August 1

Catherine August

Mrs. Tallman

AP Calculus

24 February 2020

The Relationship Between Derivatives and Integrals Essay

Introduction​:

From engineers, mathematicians, and software developers, to calculus students in high

school or university, understanding the concepts of deriving and integrating are important in

order to be successful. Derivation and integration are the primary operations utilized in the study

of calculus. In nearly every concept and idea covered in calculus, the process of deriving or

integrating is utilized. Along with understanding the relationship between derivatives and

integrals, it is important to understand critical points, what information the signs (negative,

positive, and zero) of the values of the first derivative and second derivative give about the

original function, how the first derivative can be utilized to determine the concavity and points of

inflection for the original function, how the first and second derivatives can be utilized to find

the maximums and minimums of a function, both forms of the Fundamental Theorem of

Calculus, the Mean Value Theorem (MVT), the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT), how

integrals with reversed bounds are related, and some example problems.

Definition of Derivative and Integral​:

The integral is also known as the ‘antiderivative’. Thus, it is unsurprising that integrals

and derivatives are inverses, or opposites, of each other. When defining the derivative, there are

both physical and graphical meanings to consider. Physically, the derivative of a function at a
 August 2

point x=c is the instantaneous rate of change of a function at said point, and graphically, the

derivative is the slope of the line tangent to the graph at a particular point.

In lower levels of mathematics, the average slope of a line connecting two points is found

by dividing the change in y by the change in x. In higher levels of mathematics, such as calculus,

the derivative can be employed to find the slope at a specific point rather than finding the

average slope between two points. The concept of dividing the change in y by the change in x

(the slope formula) is still applicable to find the derivative, but the equation is modified, as

shown in Figure 1 below.

f (x+h) − f (x)
lim h
h→0
Figure 1. Equation to Calculate Derivative

Figure 1 shows the equation used to calculate the derivative. In the denominator, ‘h’,

otherwise known as the change in x, gets infinitely close to zero without reaching zero. In the

numerator, the difference between f(x+h) and f(x) is the change in y as x gets infinitely smaller.

Therefore, by dividing the change in y by the infinitely small change in x, the equation as a

whole finds the instantaneous rate of change at a particular point, or the line tangent to the

function at said point, which concurs with the definition of a derivative. Figure 2 shows the

graphical representation of the derivative, the tangent line at a certain point.

 August 3

Figure 2. Graphical Definition of Derivative from Kunenga, Te, and Ki Purehuroa. “Tangents,
Derivatives and Differentiation.” ​Maths First, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey
University.​

Figure 2 demonstrates the graphical definition of the derivative. As explained previously,

the derivative is the slope of the line tangent to the graph at a particular point. Figure 2 shows the

various slopes at different points on the graph, which represent the derivatives at different points.

Along with the derivative, the integral is one of the most important concepts to

understand in calculus. In calculus, there are both indefinite and definite integrals. An indefinite

integral is an integral without upper and lower limits, meaning the final computation of an

indefinite integral is F(x) + C, where F(x) is the integrand and C is the constant of integration.

Due to the lack of constraints, a numerical value cannot be calculated for an indefinite integral.

On the other hand, a definite integral is an integral with upper and lower limits, meaning a

numerical value can be calculated.

Simply, integrals calculate the area under a given curve by dividing the region underneath

the curve into an infinite amount of rectangular regions with extremely small widths that

approach zero, but are not equal to zero. As the number of rectangles increases and the width

(dx) decreases, the limit approaches the exact area underneath the curve. With each small

rectangle, the area is calculated using the area formula for a rectangle, height (f(x)) multiplied by
 August 4

the change in x width (dx). All of the areas of these infinite individual rectangles are then added

together to calculate the total area under the curve, thus calculating the definite integral. This

process correlates to the formal definition of a definite integral, in which the definite integral of

the function f(x) from x=a to x=b (the upper and lower limits) provides a way to find the product

of (b-a) and f(x) even if f(x) is not a constant. Simply, this means that a definite integral

calculates the area under a curve, because the product of (b-a) and f(x) is width multiplied by

height, which results in a value for area, even if the height f(x) of the curve is not the same for

each inscribed rectangle.

