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ECOM3316
Digital Communication System

Chapter 03
Baseband Demodulation /Detection
Prof. Dr Othman O. Khalifa
Electrical and Computer Engineering
International Islamic University Malaysia
1

3.1 Signals and Noise

• Two primary causes of error-performance degradation

(1) Effect of filtering at transmitter, channel and receiver
(2) Electrical noise interference produce by galaxy,
atmospheric noise, switching transients, intermodulation
noise, interference noise from other sources.
• Noise and interference can be reduce the intensity or
eliminate. But the thermal motion of electrons cannot be
eliminated.

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A general model of all communication systems

Basic components:
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver
Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted information.

3.1.2 Demodulation and Detection

• Demodulation
recovery of waveform to an undistorted baseband pulse.
• Detection
the decision making process of selecting a digital of the waveform.
• If error-correcting coding is not present
the detector output consists of estimates of message symbols (or
bits), mi (hard decision).
• If error-correcting coding is present
the detector output consists of estimates of channel symbols (coded
bits) ui, which can take the form of hard or soft decisions.
• Frequency down-conversion block;
performs frequency translation for bandpass signals operating at
some radio frequency (RF)

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Baseband Demodulation/Detection
In case of baseband signaling, the received signal sis
already in pulse-like form. Why is then is demodulator
required?

Arriving baseband pulses are not in the form of ideal pulse

shapes, each one occupying its own symbol interval.

The channel (as well as any filtering at the transmitter)

causes intersymbol interference (ISI).

Channel noise is another reason that may cause bit error is

channel noise.

Effect of Channel

Figure 1.16 (a) Ideal pulse. (b) Magnitude spectrum of the ideal pulse.

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Figure 1.17 Three examples of filtering an ideal pulse. (a) Example 1:

Good-fidelity output. (b) Example 2: Good-recognition output. (c)
Example3: Poor-recognition output.

Effect of Noise
2

-1

-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

-1

-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

-1

-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

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3.1.2 Demodulation and Detection

AWGN

DETECT
DEMODULATE & SAMPLE
SAMPLE
at t = T
RECEIVED
WAVEFORM FREQUENCY
RECEIVING EQUALIZING
DOWN
FILTER FILTER THRESHOLD MESSAGE
TRANSMITTED CONVERSION
WAVEFORM COMPARISON SYMBOL
OR
CHANNEL
FOR COMPENSATION
SYMBOL
BANDPASS FOR CHANNEL
SIGNALS INDUCED ISI

OPTIONAL

ESSENTIAL

Figure 3.1: Two basic steps in the demodulation/detection of digital signals

The digital receiver performs two basic functions:

Demodulation, to recover a waveform to be sampled at t = nT.
Detection, decision-making process of selecting possible digital symbol

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3.1.4 SNR used in Digital Communications

1. In digital communications, SNR is defined as the ratio

of the energy (Eb) present in the signal representing a
bit to the power spectral density (N0) of noise.
2. In terms of signal power S and the duration T of bit,
the bit energy is given by Eb = S × T.
3. In terms of noise power N and bandwidth W, the PSD
of noise is given by N0 = N / W.
4. SNR is therefore given by
E S ×T S / Rb S W
SNR = b = = =
N0 N /W N /W N R

where Rb is the rate of transmission in bits transmitted

per second (bps).
5. Bit-error probability is the probability of error in a
transmitted bit.
6. ROC curves are plots of Bit-error probability versus
SNR.

