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Arnold Oostra
1. Introduction
Existential graphs, which were considered by his creator Charles S. Peirce his
chef d’œvre [11], may be seen as a geometric representation of mathematical
logic. In this system, logical formulas are laid out as two-dimensional diagrams
205
206 ARNOLD OOSTRA
3. Inward iteration. Any graph may be iterated on its own area or inside
any cut contained in it, as long as this cut is not part of the iterated graph.
4. Deiteration from the outside. Any graph whose occurrence could be the
result of iteration may be erased.
¬A A
A∧B A B
A∨B A B
A→B A B
5. Double cut. A double cut, consisting of two nested cuts without letters or
cuts in the area between them, may be drawn or erased around any graph
on any area.
A B A 4 B 5 1
⇒ A ⇒ B A ⇒ B
is adherent to both regions [3, 5]. From this result it follows that n disjoint
Jordan curves divide the plane into n + 1 connected components, n of them
bounded and just one unbounded (the “outside”).
In the framework of existential graphs, a first consequence of Jordan’s Curve
Theorem is that the logic on the sheet of assertion has two truth values. Since
the cuts correspond to Jordan curves and the areas are exactly the connected
components of the complement of the curves, a cut divides the sheet into just
two areas specifying as many truth values. But a deeper effect of Jordan’s
Theorem is that n cuts define n + 1 areas and that, among all these areas, there
is one which is easily distinguishable. This is the unbounded component, which
conventionally is associated with the truth value True. Hence, all other areas
are automatically assorted into True or False according to their separation
from the unbounded area by an even or odd number of cuts. This is another
way to state the idea, basic to the theory of existential graphs, that an area
is even or odd according to the number of cuts that enclose it. This parity
is essential in the application of the rules of Erasure and Insertion. Moreover,
the way of counting the areas from the outmost, i.e. the only unbounded one,
provides a natural orientation in the structure of the graphs which was called
by Peirce endoporeutic [11]. At its turn, this orientation is crucial in the use of
the rules of Iteration and Deiteration.
In the clearly intended interpretation of existential graphs, the sheet of
assertion relates to an intuitive notion of truth since every graph drawn on
it is automatically asserted. A cut constitutes a rupture with this truth, but
on the sheet as a whole it remains obvious with which of the two regions the
truth is related. Hence, in a natural way, in this system there is one unique
or “absolute” truth, given by the only unbounded component. Also, there is
only one kind of negation, expressed by a cut, that ascribes to the enclosed
component the truth value which is contrary to the value of the component
where the cut is drawn.
Remark 3.1. On any surface, every open set homeomorphic to R2 has a local
logic given by a system of Alpha graphs that is equivalent to the Alpha graphs
on the plane.
Hence, the local logic on any surface is the two-valued classical logic. Fur-
thermore, the veritable interest in studying existential graphs on surfaces lies
in its global logic, which according to the selected manifold most assuredly has
interesting and meaningful differences with classical logic.
In the next paragraphs we will ponder the attributes of such a global logic
on some particular surfaces.
On this surface, Jordan’s Theorem states that a Jordan curve divides the sphere
into two connected components, both of them bounded [6]. Therefore, n disjoint
Jordan curves divide it into n + 1 connected and bounded components, see
Figure 3.
Since there is no natural way to highlight one spherical component over
the rest, the global logic on the sphere lacks any “absolute” truth. Even if this
logic is two-valued, given a certain area it is altogether unfeasible to decide
whether it is True or False. This implies that if two graphs are drawn on
the same component of the sphere we may not regard this juxtaposition as a
conjunction, again because there is no way to determine whether the graphs
are both True or both False. The only thing that can be said with certainty is
that these graphs are congruent or equivalent in some sense. On the contrary,
if the graphs are drawn on two adjacent components they are incongruent or
opposite, but again it is impossible to label any of them as True or False.
Regarding to some form of the double negation principle, we can extend
the above conventions to more curves between the components. Thus, in the
Alpha graphs on the sphere two areas are defined to be equivalent if they are
Remark 3.2. The global logic on a connected closed surface has no “abso-
lute” truth and, consequently, the areas have no evenness nor endoporeutic
orientation.
this surface there are two essentially different kinds of Jordan curves: those
that are contractible to a point (by means of a homotopy on the cylinder) and
those that are not contractible because they circle the cylinder once, see Figure
4. Contractible curves correspond to the trivial element of the fundamental
group, while non-contractible give rise to a generator of this group which is
infinite cyclic, or isomorphic to Z. In another sense, contractible curves are
contained in an open subset homeomorphic to the plane, but non-contractible
are not contained in any such a subset. Finally, contractible curves divide the
cylinder into two connected components, one bounded and another unbounded,
while non-contractible divide the surface into two components which are both
unbounded. This last distinction comprises Jordan’s Curve Theorem on this
manifold: on the cylinder a Jordan curve divides the surface into two connected
components. These components can be one bounded and one unbounded, or
else both unbounded.
The global logic on the cylinder has two “relative” truths given by the two
unbounded ends, and two kinds of negations associated to the two types of
cuts. A contractible cut means the negation of the bounded area or inside with
respect to the unbounded or outside. Hence, in any graph, an area might be
considered True or False regarding any of the relative truths if it is separated
from the appointed end by an even or odd number of cuts. On the other hand,
a non-contractible cut that turns around the cylinder is a negation that sets
up an antithesis between the relative truths. Since the cuts on the cylinder are
intrinsically different, it seems reasonable that the negations represented by
them have also distinct behavior. In case that the negation associated with non-
contractible cuts satisfies the double negation principle, then an even number of
this cuts drawn on the cylinder indicate that the relative truths are equivalent,
while an odd number of non-contractible cuts mean that they are opposite.
