MIDTERM REVIEW

ABOUT
This is the Official CS² mid term review website. Here we
will provide definitions, examples, and important definitions
for each concept. There are 28 concepts/topics and three
units. Unit one has 16 concepts, unit two has 6, and unit
three has 6. Unit one covers: literal equations, dimensional
analysis, properties of equality, two column proof with one
variable equation, determine if a relation is a function,
evaluating functions for a given input, slope formula, slope
intercept form of an equation, standard form of any
equation, key characteristics of linear equations, arithmetic
sequences, graphing linear inequalities, solving systems of
equations with (graphing, substitution, elimination), and
solving systems of linear inequalities. Unit two has:
Exponential growth/decay, transformations of exponential
functions, key characteristics of exponential functions,
Geometric sequences, applications of exponential
growth/decay, and compound interest. Unit three includes,
multiplying polynomials, factor GCF, factor ax² + bx + c;
when a = 1, factor ax² + bx + c; when a isn't 1, difference
of squares, and factor by grouping.
UNIT ONE
LITERAL
EQUATIONS
Literal equations are any equations
where the variable(s) represent known
values. In the example shown to the right,
we take the equation of 2x + 8 = 16. If
we simplify this equation then we
understand that x = 4 (red). The variable
is defined so it is a literal equation. The
way to simplify these types of equations
is by doing the opposite of PEMDAS.
Before we add or subtract, distribute
anything you can or do any operations
inside parenthesis. Then add or subtract
terms to isolate the variable. The
multiply/divide to simplify further. Finish
off with exponents.
DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is the process of
comparing two units/rates to try to make
relations and comparisons between them. This
can be achieved by using proportions and
fractions to get two units (or rates) to match up
in medium. For example, if you convert 50 feet
per second to mile per hour you would need to
jump between units, getting closer to mph,
every jump. First convert 50 ft per second to
feet per hour. There are 3600 seconds in an
hour, so multiply 50 * 3600 = 180,000. This
means there 180k feet traveled in an hour.
Divide this by how many feet in a mile. This
gets you 180,000 / 5280 = 34.09. The units
cancel out and you are left with one hour in the
denominator and 34.09 miles in the numerator.
So 50 ft per second is 34.09 mph.
PROPERTIES OF
EQUALITY
Properties of equality are supposed to
represent steps you can take towards
simplification while keeping both sides of
the equation equal. Some of these
properties let you add or subtract
numbers from both sides as long as they
are equal. Others let you rearrange stuff
as long as it stays the same. Others state
that a certain variable/number is equal
to itself. We can keep using these
properties until we solve for a variable or
simplify and equation. We also use these
in two column proofs.
TWO COLUMN PROOF
WITH ONE VARIABLE
EQUATION
Two column proofs are organized into
statement and reason columns. Before
beginning a two column proof, start by
working backwards from the "prove" or
"show" statement. The reason column will
typically include "given", vocabulary
definitions, conjectures, and theorems. You
can show the steps you took towards
simplification by using the properties of
equality we talked about previously.
These can show how you simplified by
keeping the sides equal. These proofs can
let you get a deeper understanding of
the problem, and can help you check your
work and "proof" that your answer is
correct.
IS A RELATION A
FUNCTION?
A relation is the way in which two or more
concepts, objects, or people are connected; a
thing's effect on or relevance to another. A
function is a relationship or expression involving
one or more variables. Typically a function you
need to know what you get out for a given
input. If you plug in 4 an you get 5 OR 7 (or
more), this isn't a function, it's a relation. You
can get that same output for multiple inputs, but
not the other way around. Another way you can
tell if it's a function/relation is the vertical line
test. If you graph the equation, draw a vertical
line through it. If it passes through 2 plus points,
it's not a function. An example of a function is y
= x. It passes the vertical line to test, and for
each input you get one output. A non-function
would be x = 1, as it fails the vertical line test.
EVALUATING FUNCTIONS
FOR A GIVEN INPUT