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3.2 Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise

For any binary channel, the transmitted signal over a symbol interval
(0,T) is:
 s (t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T for a binary 1
si (t ) =  1
 s2 (t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T for a binary 0

The received signal r(t) degraded by noise n(t) and possibly

degraded by the impulse response of the channel hc(t), is

r ( t ) = s i ( t ) * hc ( t ) + n ( t ) i = 1, 2 (3.1)
Where n(t) is assumed to be zero mean AWGN process
For ideal distortionless channel where hc(t) is an impulse function
and convolution with hc(t) produces no degradation, r(t) can be
represented as:
r (t ) = s (t ) + n(t ) i = 1,2 0≤t ≤T (3.2)
i

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3.2 Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise

The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts

Filter
Reduces the effect of noise (as well as Tx induced ISI)
The output of the filter is sampled at t=T.This reduces the received
signal to a single variable z(T) called the test statistics
Detector (or decision circuit)
Compares the z(T) to some threshold level γ0 , i.e.,
H1
>
z (T ) <
γ0 where H1 and H2 are the two
possible binary hypothesis
H2

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Receiver Functionality
The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts:
1. Waveform-to-sample transformation (Blue Block)
Demodulator followed by a sampler
At the end of each symbol duration T, predetection point yields a
sample z(T), called test statistic
z(T ) = a (T ) + n (T ) i = 1,2 (3.3)
i 0

Where ai(T) is the desired signal component,

and no(T) is the noise component
2. Detection of symbol
Assume that input noise is a Gaussian random process and
receiving filter is linear

1  1  n 2 
p ( n0 ) = exp  −  0   (3.4)
σ0 2π  2  σ 0  

15

Then output is another Gaussian random process

1  1  z − a 2 
p(z | s1) = exp −  1

σ 0 2π  2  σ 0  

1  1  z − a 2 
p( z | s2 ) = exp −  2
 
σ 0 2π  2  σ 0  

Where σ0 2 is the noise variance

The ratio of instantaneous signal power to average noise power ,
(S/N)T, at a time t=T, out of the sampler is:
 S  a2
  = i2 (3.45)
 N T σ0

Need to achieve maximum (S/N)T

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3.2.2 Matched Filter

Matched filter is a device for the optimal detection of a digital pulse. It is
so named because the impulse response of the matched filter matches
the pulse shape.
Problem
Design the receiver filter h(t) such that the SNR (signal power to
average noise power) is maximized at the sampling time.

Solution
The optimum filter is the Matched filter, given by

which is the time-reversed and delayed version of the conjugate of the

transmitted signal

Matched Filter (cont´d)

The output SNR of a matched filter depends
only on the ratio of the signal energy to the PSD
of the white noise at the filter input

S E
max  = s
 N T N0 2

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3.2.3 Correlation Realization of the Matched Filter

The matched filter output at the sampling

time can be realized as the correlator output.
t
z(t ) = hopt (t ) ∗ r(t ) = ∫ r(τ )h(t − τ )dτ
0
t
z(t ) = ∫ r(τ )s∗[T − (t − τ )]dτ
0
T ∗
z(T ) = ∫ r(τ )s (τ )dτ =< r(t ), s(t ) >
0

Matched Filter and Correlator

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Implementation of Matched Filter Receiver

rj = r(t ) ∗ψ j (T − t ) j = 1,......,N
r = (r1, r2 ,.......,rN )

Implementation of correlator receiver

T
rj = ∫ r(t )ψ j (t )dt j = 1,......,N
0

r = (r1, r2 ,.......,rN )

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Statistics of The Vector Signals

AWGN channel model : r = si + n

Signal vector si=(si1, si2, … siN) is deterministic.

Elements of noise vector n=(n1, n2, …, nN) are i, i.d Gaussian
random variables with zero-mean and variance N0/2. The noise
vector pdf is

1  || n ||2 
pn (n) = exp − 
(πN 0 ) N 2  N0 

The elements of observed vector r=(r1, r2,….rN) are independent

Gaussian random variables. Its pdf is
1  || r − s i ||2 
pn (r | s i ) = exp − 
(πN 0 ) N 2  N 0 

Average Probability of Symbol Error

Erroneous decision : For the transmitted symbol mi or equivalently signal vector
si, an error in decision occurs if the observation vector r does not fall inside
region Zi.