The definite integral provides an exact value for the area under the curve rather than an

approximate value that could be found using other methods, such as counting squares, because

there is an infinite amount of rectangles, and as the amount of rectangles increases and the size of

the dx cut decreases, the limit approaches the exact area underneath the curve. Figure 3

demonstrates the process of calculating an integral.

 August 5

Figure 3. Graphical Demonstration of Integration from Wells, Christopher J. “The Definite

Integral.” ​TechnologyUK,​ 30 June 2012

Figure 3 above demonstrates the process of dividing the region underneath a curve into

an infinite amount of rectangular regions with extremely small widths that approach zero, but are

not equal to zero. As shown on the graph, “a” and “b” represent the upper and lower limits of

integration on the x-axis. Furthermore, f(x) is the height of each rectangle, which varies, and dx

is the width of each rectangle. Thus, when multiplied together, the resulting answer is area, and

then the areas of the infinite amount of rectangles with extremely small widths are added up from

x=a to x=b to obtain the definite integral.

Relationship Between Derivation and Integration​:

At first glance, derivatives and integrals may seem unrelated. However, these two

operations are actually inverses of each other, similar to how division and multiplication are

inverses of each other. This is apparent when looking at an example of a function, such as f(x) =

5x+8. The derivative of this function is f’(x) = 5. However, when integrating f’(x), it returns to

the original function 5x+C, where C is a constant, which in this case, is 8. Furthermore, if one
 August 6

were to integrate f(x) = 5x+8, it becomes (5/2)x²+8x. When deriving this, it returns to the

original function f(x) = 5x+8. In this way, derivatives and integrals are inverses of each other.

Furthermore, when looking at that example, it is evident that derivatives lower the power

of the original function f(x) by 1 and integrals raise the power of the original function f(x) by 1.

In the previous example, deriving the linear function resulted in a constant and integrating the

linear function resulted in a quadratic. Similarly, if the original function was quadratic, the

derivative would be linear and the integral would be cubic. Figure 4 visually shows how the

derivative and integral are inverses of each other.

Figure 4. Visualizing the Derivative and Integral as Inverses of Each Other

Figure 4 visually demonstrates how the derivative and the integral are inverses of each

other. As shown in Figure 4, the derivative of the integral of function f(x) is the original function,

and the integral of the derivative of function f(x) is the original function.

The concepts of derivation and integration and how they are related have many

applications in the real world. Say a ball is thrown off of a tall hill. In this case, the original,

given function would be a velocity graph, which shows the rate the object is moving at a certain

point. By itself, the velocity graph may not provide all of the information that is necessary.

However, by integrating the velocity function, the graph of displacement, or where an object is
 August 7

located at a certain point in time, is known. Furthermore, by deriving the velocity function, the

graph of acceleration is known. Therefore, given a graph of velocity, the integral would be a

graph of displacement and the derivative would be a graph of acceleration.

With this example, the units of the derivative and integral can be found. The initial units

of velocity are meters per second, m/s, because the y axis is in meters and the x axis is time.

When integrating velocity, displacement is found. Since integrals are simply the area underneath

a curve, or width multiplied by height, the m/s are multiplied by seconds, resulting in meters as

the final unit for displacement. On the other hand, when deriving velocity, acceleration is found.

Since the units of the derivative are the original function’s units divided by the x axis units,

acceleration is in m/s divided by seconds, or m/s². The graphical representations of the derivative

and integral of the original velocity function can be viewed in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Derivative and Integral of Velocity Function from Remedios, Lauren. “Speed, Velocity
and Acceleration.” ​Grade 11 Physics​.

Figure 5 shows the derivative and integral of the original velocity function. As shown in

Figure 5, the integral of velocity is a graph of displacement and the derivative is a graph of

acceleration. As explained previously, the units of displacement are meters, the units of velocity

are m/s, and the units of acceleration are m/s².

 August 8

Another real world application that involves knowing the relationship between

derivatives and integrals is starting with an original area function. Given a graph of area, the

integral would be a graph of volume and the derivative would be a graph of perimeter. In this

example, a two-dimensional cube with an area of units squared (un²), length multiplied by width,

can be visualized. Recall that taking the derivative lowers the power of the original function f(x)

by 1; in this case, deriving area (un²) results in perimeter measured in un. On the other hand,

taking the integral raises the power of the original function f(x) by 1; therefore, integrating area

(un²) results in volume measured in un³. Conceptually, this makes sense, because deriving the

area results in perimeter, or a line, which is simply length measured in units. Integrating the area

results in volume, or a cube, which is length multiplied by width multiplied by height, or units

cubed.