To evaluate a function, substitute

the input (the given number or
expression) for the function's
variable. Replace the x with the
number or expression. It's as easy
as plugging in the variable. The f(x)
at the beginning means what the
rest of the equation is equal to. If it
says f(a number), plug in that
number as x. If it says f(x) = a
number, make that side of the
equation equal to that number.
Then solve for an integer.
SLOPE FORMULA
Slope is the steepness of a line, and what
it is rising by every y value. Calculating
for slope, you can use the formula
y₂ - y₁
____
x₂ - x₁
First you have to get two points you want
to calculate the slope between them. Get
the y value of the second point (y₂) and
the y value of the first point (y₁) and get
the x value of the second (x₂) and first x₁
points. Then plug then into the equation
and solve.
SLOPE-INTERCEPT
FORM
The equation for slope-intercept is y = mx + b. It
is used to graph linear equations (lines). "M" stands
for the slope of a given line. This is in written as a
fraction and can be graphed using "rise over run."
For example: a slope of two means rise two point
and go one point to the left. If the slope is positive,
your line will go bottom-left to top-right; if it is
negative it'll go bottom-right to top-left. The
equation to find slope between two points is Y2 -
Y1 over X2 - X1. "X" is the variable (or input) you
will plug in to find the corresponding Y value. "B"
is the y-intercept, or where the line will cross the y-
axis. This can be seen as a vertical transformation
when graphed. For example; a y-int of 3 means
the line will cross the y-axis at 3, so it should be
moved up 3 spaces. The whole equation is equal
to Y as you plug in an X value to get a Y value.
STANDARD FORM
OF AN EQUATION
Standard form is also used to graph linear
equations (lines). The equation you use is Ax +
By = C. "A", "B", and "C" are all
constants/coefficients and will depend on the
equation you are using. "X" and "Y" are just
your x and y values. To graph an equation in
this form you need to set x = 0 and record y's
value; and set y = 0 and record x's value. In
the example 9x + 16y = 72, we can solve for
x and y by setting them to zero. When x=0,
you are left with 16y = 72; y = 4.5. This
means one of your points will be (0,4.5). When
we set y=0, we are left with 9x = 72; x = 8.
This means another point will be (8,0). Finally
we can draw a line between the points, and
finish graphing.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Key characteristics of linear equations can serve to
show important points of a graph and should help
you get a mental image of it before you even start
graphing. There are a few key characteristics that
are used. Domain and range mean how far you
can go left and right; or up and down on the x / y
axes. The X-intercept demonstrates at what point
does the line cross the x axis. The Y-intercept
demonstrates at what point does the line cross the
y axis. End behavior highlights what the graph is
actually doing. For example: as x approaches
infinity by going right (∞), y goes up (∞); and as x
approaches negative infinity by going right (-∞), y
goes down (-∞). Interval of Increase and decrease
mean whether the graph is positive of negative. If
the graph is positive, it will have no IOD, but will
have (-∞, ∞) as its IOI. A negative slope will have
no IOI, but will have IOD of (-∞, ∞).
ARITHMETIC
SEQUENCES (1/2)
An arithmetic sequence can be used to find
terms in a specific order. For example: if you
have a series that starts at 3 and increases by
2, and you want to find the 4th term in it; you
could use arithmetic equation to find it. The
recursive formula is:

a₁ = x

aₙ = aₙ₋₁ + d

"a₁" means the first term in a sequence. "d"

means the common difference, or what is being
added every time. If we plug in every number
(a₁ = 3, d = 2), we get

a₁ = 3

aₙ = aₙ₋₁ + 2
ARITHMETIC
SEQUENCES (2/2)
If we plug in 4 for n(because we're trying to
find the fourth term in the sequence) we get

a₁ = 3

a₄ = a₃ + 2

To then find out you need to use explicit form:

aₙ = a₁ + (n-1)d

If we plug in the terms again we get:

a₄ = 3 + (3)2

So a₄ = 9. We can continue to use explicit and

recursive formulas to find nᵗʰ term.
GRAPHING LINEAR
INEQUALITIES
Solving and graphing linear inequalities is just like
graphing linear equations. Everything is the same
except for the greater/less symbol in the middle.
Solve it like normal, except switch the sign when
you multiply/divide by a negative, you flip the
sign. Get the equation down to a y=mx+b and
graph the line. If the sign includes equal (≥ or ≤),
then the line is solid. If the sign is > or < than the
line will be dotted or dashed. If the y is greater
than the other side of the equation (y>other side),
then shade the area above the line. If y is less
than, shade below the line. If it is a horizonal line,
and y is greater than the other side, shade above
the line. If y is less, shade below. If there is a
vertical line and y is greater, shade on the right
side. If y is less than, shade on left. The shaded
region represents all the possible answers for the
inequality.
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF
EQUATIONS BY GRAPHING
METHOD
Solving by graphing method is one of the
easiest ways to solve systems of
equations. First, solve the equations so
they are both in y=mx + b. Then graph
the two lines. The solution of the problem
will be the point where the two lines
converge. In the example we have the
two equations y = 2x + 2; y = x - 1. If
we graph both of these linear equations
on the same graph, they converge at (-3,
-4). If the lines are parallel, there are no
solutions. If they are on top of each other
and keep touching, there are infinite
solution.
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF
EQUATIONS BY
SUBSTITUTION
Solving by substitution method can
be used when graphing/elimination
can't. In this method you need to
solve for either x or y and then
plug in that variable to get the
other one. In the first example we
have y = -x + 8 and y = x -2. If
we replace y for x - 2, the
equation x - 2 = -x + 8. We end
up solving for x = 5. If we plug this
in to the original equation we get y
= (-5) + 8, y is equal to 3. So our
final answer is (5,3).
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF
EQUATIONS BY
ELIMINATION
Solving by elimination method can be used when your two
equations can cancel out a variable if you add or subtract
them. First you have to make sure that when you add or
subtract your equations, they actually cancel out a variable.
If not, try to multiply one of the equations to make one of
its variables equal to another variable in the other
equation. For example; if you have y = 2x and y = -x,
multiply the second equation by two (2y = -2x) so that
when you add them together you cancel a variable (3y =
0). In the example we have

2x + 3y = 20

-2x + y = 4

We can add the two equations together and get 4y = 24,

so y = 6. We can plug this back into the first equation (2x
+ 18 = 20), and solve for x = 1. So the answer is (1,6).
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Graphing linear inequalities is like
graphing normal systems, but this time,
there is more than one answer as it is an
inequality. The way you graph these
systems is you first have to graph both of
your linear inequalities. You do not have
to use elimination/substitution as there
are multiple answers. When you graph
your lines, shade above/below them, like
you normally would. Your answer will be
the double shaded region, where both
shadings converge. If the shaded regions
never merge and there is no double
shaded region, it has no solution. In the
example, the purple region is double
shaded so it is our answer.
UNIT TWO
EXPONENTIAL
GROWTH AND DECAY
Exponential growth and decay function values
forming a geometric progression. This means
that every time a value increases it is multiplied
by a common ratio, instead of a common
difference like in arithmetic sequences. This is
why the graph is curved as it goes up by more
(or less if it's decay) than it did last time. The
formula for graphing exponential functions is
f(x) = a(b)ˣ⁻ʰ + k. "a" is the initial value of the
function. "a" is also sometimes referred to as
the vertical stretch or shrink, as it can control
how fast or slow a line goes up. "b" is the
common ratio, or what the exponential function
goes up by. "x" is the value you input. "h" is for
horizontal translations while "k" is for vertical
translations. "k" is also usually the asymptote.
With these components you can make any
exponential function graph.
TRANSFORMATIONS OF
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(1/2)
The golden equation for exponential functions in
8th grade is:

f(x) = a(b)ˣ⁻ʰ + k

This equation has many different parts which all

contribute into making an exponential graph. The
first term "a" is your initial value (it is similar to a
y-intercept but doesn't necessarily have to be). The
a also controls vertical stretch and shrink as you
need to increase y-value quicker or slower to get
to the initial value on the y-axis. For example, the
black line has a y-intercept of one as it's "a" is one
and it has no "k." The black line rises slower than
the purple line (even though they're the same
apart from "a") as "a" also controls the vertical
stretch/shrink. The higher the "a" the higher the
stretch, and the lower the "a" the more shrink.
TRANSFORMATIONS OF
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(2/2)
The variable "b" is probably the most important
variable in this type of function as it controls the
geometric sequence, so the quicker/slower a line
rises is partly because of "b" as its the common
ratio. Also, if "b" is negative, the function will face
downwards. "x" is simply the input you enter. "h" is
responsible for horizontal shifts. If it is "+ h" it all
goes left. If it is "- h" it all goes right. You can see
in the red line compared to the green line, the red
is moved one unit to the left as it has "+1" as h.
Finally, "k" can be used for vertical shifts (+k = up,
-k = down). Along with "a", "k" is responsible for
the y-intercept after you have "b". "k" is also the
asymptote (the line which the graph always
approaches, but never reaches). You can see both
the red and green lines have an asymptote of one
as a result of their "k" value.
EXPONENTIAL
FUNCTIONS
Some key features of exponential functions are
base, growth and decay, domain, range-intercept,
x-intercept, interval of increase, and interval of
decrease. Base is synonymous with the common
ratio and is what the function goes up by each
time. Growth or decay asks whether the function is
growing or decaying, going up or down. Domain is
how left/right a function can go on the x-axis,
which will always be (-∞,∞). Range is go up/down
the function can go on the y-axis and it will be
(asymptote,∞) for positive bases, and (-
∞,asymptote) for negative bases. You can't have a
generalized The y-intercept is the y value when x
= 0. The x-intercept is the x value when y = 0,
sometimes functions don't have x-intercepts as their
asymptotes are higher (or equal to) 0. If a function
is growth, its interval of increase will be (-∞,∞),
and its interval of decrease will be none. If a
function is decay, its interval of increase will be
none, and its interval of decrease will be (-∞,∞).
GEOMETRIC
SEQUENCES
A geometric sequences are like arithmetic sequences, but
instead of going up by a certain amount every time, the
terms get multiplied by a certain amount every time
(common ratio). Geometric also has a recursive and explicit
formulas (seen on the picture). We can use these to find the
nᵗʰ in a geometric sequence. For example:

3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, 384...

In this example, the first term is 3. The common ratio is 2. So

our equations would look like:

Recursive:

a₁ = 3 ; aₙ = 10(aₙ₋₁)

Explicit:

aₙ = (3)2ⁿ⁻¹

If we want to find the tenth term we plug in 10 for n we get

a₁₀ = (3)2⁹ which is 1536, so a₁₀ is 1536.
EXPONENTIAL
FUNCTIONS
Some applications of exponential
functions can be real world examples. In
science, radioactive materials have half
lives which are a exponential decay. For
example, every half life half of the
material becomes daughter material and
gives off radiation. It keeps dividing by
two until it's all gone. We can see this in
the exponential decay graph on the right.
Another example is bacteria growth.
Bacteria can double its population every
such amount of time. In money, compound
interest can increase the % of interest
every time it is collected/given. These are
just some of the thousands of examples
there are.
COMPOUND
INTEREST
Compound interest is when a principle is
“interested” and then the new amount is
“interested” again, instead of just
interesting the principle over and over,
like simple interest. We can use the
equation on the right to calculate
compound interest. In we start with
10,000 dollars and we compound it
monthly at a rate of 12%, we can plug
these numbers into the formula and get:
A = 10,000 (1 + 12/12)^12(10)
So a = $33,003.87. This equation can
also be used for negative compound if
you change "1 +" to "1 -".
UNIT THREE
MULTIPLYING
POLYNOMIALS
Multiplying polynomials is just like normal
multiplication. You start by multiplying the first
number in the first set of parenthesis by every
number in the second set of parenthesis. For
example: 9x² ⋅ (4x² + 12x + 3) which equals
36x⁴ + 108x³ + 27x². Then multiply your
second term by every number in the second set
of parenthesis. 2 ⋅ (4x² + 12x + 3) which
equals 8x² + 24x + 6. Keep repeating this
pattern with the terms in the first set of
parentheses until every term has been
multiplied. Then add all your results: (36x⁴ +
108x³ + 27x²) + (8x² + 24x + 6), and you
will get your final answer.