Probability of erroneous decision for a transmitted symbol

Pr( mˆ ≠ mi ) = Pr( mi sent ) Pr(r does not lie inside Z i | mi set )

Probability of correct decision for a transmitted symbol

Pr( mˆ = mi ) = Pr( mi sent ) Pr(r lies inside Z i | mi set )

pc (mi ) = Pr(r lies inside Z i | mi set ) = ∫ pr (r | mi )dr
Zi

pe (m i ) = 1 − pc (mi )

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Avg. Prob. of Symbol Error (cont´d)

Average probability of symbol error :

M
PE ( M ) = ∑ Pr( mˆ ≠ mi )
i =1

For equally probable symbols :

M M
1 1
PE ( M ) =
M
∑
i =1
Pe ( mi ) = 1 −
M
∑ P (m )
i =1
c i

M
1
= 1−
M
∑ ∫ P ( r | m ) dr
i =1 Z i
r i

BER (Bit Error Rate)

Received signal in Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel

,
r(t ) = si (t ) + n(t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T , i = 1, 2
After Matched Filtering & Sampling

z = ai + no , i = 1, 2
where

a1 = Eb a2 = − Eb no : N (0, No / 2)

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Bit Error Probability

PB = P( s1 )P( H2 | s1 ) + P( s2 )P( H1 | s2 )

P( s1 ) = P( s2 ) = 1 2
P( H 2 | s1 ) = P( H1 | s2 )
PB = P( H1 | s2 )

Maximum Likelihood Decision

1  x+ E ( )  dx
2

exp −
∞
P( H1 | s2 ) = ∫ b
0 πNo  No 
 

∞ 1  u2   2Eb 
=∫ exp −  du = Q 

∞ 1  u2 
where Q( x) = ∫ exp −  du
2 Eb / N0 2π  2  N0  x 2π  2

Signal Processing Lab.,

http://signal.korea.ac.kr
Dept. of Elec. and Info. Engr.,
Korea Univ.

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BER versus Eb/No

Eb = Tb S, No = N /W , Tb = 1/ Rb

Eb S Tb S / Rb
= =
N0 N / W N / W

Eb S  W 
=  
N0 N  Rb 

Error performance Degradation

Eb/No is a measure of normalized signal-to-noise

ratio (SNR)

SNR refers to average signal power &

average noise power
Can be degrade in two ways
1.Through the decrease of the desired
signal power.
2.Through the increase of noise power or
interfering signal.
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Optimizing Error Performance

To optimize (minimize) PB , the optimum
decision threshold and the

error probability, were considered.

Next, for minimizing PB, it is necessary to
choose the filter (matched filter) that maximizes
the argument of Q(x) and maximizes (a1-a )/2σ0, 2

or equivalently, that maximizes

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Optimizing Error Performance

The matched filter achieves the maximum
possible output by selecting the SNR that
equal to 2E/N0.
Consider the filter is matched to the input
difference signal , thus, can write the
output SNR as

Ed is the energy of the difference signal at the filter

input which is shown as below:

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Optimizing Error Performance

Combining the error probability with the possible
output SNR yields

From this equation, a more general relationship

in terms of received bit energy can be
developed.
We start by defining a time cross-correlation
coefficient ρ as a measure of similarity between
two signals, s1(t) and s2(t). We have

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Optimizing Error Performance

Lastly, the error probability obtained as below:

For the case ρ = 1, corresponding to signals

s1(t) and s2(t) being perfectly correlated over a
symbol time.

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Optimizing Error Performance

For the case ρ = -1, corresponding to s1(t) and

s2(t) being “ anticorrelated” over a symbol
time.
In other word, the angle between the signal
vectors is 180º
Antipodal signal

Known also as Bipolar signaling. 35

Optimizing Error Performance

From the probability error,

where A is the represent amplitude

of si(t), which obtained from the equation of
different energy signal

Thus, bit error performance for bipolar

signaling obtained as below:

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But x > 3,
approximation
for Q(x) is:

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Example 3.2: Matched Filter Detection of Antipodal Signals

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Solution1-30:
We can graphically determine the received energy per bit s1(t) and s2(t) from the
plot below.
3
Eb = ∫ v 2 (t )dt
0

