August 1

Catherine August

Mrs. Tallman

AP Calculus

10 February 2020

Volume of Solids Essay

Introduction​:

An engineer needs to calculate the volume and surface area of a nuclear power plant’s

cooling tower. A quality control team needs to calculate the volume and surface area of a

Hershey Kiss. A student wants to calculate the volume and surface area of their water bottle. In

all of these cases, in which the volume and surface area of an obscure shape has to be found,

calculus and solids of revolution can be utilized rather than traditional geometric techniques.

Calculus was initially developed in the 17th century by Isaac Newton, a British scientist

known as the Father of Physics, and Gottfried Leibniz, a German mathematician (“A Brief

History of Calculus”). Independently, Newton and Leibniz developed the integral. Integration,

along with derivation, are the primary operations utilized in the study of calculus. Simply, the

integral, also known as an antiderivative, is defined as the area under the curve of a graph of a

function f(x).

Finding Area Under a Curve​:

In calculus, there are both indefinite and definite integrals. An indefinite integral is an

integral without upper and lower limits, meaning the final computation of an indefinite integral is

F(x) + C, where F(x) is the integrand and C is the constant of integration. Due to the lack of

constraints, a numerical value cannot be calculated for an indefinite integral. On the other hand, a
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definite integral is an integral with upper and lower limits, meaning a numerical value can be

calculated. Thus, definite integrals can be utilized to calculate the volume and surface area of

solids.

Definite integrals calculate the area under a given curve by dividing the region

underneath the curve into an infinite amount of rectangular regions with extremely small widths

that approach zero, but are not equal to zero. As the number of rectangles increases and the width

(dx) decreases, the limit will approach the exact area underneath the curve. With each small

rectangle, the area is calculated using the area formula for a rectangle, height (f(x)) multiplied by

the change in x width (dx). All of the areas of these infinite individual rectangles are then added

together to calculate the total area under the curve, thus calculating the definite integral. This

process correlates to the formal definition of a definite integral, in which the definite integral of

the function f(x) from x=a to x=b (the upper and lower limits) provides a way to find the product

of (b-a) and f(x) even if f(x) is not a constant. Simply, this means that a definite integral

calculates the area under a curve, because the product of (b-a) and f(x) is width multiplied by

height, which results in a value for area, even if the height f(x) of the curve is not the same for

each inscribed rectangle.

The definite integral provides an exact value for the area under the curve rather than an

approximate value that could be found using other methods, such as counting squares, because

there is an infinite amount of rectangles, and as the amount of rectangles increases and the size of

the dx cut decreases, the limit approaches the exact area underneath the curve. Thus, using a

definite integral to find the area under a curve is beneficial. Figure 1 below demonstrates the

notation used in a definite integral.

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Figure 1. Definite Integral Notation

Figure 1 shows the notation utilized for a definite integral. The “S’ looking symbol

indicates “sum”, as the area of the infinite rectangles with small widths are summed up. The

values “a” and “b” indicate the lower and upper bounds of integration. The f(x), or integrand,

refers to the height of each rectangle. The dx, or variable of integration, refers to the width of

each rectangle, which is multiplied by f(x) in order to obtain width multiplied by height, thus

calculating the area under the curve, or the definite integral. The width dx is a dx cut, which is

perpendicular to the x-axis. The definite integral in Figure 1 is read as “the integral of f(x) from a

to b with respect to x”. These four values (a, b, f(x), and dx) can also be visualized in a graph in

Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Values Displayed on Graph from Wells, Christopher J. “The Definite Integral.”
TechnologyUK​, 30 June 2012

Figure 2 above demonstrates the values of a, b, f(x) and dx in the context of a graph. As

shown on the graph, “a” and “b” represent the upper and lower limits of integration on the
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x-axis. Furthermore, f(x) is the height of each rectangle, which varies, and dx is the width of

each rectangle. Thus, when multiplied together, the resulting answer is area, and then the areas of

the infinite amount of rectangles with extremely small widths are added up from x=a to x=b to

obtain the definite integral.

Finding Area Between Two Curves​:

Along with finding the area underneath a curve, definite integrals can calculate the area

between two curves. To obtain only the bounded region between the two curves and eliminate

any overlap, the curve with the smaller area is subtracted from the curve with the larger area,

thus only the area of the bounded region remains. In the bounded area between two curves,

infinitely small rectangular cuts can be made to find the area between the two curves, which is

similar to the infinitely small rectangular cuts that were used to find the area underneath a curve

previously. However, in this case, the height of each rectangle is the vertical distance between

the two functions rather than the value of the function. The width of each rectangle is still the

change in x (dx), which is again, multiplied by the height f(x) to find the area of one rectangle.