Various Relationships Between Graphs, Functions, and Derivatives​:

Along with understanding the relationship between derivatives and integrals,

understanding the relationships between graphs, functions, and derivatives is valuable. Knowing

the critical points on a graph is beneficial, as they provide information about the original

function. Critical points on a continuous function f(x) occur where the first derivative, or slope,

is zero or undefined. This happens at the original function’s maximums, minimums, or plateaus

(a critical point with zero derivative but no max/min), as all of these points do not have a slope,

and thus have a zero derivative. An undefined first derivative occurs when there is a cusp, a

pointed part of the graph, in the original graph, meaning there is a critical point at that point.

Furthermore, a change in concavity, or point of inflection, can be found using the second

derivative of the original function, otherwise known as the derivative of the first derivative.
 August 9

Points of inflection occur when the second derivative is zero, or there is a maximum or minimum

on the first derivative.

Moreover, knowing the signs (negative, positive, and zero) of the values of the first

derivative and second derivative can be used to help graph the original function. If the first

derivative is negative at a point (below the x axis), the slope of the original function is negative

(decreasing). If the derivative is positive at a point (above the x axis), the slope of the original

function is positive (increasing). Furthermore, if the second derivative is negative at a point (first

derivative has decreasing slope), then at that point, the original function is concave down. If the

second derivative is positive at a point (first derivative has increasing slope), then at that point,

the original function is concave up.

Furthermore, the first derivative can be used to determine concavity and points of

inflection for the original function. If the first derivative’s signs go from negative to zero to

positive (decreasing slope to zero slope to positive slope), the original function is concave up,

because a minimum would be located there, and the graph is concave up at minimums. If the first

derivative’s signs go from positive to zero to negative (increasing slope to zero slope to negative

slope), the original function is concave down, because a maximum would be located there, and

the graph is concave down at maximums. On the other hand, the points of inflections for the

original function can be found by looking at the maximums and the minimums of the first

derivative. This is because the slopes of the maximums and minimums on the first derivative

graph represent the second derivative values, and if the second derivative is zero (such as at a

maximum or minimum), there is a point of inflection at the particular point.

 August 10

Finally, the maximums and minimums of a function can be found using the first and

second derivatives. As explained previously, if the first derivative’s signs go from negative to

zero to positive, the original function is concave up, and if the first derivative’s signs go from

positive to zero to negative, the original function is concave down. The maximums and

minimums of the original function can be found using the second derivative by employing the

second derivative test. If the first derivative is zero and the second derivative is positive, then

there is a local minimum, because the graph is concave up. However, if the first derivative is

zero and the second derivative is negative, then there is a local maximum, because the graph is

concave down.

An example of finding the original function f(x) by using a graph of the first derivative

can be seen in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Finding the Graph of the Original Function Given the First Derivative Graph

Figure 6 shows an example of how to find the graph of the original function when given

the graph of the first derivative. If the black graph f’(x) was given, it is clear that there is a
 August 11

horizontal tangent (the derivative is 0) at x= 0 and 4. Therefore, x= 0 and 4 are critical points.

Since the first derivative is zero at these values, there is either a maximum, minimum, or plateau

at these points; the specific one it is can be determined by looking at the second derivative,

otherwise known as the slope of the first derivative function. From -1 to 1, the first derivative

goes from positive to zero to negative, meaning the graph is concave down (negative second

derivative) so there is a maximum at x= 0. From, from 3 to 5, the first derivative goes from

negative to zero to positive, meaning the graph is concave up (positive second derivative) so

there is a minimum at x= 4. Furthermore, from -4 to -2, the first derivative does not directly

touch the x axis, so there is a plateau at x= -3. Finally, there are points of inflection at x= -2 and

x= 4, because at these points, the concavity changes.