= (10−3V ) 2 * (10 − 6 s ) + ( 2 *10 −3V ) 2 * (10 −6 s) + (10 −3V ) 2 * (10 −6 s)

= 6 *10 −12 joule

The waveform is antipodal, we can find the bit error probability as

 12 *10 −12 
Pb = Q  = Q 12 = Q (3.46)
 10−12 
 

B.1 Pb=3*10-4
From the table B.1
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Summary of Matched Filter

Matched filter is a device for the optimal detection of a digital pulse. It is

so named because the impulse response of the matched filter matches
the pulse shape
Design of matched filter to:
- Maximize signal power
- Minimize noise

The output SNR of a matched filter depends only on the ratio of the signal
energy to the PSD of the white noise at the filter input

S E
max  = s
 N T N 0 2
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3.3 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

The transmission of digital data over a physical communication channel is limited by two unavoidable factors
1. Intersymbol interference
2. Channel noise
These two interferences/noises often occur simultaneously. However, for simplicity, they are often separately
considered in analysis.
Intersymbol interference (ISI) occurs when a pulse spreads out in such a way that it interferes with
adjacent pulses at the sample instant.

Example: assume polar NRZ line code. The channel outputs are shown as spreaded (width Tb becomes
2Tb) pulses shown (Spreading due to bandlimited channel characteristics).

Channel Input Channel Output

Pulse width Tb Pulse width Tb
Data 1

− Tb 0 Tb − Tb 0 Tb

Data 0
− Tb 0 Tb − Tb 0 Tb

Example of Intersymbol interference

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Example of Intersymbol interference

‘1’ ‘1’ ‘0’ ‘0’ ‘1’ ‘0’ ‘0’ ‘1’

amplitude

1.0
0.5 Decision threshold

0 2 4 6 time (bit periods)

Note non-zero values at ideal sample instants corresponding

with the transmission of binary ‘0’s

• Clearly the ease in making decisions is data dependant

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Example of Intersymbol interference ..

sequence sent 1 0 1
sequence received 1 1(!) 1

Signal
received
Threshold

0 t

- -2T -T 0 T 2 3 4 5
3T T T T T
Sequence of three pulses (1, 0, 1)
sent at a rate 1/T

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3.3 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) ..

The above figure illustrates the filtering aspect of a digital communication system — There are
three main filters shown in the system
1. Transmitting filter Ht ( f): The input to the transmitting filter are impulses denoting the information symbols { xk}.
Bit 1 is represented by a positive impulse and bit 0 by a negative impulse. These impulses modulate rectangular
pulses such that bit 1 is now represented by a positive rectangular pulse and bit 0 by a negative rectangular pulse.
Since the bandwidth of a rectangular pulse is infinite, the rectangular pulses are band limited by the transmitting
filter.
2. Channel H c ( f): The channel is modeled by a LTI system with a transfer function H c ( f). It accounts for
distortion produced, for example, by fading or by bandwidth constraints.
3. Receiving filter Hr ( f): The receiving filter compensates for distortion resulting from the transmitter and the
channel. It models both the receiving and equalizing filters.

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

ISI in the detection process due to the filtering effects of
the system
Overall equivalent system transfer function

creates echoes and hence time dispersion

causes ISI at sampling time

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Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) (cont’d)

Nyquist pulses: No ISI at the sampling time

Ideal Nyquist pulse:

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) (cont’d)

Nyquist bandwidth constraint
1 Rs R
= ≤ W ⇒ s ≤ 2 [symbol/ s / Hz]
2T 2 W
Ideal Nyquist filter is not realizable.
Goals and trade-off in pulse-shaping
Reduce ISI
Efficient bandwidth utilization
Robustness to timing error (small side lobes)

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Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) (cont’d)

3.3.1.2 Raised-Cosine Filter
A Nyquist pulse (No ISI at the sampling time)

where W is the absolute bandwidth and W 0=1/2T represents the

minimum Nyquist bandwidth and the -6 dB bandwidth

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) (cont’d)

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3.3.2 Error-Performance Degradation

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) (cont’d)