36x⁴ + 108x³ + 35x² + 24x + 6.

MULTIPLYING
POLYNOMIALS (FOIL)
Another way to multiply polynomials is to
use the FOIL method (this method only
works for two binomials). FOIL stands for
first, outer, inner, last. This is because to
multiply two binomials is to multiply the
first terms of each binomial, then the
outer terms, then the inner terms, and
finally the last terms. You then add up all
your results can get an answer. In the
example we have (x+9)(x+1). We start
by multiplying the first terms (we get x²).
Then the outer (x), then the inner (9x),
and finally the last (9). If we add this all
up we get our answer of x² + 10x + 9.
FACTOR GCF
GCF is the greatest factor that divides a given amount of
numbers. To factor out GCF you need to see what number
could divide all the terms inside the parenthesis. First group
all the terms together in a set of parenthesis. Look at the
terms inside the parenthesis, and see what each one is
divisible by. Look at the coefficients and constants and see
what they're all divisible by. In the example, they are all
divisible by 24. Look at the variables, remember every
term needs at least one to be able to be divided by that
variable. In the example, all the terms have x and y so we
can add that to our 24. Look at the exponents, the higher
they are, the more you can divide by. There is a term that
only has variables to the power of one, so we cannot
include exponents in our example's GCF. Continue these
steps this until you finally have your GCF. Put it in front of
your factored terms, and you could even make the GCF
negative if you need a term inside the parenthesis to
change sign.
FACTOR AX² + BX
+ C; WHEN A = 1
To factor this type of quadratic you'll need the
equation: ax² + bx + c. First, factor out GCF, then
put the rest of the equation in a set of parentheses
and put the GCF outside. If there is none, continue
normally. Then, find two factors the add up to b
and multiply to ac (f₁ and f₂). Make two sets of
parentheses. Put "a" and your first factor(·x) and
"c" and your second term(·x), like so:

(a + f₁)(c + f₂)

Or like step one. Then factor out a GCF from each

set of parenthesis. You should get the same
polynomial for each factored set of parenthesis.
Then put the GCF's in one set of parentheses, and
the polynomials in the other one. It should look like
steps 2 and 3 on the example. Finally, make sure
you also look for differences of squares.
FACTOR AX² + BX +
C; WHEN A ISN'T 1
Factoring ax² + bx + c, when a isn't 1 is
mainly just factoring by grouping. First
find two terms that add up to "b" and
multiply to ac. Remember to stick the
variable at the end of the terms to make
the coefficients. Then divide all your terms
into two sets of parentheses with two
terms in each (like step one). Then factor
out a GCF from each set of parenthesis
(like step 2). You should get two identical
polynomials inside the parenthesis. Then
put the GCF's in one set of parenthesis
and the polynomials in the other. Finally
check for difference of squares.
DIFFERENCE OF
SQUARES
Difference of squares is the next level of
factorization for perfect squares. It only works
if you have a binomial which you can take the
square root of. In this example we have 16x⁴ +
81. If we use difference of squares, we need to
make two sets of parentheses. Put the two
square roots of the first term (16x⁴) as the first
two terms of the set of parenthesis. Then put "-
square root of second term (9)" and "+ square
root of second term (9)." We can see the
completed step at figure one. Sometimes there
are perfect squares inside of perfect squares.
We simply repeat these steps and make a two
parenthesis set replacing the original set (as
seen in figure 3).
FACTOR BY
GROUPING
First, divide all your terms into
two sets of parentheses with two
terms in each (like line 2). Then
factor out a GCF from each set
of parenthesis (like line 3). You
should get two identical
polynomials inside the
parenthesis. Then put the GCF's
in one set of parenthesis and
the polynomials in the other (like
in line 4). Finally check for
difference of squares.
THE END