Calculus Theorems​:

In calculus, there are many theorems, including both forms of the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus, the Mean Value Theorem (MVT), and the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT), all of

which are important. The first Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is used to find the area under

the curve f(x) between x=a and x=b. It states that if f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b]

and F is the indefinite integral of f on [a,b], then the area under the curve is as shown in Figure 7.
b
∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a
Figure 7. First Form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Figure 7 demonstrates the first form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. In the

figure, F represents the integral of f(x). Again, using the first form of the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus calculates the area under the curve f(x) between x=a and x=b. In simple terms, the

area is equal to the integral of the upper limit minus the integral of the lower limit.
 August 12

The second form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that if g(x) is equal to

the integral of some function f(t) from some constant a to x, and f is continuous in the

neighborhood of a, then the derivative of g(x) is f(x) multiplied by the derivative of the variable

upper limit, which in this case is just the derivative of x, or 1. Thus, the second form of the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is used when there is a variable limit, as shown in Figure 8

below.
x
∫ f (x) dx = f (x) * x′
a
Figure 8. Second Form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Figure 8 shows the second form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. In simple

terms, it states that the derivative of an integral is the integrand evaluated at the variable limit

multiplied by the derivative of the variable limit. In this example, the variable is the upper limit

and a is the lower limit, but if a was the upper limit and the variable was the lower limit, the

answer would be negated. All in all, the second form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

demonstrates the connection between differential calculus and integral calculus.

Furthermore, another important theorem in calculus is the Mean Value Theorem (MVT).

The mean value theorem states that if a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b]

and f(x) is differentiable for all values of x on the open interval (a,b), then there is at least one
f (b)−f (a)
number x=c in the open interval (a,b) in which f ′(c) = b−a
. Simply, this means that if the

conditions listed are met, then the slope of the secant line from a to b is equal to the slope of the

tangent line at some number x=c somewhere in the open interval (a,b). This can be seen

graphically in Figure 9.
 August 13

Figure 9. Mean Value Theorem from Dawkins, Paul. “The Mean Value Theorem.” ​Paul's Online
Notes​.

Figure 9 shows the Mean Value Theorem visualized graphically. As shown in the figure,

f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and f(x) is differentiable for all values of x on the

open interval (a,b), so the Mean Value Theorem is applicable. At the value x=c, which is within

the interval from a to b, a tangent line is drawn. As shown in the figure, the tangent line drawn at

x=c is parallel to the secant line from a to b. Since the slope of the secant line between two points

on f(x) has the same slope as the tangent line of some number x=c between the two points, the

Mean Value Theorem is verified.

Moreover, the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) is another important theorem that is

widely used in the study of calculus. The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if a function f

is continuous for all x values in the closed interval [a,b] and f(a) < y < f(b), then there is at least

one number x=c in the open interval (a,b) in which f(c) is equal to y. Simply, this means that if

the conditions listed are met, then there is at least one x value c in (a,b) in which f(c) is equal to y

between f(a) and f(b). For example, if there is a function f that is continuous in the closed

interval [1,8], and f(1)= 2 and f(8)=7, then f(x) = 5 for some x that is 1<x<8. However, it is
 August 14

unknown if f(x) = 10 for some x, as it is not within the given interval. The Intermediate Value

Theorem is visualized with an example shown in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10. Intermediate Value Theorem from “Intermediate Value Theorem.” ​Math Is Fun​.

Figure 10 shows the Intermediate Value Theorem visualized graphically. As shown in the

graph, the function is continuous for all x values in the closed interval [a,b]. Furthermore, as

shown on the y axis, f(a) < w < f(b), so there is at least one number x=c in the open interval (a,b)

in which f(c) is equal to y. In this case, three values of x=c work.

The Mean Value Theorem and the Intermediate Value Theorem are similar, as both

theorems require the function to be continuous for all x values on the closed interval [a,b].

However, the Mean Value Theorem also requires the function to be differentiable for all values

of x on the open interval (a,b), whereas the Intermediate Value Theorem has no differentiability

requirements. Each theorem also has a different purpose. The Mean Value Theorem states that if

the conditions are met, then the slope of the secant line from a to b is equal to the slope of the

tangent line at some number x=c somewhere in the open interval (a,b). On the other hand, the

Intermediate Value Theorem states that if the conditions are met, then there is at least one

number x=c in the open interval (a,b) in which f(c) is equal to y.