Square-Root Raised Cosine (SRRC) filter and Equalizer

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ISI Solution
It is possible to eliminate ISI at the sampling instants by ensuring that the
received pulses satisfy the Nyquist pulse shaping criterion
We will assume that td=0, so the slicer input is

y n = a n h ( 0 ) + ∑ a k h (( n − k )T ) + v n
k ≠n

• If the received pulse is such that

1 for n = 0
h ( nT ) = 
0 for n ≠ 0

Pulse Shaping to Reduce ISI

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Example 3.3: Bandwidth Requirement (a)

Find a minimum required bandwidth for the baseband transmission of a four level
PAM pulse sequence having a data rate of R = 2400 bits/s if the system transfer
characteristic consists of a raised-cosine spectrum with 100% excess bandwidth
(r = 1).
Solution 1-43:
M = 2k; since M = 4 levels, k = 2.
Symbol or pulse rate Rs = r/k = 2400/
2400/2 = 1200 symbols/s
Minimum bandwidth W = 1/2(1+r)Rs = 1/2(2)(1200
)(1200)
1200) = 1200Hz
1200Hz

Figure 3.19a
19a (text) ~ baseband received pulse in time domain
Figure 3.19b
19b (text) ~ Fourier transform of h(t)
*Note that bandwidth starts at zero frequency and extend to f=1
f=1/T twice the size of
Nyquist theretical minimum bandwidth.

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Example xx: Bandwidth Requirement ()

The same 4-ary PAM sequence is modulated onto a carrier wave, so that the
baseband spectrum is shifted and centered at frequency f0. Find the minimum
required DSB bandwidth for transmitting the modulated PAM sequence. Assume
that the system transfer characteristic is same as in part .

Solution1-43:
From above example (a)
Rs= 1200 symbols/s
WDSB=(1
=(1+r)Rs = 2(1200)
1200) =2400
=2400 Hz

Continue in class

Remember ….

signal noise signal + noise

High
SNR
t t t

signal noise signal + noise

Low
SNR
t t t

Average Signal Power

SNR =
Average Noise Power

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3.4.3 Equalizers
The equalizer is a device that attempts to reverse the distortion incurred
by a signal transmitted through a channel.
The goal of equalizers is to eliminate intersymbol interference (ISI) and
the additive noise as much as possible.
Types of Equalizers
Transversal filtering :
Zero-forcing equalizer: Neglect the effect of noise
Minimum mean square error (MSE) equalizer
The basic limitation of a transversal equalizer is that it performs poorly on
channels having spectral nulls.

Decision feedback
Using the past decisions to remove the ISI contributed by
them

Transversal Equalizer
A transversal filter is the most popular form of an easily adjustable equalizing filter consisting of a
delay line with T-second tapes
The main contribution is from a central tap of a transversal filter
In practice, a finite-length transversal filter is realized to approximate the ideal filter (infinite-
length transversal filter)
Consider there are (2N+1) taps with weights c-N, c-N+1, …,cN, the equalizer output samples {z(k)}
N
z (k ) = ∑ x ( k − n) c
n =− N
n , k = −2 N ,K 2 N n = − N ,K N

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Zero-Forcing Solution

Relationship among {z(k)}, {x(k)}, and {cn} for the transversal filter

 x(− N ) 0 0 L 0 0 
 x(− N + 1) x(− N ) 
 z (−2 N ) c− N  
0 L L L

 M   M   M M M 
     
z =  z (0)  c =  c0  and X =  x( N ) x ( N − 1) x( N − 2) L x(− N + 1) x(− N ) 
     
 M   M  
M M M

 z (2 N )   c N   0 0 0 L x( N ) x( N − 1)
 0 0 0 0 L x ( N ) 
Disposing the top N the bottom N rows of the matrix X into a square matrix with
dimension of 2N+1 and transform Z vector into a vector of 2N+1
Rewrite the relationship z=Xc ⇒ c = X −1z
Select the weights {cn} so that the equalizer output is