Again, as the number of rectangles increases and the width (dx) decreases, the limit will

approach the exact area underneath the curve. After the area of one rectangle is found, the areas

of all the infinitely small rectangles are summed up to calculate the total area between the two

curves. The limits of integration (the a and b values) are the two points where the graphs

intersect to create the bounded area when finding the area between two curves.

Consider the problem in which R is the region in the first quadrant bounded by the graphs

y = √x and y = x/3. The region bounded between these two curves can be seen in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Area Between the Two Curves

Figure 3 demonstrates the bounded region between f1(x), or y = √x, and f2(x), or y = x/3.

The area of this bounded region can be calculated by cutting infinitely small rectangles into the

region and adding the areas of each rectangle together from x=0 to x=9, because those are the

intersection points of the two graphs. The x values are used rather than the y values, because the

width is a dx cut. Furthermore, f2(x) is subtracted by f1(x) in the definite integral in order to

solve for only the area of the shaded region in Figure 3 rather than the whole area under f1(x).

Figure 4 below shows the definite integral used to calculate the area between the two curves.
9
Area Between T wo Curves = ∫(f 1(x) − f 2(x)) dx
0
9
Area Between T wo Curves = ∫(√x) − ( 3x ) dx
0

Area Between T wo Curves = 4.5 un 2

Figure 4. Calculating Area Between the Two Curves

Figure 4 shows the calculation to find the area between f1(x) and f2(x). After subtracting

y = x/3 from y = √x to obtain the height, multiplying that by dx (the width) to calculate area, and
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then integrating from x=0 to x=9, the area between the two curves was found to be 4.5 units

squared.

Calculating Volumes of Solids of Revolutions​:

Other than calculating area, integrals can be employed to calculate the volumes of solids

of revolution. A solid of revolution is created by revolving a single function or an intersection of

many functions 360 degrees about an axis of rotation, forming a three dimensional solid that has

a surface area and volume that can be calculated. There are three different methods of calculating

the volume of three-dimensionally revolved solids; the disk method, the ring method, and the

shell method. Depending on the scenario, one method may be easier to utilize than the others,

and each method has certain requirements to be met before calculating the volume of the given

solid. Each method will be explained in depth, including explanations for when to utilize each

method.
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Figure 5. Visualizing the Disk Method of Calculating Volume from Ryan, Mark. “Find the
Volume of a Solid Using the Disk Method.”

The first method that can be utilized is the disk method, which is visualized in Figure 5

above. Unsurprisingly, the disk method utilizes disks to calculate the volume. In this method, the

infinite amount of small rectangles that were utilized previously are used again, but for volume,

they are rotated 360 degrees to create a thin disk. The figure that is created by rotating a portion

of the graph 360 degrees to form a solid, which is then divided into infinitely many disks, now

has a volume that can be calculated. The infinite amount of slices enables the volume of the solid

to be calculated, as the volume of one slice can be found, and then the volumes of all the slices

can be added together using a definite integral to find the total volume of the solid. To find the

volume of one disk, the area of the disk can be multiplied by depth, which is either dx or dy

depending on if there is a horizontal or vertical axis of rotation. For the disk method, the disks

are cut perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Thus, a dx cut will be used if there is a horizontal

axis of rotation and a dy cut will be used if there is a vertical axis of rotation.
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With the depth known (dx or dy), the area of the surface of one disk can be found using

the area of a circle, as each disk has a circular surface. The area of a circle is pi multiplied by the

radius squared. Again, the radius value depends on if there is a horizontal or vertical axis of

rotation. If there is a horizontal axis of rotation, the radius is the distance from the y-value of the

function at some x value to the axis of rotation (in terms of x). If there is a vertical axis of

rotation, the radius is the distance from the x-value of the function at some y value to the axis of

rotation (in terms of y). The area, multiplied by dx or dy, obtains the volume of each disk. The

interval used in the definite integral are the y values when a dy cut is taken, and are x values

when a dx cut is taken. When summing up the volumes of infinitely many small disks from the

lowest point to the highest point in the interval, the total volume of the revolved solid is found.