 August 15

Integrals With Reversed Bounds​:

As explained previously in the paper, definite integrals simply calculate the area under a

given curve by dividing the region underneath the curve into an infinite amount of rectangular

regions with extremely small widths that approach zero, but are not equal to zero. Typically,

definite integrals are evaluated from point a to point b, meaning the area underneath the curve is

added all the way from point a to point b. This is shown in Figure 3, where the notation is
b
∫ f (x) dx . This integral is evaluated by using the first form of the Fundamental Theorem of
a

Calculus shown in Figure 7, or F(b)-F(a), where F is the integral of f(x).

However, the definite integral can be evaluated from point b to point a, meaning the area

underneath the curve is added all the way from point b to point a. The notation would become
a
∫ f (x) dx , which can be evaluated using the first form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
b

but instead, it would be F(a)-F(b), where F is once again the integral of f(x). In this case, the

answer itself would not change, but the sign of the answer would change, from negative to

positive or positive to negative. This idea is demonstrated in Figure 11 below.

∫ 2x + 4 dx = x2 + 4x + c
1
∫ 2x + 4 dx = 12 + 4(1) − ((0)2 + 4(0)) = 5
0
0
∫ 2x + 4 dx = 02 + 4(0) − ((1)2 + 4(1)) = − 5
1
Figure 11. Example of Reversing the Bounds of Integration

Figure 11 shows an example in which the bounds of integration are reversed. Initially, the

integral is from 0 to 1, resulting in an answer of 5. Afterwards, the integral is from 1 to 0,

 August 16

resulting in an answer of -5. Therefore, it is evident that reversing the bounds of integration

results in the sign of the answer flipping.

Example Problems​:

In order to solidify one’s understanding of the concepts that were covered throughout the

paper, two example problems will be covered.

1. Let f be a function defined on the closed interval -5 ≤ x ≤ 5 with f(1)=3. The graph of f’,

the derivative of f, consists of two semicircles and two line segments, as shown below in

Figure 12.

Figure 12. Derivative Function Graph Given in the Problem from Acre, Scot. “Mr. Acre's
Website.” ​MMSTC​.

Figure 12 shows the derivative function graph that was given in the problem. This graph

can be utilized to find information about the original function, as shown in parts A-E. After the

necessary information is found, the original function can be drawn, as done so in Figure 13.
 August 17

A) For -5 < x < 5, find all values x at which f has a relative maximum. Justify with calculus.

The function f has a relative maximum when x= -3 and when x= 4. This is because as

shown on the derivative graph in Figure 12, the derivatives at x= -3 and x= 4 are both zero. Not

only this, but the first derivatives leading up to -3 and 4 go from positive to zero, and then

following x= -3 and x= 4, they become negative. Therefore, at x= -3 and x= 4, there are

maximums rather than minimums. This is demonstrated in the graph of the original function

shown in Figure 13.

B) For -5 < x < 5, find all values x at which the graph of f has a point of inflection. Justify.

The function f has points of inflection at x= -4, x= -1, and x= 2. This is because points of

inflection occur where the concavity changes, otherwise known as where the second derivative is

zero. The second derivative is zero at the first derivative’s maximums and minimums. Since

there are maximums and minimums at x= -4, x= -1, and x= 2 on the derivative graph in Figure

12, these are where the points of inflection are located. This is demonstrated in the graph of the

original function in Figure 13.

C) Find all intervals on which the graph of f is concave up and also has a positive slope.

Justify.

The intervals on which the graph of f is concave up and also has a positive slope are from

-5 to -4, and 1 to 2. From -5 to -4, the first derivative is above the x axis, meaning the function is

increasing and has a positive slope. Furthermore, from -5 to -4, the first derivative has a positive

slope, meaning the graph is concave up. Therefore, on the interval from -5 to -4, the graph of f is

concave up and has a positive slope.

 August 18

From 1 to 2, the first derivative is above the x axis, meaning the function is increasing

and has a positive slope. Furthermore, from 1 to 2, the first derivative has a positive slope,

meaning the graph is concave up. Therefore, the interval from 1 to 2 on the graph of f is also

concave up and has a positive slope.

D) Find the absolute minimum value of f(x) over the closed interval -5 ≤ x ≤ 5. Justify.

