• In the last step, each step is communicated in terms of a binary
number
• For ‘L’ number of levels, you would need
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 ≥ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐿

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Exercises
n
Ex 1.13 x ( n )  6.35 cos
is quantized with a resolution (a) Δ=0.1 or (b) Δ=0.2.
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How many bits are required in the A/D converter in each case?

Ex 1.14 Determine the bit rate and resolution in the sampling of a signal with
dynamic range of 1 volt if Fs is 20 samples/sec and we use an 8-bit A/D converter. What
maximum frequency can be present in the signal?

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Reading
Reading Assignment from DSP Text Book by Proakis, 4th Edition:
• Chapter 1: Introduction
• Section 1.1,
• Section 1.2,
• Section 1.3 except 1.3.3,
• Section 1.4 except 1.4.4, 1.4.5, 1.4.6 and 1.4.7

Examples:
• 1.4.1, 1.4.2, 1.4.3, 1.4.4

• End of Chapter Problems:

• All except 1.15 and 1.16.

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