1 for k = 0 
z (k ) =  
0 for k = ±1,±2,K,± N  59
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Example: A Zero-Forcing Equalizer

Consider a three-taps transversal filter, the given received data {x(k)} are 0.0,
0.2, 0.9, -0.3,0.1. (sinc function shown figure 3.25). Using the zero-forcing
solution to find the weights {c-, c0, c1} that reduce the ISI so that the equalized
pulse samples z{k) have values { z(-1)=0, z(0)=1, x(10=0}.
z = Xc
For the relationship
0  x(0) x(−1) x(−2) c−1
⇒ 1 =  x(1) x(0) x(−1)  ⋅  c0 
     
0  x(2) x(1) x(0)   c1 
 0.9 0.2 0  c−1
= − 0.3 0.9 0.2 ⋅  c0 
   
Solving these three simultaneous equations results in the  0.1 − 0.3 0.9  c1 
following weights
c−1  − 0.2140
∴  c0  =  0.9631 
The values of the equalized pulse samples {z(k)} corresponding to sample    
times k = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 are computed by using z=X.c,  c1   0.3448 
yield 0.000, -0.0428, 0.000, 1.000, 0.000, -0.0071, 0.0345
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Minimum MSE Solution

Minimize the mean-square error (MSE) of all the ISI terms plus the
noise power at the output of the equalizer
MSE is defined as the expected value of the squared difference
between the desired data symbol and the estimated data symbol

MSE solution
X T z = X T Xc
−1
⇒ Rxz = Rxx c ∴ c = Rxx Rxz

Minimum MSE solution is superior to zero-forcing solution

Minimum MSE is more robust in the presence of noise and large ISI

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3.4.3.2 Decision Feedback Equalizer

Decision feedback equalizer (DFE) is a non-
linear equalizer and uses previous detector
decisions to eliminate the ISI on pulse
Basic idea is that if the values of the symbols
previously detected are known, then the ISI
contributed by these symbols can be
cancelled out
Forward filter and feedback filter are used in
the DFE
The advantage of DFE is that the feedback
filter operates on noiseless quantized levels,
and thus its output is free of channel noise.
.

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Decision Feedback Equalizer ..

The figure shows a simplified block diagram

of a DFE where the forward filter and the
feedback filter can each be a linear filter,
such as transversal filter. The nonlinearity of
the DFE stems from the nonlinear
characteristic of the detector that provides an
input to the feedback filter. The basic idea of
a DFE is that if the values of the symbols
previously detected are known, then ISI
contributed by these symbols can be
canceled out exactly at the output of the
forward filter by subtracting past symbol
values with appropriate weighting. The
forward and feedback tap weights can be
adjusted simultaneously to fulfill a criterion
such as minimizing the MSE.
The advantage of a DFE implementation is
the feedback filter, which is additionally
working to remove ISI, operates on noiseless
quantized levels, and thus its output is free of
channel noise.

63

Solving Problems

Sklar 3.8: (a) What is the theoretical minimum

system bandwidth needed for a 10 Mb/s signal
using 16-level PAM without ISI?

(b) How large can the filter roll-off factor (r) be if the
applicable system bandwidth is 1.375 MHz?

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Solution

Solving Problems
Sklar 3.10: Binary data at 9600 bits/s are transmitted using 8-ary PAM
modulation with a system using a raised cosine roll-off filter characteristics.
The system has a frequency response out to 2.4 kHz.
(a) What is the symbol rate
(b) What is the roll o® factor r

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Solving Problems

Sklar 3.11: A voice signal in the range 300 to 3300 Hz is sampled at 8000
samples/s. We may transmit these samples directly as PAM pulses or we
may first convert each sample to a PCM format and use binary (PCM)
waveform for transmission.

(a) What is the minimum system bandwidth required for the detection of PAM
with no ISI and with a filter roll-off factor of 1.

(b) Using the same roll-off, what is the minimum bandwidth required for the
detection of binary PCM waveform if the samples are quantized to 8-levels

(c) Repeat part (b) using 128 quantization levels.

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