The absolute minimum value of f(x) is at x= 1, and the absolute minimum is 3. This is

because as shown on the derivative graph in Figure 12, the derivative at x= 1 is zero. Not only

this, but the first derivative leading up to 1 goes from negative to zero, and then following x= 1,

it becomes positive. Therefore, at x= 1, there is a minimum rather than a maximum. It is the

absolute minimum, because x=1 has the greatest area under the curve. This is demonstrated in

the graph of the original function shown in Figure 13.

x
E) Let g be the function given by g (x) = ∫ f ′(t) dt . Find g(3), g’(3), and g”(3). Justify.
1

Since g(x) is the integral of the derivative of f(x), and the integral of the derivative of a

function is just the original function, g(x) is equal to f(x). By that same logic, g’(x) is equal to

f’(x). Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, g’(3) = f’(3) - f’(1). When looking at

the graph in Figure 12, f’(3)=1 and g’(1)=0, and 1-0 is 1, thus ​g’(3) = 1​.

To find g(3), the same principle that g(x) = f(x) can be utilized. The Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus can also be utilized again to find g(3) = f(3) - f(1). In the problem, it is

given that f(1)=3. Furthermore, by analyzing the area under the function in Figure 12, between

x=1 and x=3, there are 2.5 units squared added to the original 3 at f(1), making a total of 5.5

units. Thus, in the equation g(3) = f(3) - f(1), it is 5.5-3, or ​g(3) = 2.5​ as the final answer.
 August 19

Finally, to find g”(3), again, the ideas that g”(x) = f”(x) and the Fundamental Theorem of

Calculus can be utilized. In Figure 12 with the derivative graph, the second derivative can be

found by examining the slope at the point x= 3, or the derivative at that point. The slope of the

line segment from x= 2 to x= 5 is -3/3, or -1, thus ​g”(3) = -1​.

Figure 13. Graph of the Original Function

Figure 13 shows the graph of the original function f. As discovered in part A, the function

f has a relative maximum when x= -3 and when x= 4. As discovered in part B, the function f has

points of inflection at x= -4, x= -1, and x= 2. Finally, as discovered in part D, the absolute

minimum value of f(x) is at x= 1, and the absolute minimum is 3. All of these points are labeled

on the original function shown in Figure 13. Furthermore, the graph that is shown is exact, as the

idea of counting squares and accumulating area was utilized to determine where the exact points

would be placed on the graph. For example, when going from 1 to 2 in the graph in Figure 12,

there is 1 square accumulated under the curve, so at x=2, the y value is the initial given 3+1,

meaning the y value is 4 when x=2.

 August 20

2. The functions F and G are differentiable for all real numbers, and G is strictly

increasing. Table 1 below gives values of the functions and their first derivatives at selected

values of x. The function H is given by H(x) = F(G(x)) - 6.

Table 1
Values Given in the Problem
X F(x) F’(x) G(x) G’(x)

1 3 4 2 5

2 9 2 3 1

3 10 -4 4 2

4 -1 3 6 7

Table 1 shows the values that are given in the problem, which will be used to answer and

solve parts A-E.

A) Use calculus concepts to explain why there must be a value r for 1 < r < 3 such that

H(r)= -5.

The Intermediate Value Theorem can be utilized to explain why there must be a value r

for 1 < r < 3 such that H(r)= -5, but first, H(1) and H(3) must be known. To find H(1), it is

known that H(x) = F(G(x)) - 6. In Table 1, G(1)= 2, and then F(2)= 9, and 9-6 is 3, so H(1)= 3.

To find H(3), in Table 1, G(3)= 4, and then F(4)= -1, and -1-6 is -7, so H(3)= -7. Since the

function is continuous, the Intermediate Value Theorem applies, meaning that between H(1) and

H(3), which were found to be between -7 and 3, there exists at least one value r where H(r)= -5.

Thus, the Intermediate Value Theorem proves that there must be a value r for 1 < r < 3 such that

H(r)= -5.
 August 21

B) Use calculus concepts to explain why there must be a value c for 1 < c < 3 such that

H’(c)= -5.