Under this circumstances, if the relative truths are compatible then every area
has only one truth value and the logic becomes classical; on the contrary, if
they are opposite then every area is True with respect to one relative truth
and False with respect to the other.
In the global logic on the Möbius strip there is just one “absolute” truth, but
there are at least two kinds of negations. As always, a cut on the strip that
divides it into a bounded area and an unbounded one expresses the negation
of the bounded inside with respect to the unbounded outside. So far, this logic
seems close to classical logic, although it remains to clarify the meaning of
the non-contractible cuts. But on this surface there are also cuts that do not
mark out two different areas, which is a novel and quite strange element of this
graphs. What does it mean, in the framework of existential graphs, to draw
a cut that does not divide the sheet of assertion? One fact we can point out
in this juncture is that, since different cuts are always disjoint in existential
graphs, if on the Möbius strip we draw a cut that does not divide it then we
may not trace another with the same peculiarity.
On this surface there are again two different kinds of Jordan curves. Con-
tractible curves are contained in an open set homeomorphic to the plane, gen-
erate the trivial element of the fundamental group and divide the torus into
two connected and bounded components. On the other hand, there are non-
contractible curves not contained in any open set homeomorphic to R2 , that
give rise to a non-trivial generator of the fundamental group (which is isomor-
phic to Z × Z), and do not divide the torus into two components. For this last
kind of curves there are various different possibilities: a Jordan curve may circle
the “hole” of the torus once, or it may circle the “body” of the torus once, or
describe a spiral around the body of the torus, or else a spiral around the hole,
see Figure 8. These options correspond to elements (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, m) and
(n, 1) in the fundamental group, and each of them generates an infinite cyclic
subgroup. Thus, a Jordan curve divides the torus into two connected compo-
nents, both bounded, or else does not divide it, for which there are multiple
possibilities.
The global logic on the torus has no “absolute” truth by Remark 3.2, and there
are at least two kinds of negations. A cut on the torus that divides it into two
components expresses the incompatibility or antagonism between the separated
areas, in a similar way to the logic on the sphere. But again, a cut on the torus
that does not divide it into two areas is an element whose logical meaning is
not yet clear. In contrast to the previous surface, on the torus it is possible to
draw essentially different cuts that do not divide it into two areas. Anyway, if
a graph on the torus has such a non-contractible cut then all non-contractible
cuts are of the same type: for instance, if we draw a cut circling the tube of the
torus then we can not draw any around the hole nor any spiral, and all drawn
cuts should circle the tube.
According to Remark 3.2, on the closed surfaces like the sphere and the torus
there is no “absolute” truth because it is not feasible to highlight in a natural
way some area that stands for the truth value True. One way to achieve this is
punching holes in the surface by removing a finite set of points.
By the well-known stereographic projection, a sphere with just one point
removed is homeomorphic to the plane, and hence the global logic on the sphere
punctured at one point is exactly classical logic. This fact constitutes a quite
interesting turnabout because now classical logic materializes as a particular
4. Mappings
Now that it appears feasible to assign a natural logic to any surface, a mapping
between different surfaces attains a logical connotation as a translation (in the
sense of rendering) from one logic into another.
The class of mappings chosen between certain surfaces depends naturally on
the structure considered on the manifolds. For instance, we would consider con-
tinuous maps between topological manifolds, differentiable mappings between
Remark 4.1. Any local homeomorphism between surfaces preserves the local
logic intrinsic to both surfaces.
5. Concluding remarks
By means of a very natural generalization of Peirce’s existential graphs, any
topological 2-manifold is furnished with an inherent logic. As stated above, the
propositional part of this logic is given by the Alpha graphs on the surface, and
this graphs depend on the Jordan curves on it. On many surfaces the behavior
of this curves, and hence the behavior of the negation in this logic, is described
by Jordan’s Curve Theorem on the manifold. However, as might be expected,
these considerations result in many open problems. In the first place, it is
imperative to investigate more deeply into the logic on the mentioned surfaces,
or at least, on certain families of manifolds.
Here we can already specify certain general issues. If we read the contractible
Jordan curves as the usual negation, just as on the plane, how do we interpret
non-contractible ones? And the curves that do not divide the surface into two
components? These questions are, in turn, deeply related to the open problem
of specifying the rules of transformation for the graphs on the various manifolds.
For instance, it seems feasible that in any case a double cut, made up of two
nested contractible cuts without signs between them, may be drawn or erased
freely. But for the remaining rules we foresee serious difficulties. What does it
mean that a certain area is even or odd? What does it mean that a graph is
contained in a given area? Is there always an endoporeutic orientation?
The idea of developing existential graphs on surfaces may turn out to have
connections with other topics of current interest in mathematics, like dessins
d’enfants on Riemann surfaces, or the possibility to understand geometrically
different types of negation.
Beyond many technical details and quite interesting connections, the line
of inquiry suggested in this paper seems to have deep consequences in itself.
Actually, by the course outlined here the way of thinking ascribed to a certain
logic becomes associated very precisely to the global form of a specific surface.
Perhaps, the form of our reasonings relies on the form of our living space.
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