The Mean Value Theorem states that if H is continuous and differentiable for all values,

then there is at least one number x=c in which the slope of the tangent line at c is equal to the

slope of the secant line between H(1) and H(3). Therefore, if the slope of the secant line is equal

to -5, then there must be a value c for 1 < c < 3 such that H’(c)= -5. The process to calculate the

slope of the secant line is shown in Figure 14.

S lope of Secant Line = f (b)−f

b−a
(a)
= h(3)−h(1)
3−1
= −10
2
= −5
Figure 14. Calculating the Slope of the Secant Line

Figure 14 shows how to calculate the slope of the secant line. As explained in part A,
f (b)−f (a)
H(3)=-7 and H(1)=3, and b-a is 3-1, so by the equation f ′(c) = b−a , ​the slope of the secant line

was found to be -5. Since the slope of the secant line is -5 and the Intermediate Value Theorem is

applicable, there must be a value c for 1 < c < 3 such that H’(c)= -5.

G(x)
C) Let w be the function given by w(x) = ∫ f (t) dt . Find the value of w’(3).
1

This problem can be solved using the second form of the Fundamental Theorem of

Calculus. By the second form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, w’(x) is equal to f(g(x))

multiplied by the derivative of g(x). The calculation for w’(3) can be seen in Figure 15.
 August 22

w′(3) = f (g(x)) × g ′(3)

w′(3) = f (4) × g ′(3)
w′(3) = − 1 × 2
w′(3) = − 2
Figure 15. Calculation for w’(3)

Figure 15 shows the calculation to solve for w’(3). Again, by the second form of the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, w’(x) is equal to f(g(x)) multiplied by the derivative of g(x).

In Table 1, g(3) is 4, and f(4) is -1; g’(3) is 2. Finally, -1 multiplied by 2 results in ​w’(3)= -2​.

D) If G−1 is the inverse function of G, write an equation for the line tangent to the graph of

y = G−1 (x) at x=2.

When G−1 has an x= 2, Table 1 shows the y value is 1. Therefore, G−1 has a coordinate

(2,1), meaning G has a coordinate (1,2), because the x and y values will switch when the

function G is inverted. To find G−1 (2), it is the same thing as 1

G′(1)
, because the inverse of G is

1
1/G, and in the process, the coordinates will be inverted. When looking at the table, G′(1)
is

found to be ⅕, which is the slope of the tangent line. With both the slope (⅕) and the coordinate

(2,1) known, the equation of the tangent line can be found, as done so in Figure 16.

T angent Line Equation : y − 1 = 15 (x − 2)

Figure 16. Equation of the Line Tangent to ​y = G−1 (x) at x=2

Figure 16 shows the final equation of the line tangent to ​y = G−1 (x) at x=2. The process

to find the equation is explained above Figure 16.

E) If H(x) = x B(x), where B(x) = F −1 (x) , use the table to find H’(3).

The given equation can be rewritten as x F −1 (x) because B(x) = F −1 (x) . To find F −1 (3),

the Table can be used by finding what input gives 3 as the output for F(x). In this case, the input

is 1, thus F −1 (3)= 1. Afterwards, the product rule can be utilized to derive x F −1 (x) . The
 August 23

derivative of x is 1, multiplied by 1 (since F −1 (3)= 1), which is just 1. This is added to x

multiplied by the derivative of F −1 (x) , which is 1

F ′(1)
. Now, it is 1+x( F ′1(1) ). F’(1) is equal to 4

when looking at Table 1, and 3 is plugged in for x, so it is 1+(¾), or 1.75. Therefore, the final

answer is ​H’(3)= 1.75​.

Conclusion​:

With everything considered, derivatives and integrals, as well as their relationship, are

powerful tools that can be employed in many calculus concepts, such as critical points and

graphing the first derivative, both forms of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the Mean

Value Theorem, the Intermediate Value Theorem, and so much more. In the classroom, calculus

students use these tools to solve problems and learn the basis of calculus. Outside of the

classroom, however, these tools form the foundation that engineers, mathematicians, software

develops, etc. need in order to innovate and design some of the world’s greatest creations. While

they may seem like simple logic, without these tools, some of the more complex problems in

calculus could not be tackled. In this sense, integrals and derivatives, as well as their many

applications in a variety of calculus concepts, are truly essential to understand. Simply, they

serve as a gateway into uncovering a never-ending reservoir of real world problems that beg to

be solved.