Figure 5 shows an example of a solid that is formed after revolution, along with some of the

disks that are cut out to calculate the volume. Figure 6 shows the equations that are used to

calculate the volume of a solid using the disk method.

b
V olume Around Horizontal Line U sing Disk M ethod = π × ∫(r in terms of x) 2 × dx
a
b
V olume Around V ertical Line U sing Disk M ethod = π × ∫(r in terms of y) 2 × dy
a
Figure 6. Equations to Find Volume Using the Disk Method

Figure 6 above shows the equations that are used to calculate the volume of revolved

solids about an axis of rotation using the disk method. The equation to calculate the volume of a

solid when rotated about a horizontal or vertical axis of rotation are both shown.

Although the disk method is helpful at times, the disk method can only be used when

there is no hole created when rotating the figure. However, if a hole is created and the shape is

not completely solid, the rings method can be utilized to find the volume instead.
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Figure 7. Visualizing the Rings Method of Calculating Volume (“Function Revolution”)

The second method that can be utilized is the rings method, as visualized in Figure 7

above, which shows the bounded region from Figure 3 rotated around the line y=-2. The rings

method is typically used when rotating the area between two curves. Similar to the disk method,

a region of a graph is rotated 360 degrees about an axis of rotation to create a solid in which an

infinite amount of small rectangles are cut inside; however, for rings, the created figure has a

hole in the center, making them rings rather than disks. For the rings method, an infinite amount

of small rings are cut, which forms a solid that has a volume that can be calculated. The infinite

slices of rings enables the volume of the solid to be calculated, as the volume of one ring can be

found, and then the volumes of all the rings can be added together using a definite integral to

find the total volume of the solid with a hole in it. The volume of each disk can be found by

multiplying the area of the disk by the depth of each disk, which is dx if it is a horizontal disk

and dy if it is a vertical disk. Therefore, again, the rings are still cut perpendicular to the axis of

rotation.
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However, when doing the rings method, calculating the area of each ring is a bit different

than when using the disks method. To find the area of the ring, the ring can instead be visualized

as one smaller disk inside of a larger disk. In this case, the radius of the smaller disk (the area of

the hole) that is created using the inner function, is subtracted from the area of the larger disk

that is created using the outer function. To specify, the outer function is further from the axis of

rotation and the inner function is closer to the axis of rotation. To find the area of the total ring,

the surface area of both the larger and smaller disk must be calculated. When there is a horizontal

axis of rotation, the radius of the larger disk is the distance between the axis of rotation and the y

value of the outer function, and the radius of the smaller disk is the distance between the axis of

rotation and the y value of the inner function. When there is a vertical axis of rotation, the radius

of the larger disk is the distance between the axis of rotation and the x value of the outer

function, and the radius of the smaller disk is the distance from the axis of rotation and the x

value of the inner function.

With both radii known, the area of one ring can be found subtracting the smaller radius

squared from the bigger radius squared, which is then multiplied by pi. Next, to solve for the

volume of one ring, the area of the ring is multiplied by the depth, which again, is dx if it is a

horizontal disk and dy if it is a vertical disk (perpendicular to axis of rotation). Finally, to solve

for the total volume of the solid, the volumes of the infinite amount of rings within the interval

from a to b are added together using a definite integral. The interval from a to b in the definite

integral are the y values when a dy cut is taken, and are x values when a dx cut is taken. The

equations to solve for the volume of a revolved solid using the rings method are shown in Figure

8 below.
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b
V olume U sing Rings M ethod (Horizontal) = π × ∫(R 2 − r 2 ) × dx
a
b
V olume U sing Rings M ethod (V ertical) = π × ∫(R 2 − r 2 ) × dy
a
Figure 8. Equations to Find Volume Using the Rings Method

Figure 8 shows the equations that are used to calculate the volume of revolved solids

about an axis of rotation using the rings method. In Figure 8, ‘R’ refers to the larger radius and

‘r’ refers to the smaller radius. When rotating about a horizontal axis of rotation, both radii are in

terms of x, and when rotating about a vertical axis of rotation, both radii are in terms of y.

If one wanted to find the volume of the bounded region from the previous example

problem, shown in Figures 3 and 7, the rings method can be utilized, as a hole is created when

the bounded region is rotated 360 degrees around the line y=-2. Figure 7 shows one of the rings

that is created when the region bounded by f1(x), or y = √x, and f2(x), or y = x/3, is rotated

around the horizontal axis of rotation y=-2. Figure 7 also shows the final three dimensional solid

that is created when this is done. Figure 9 shows the calculation that was used to find the total

volume of the solid created.

b
V olume U sing Rings M ethod (Horizontal) = π × ∫(R 2 − r 2 ) × dx
a
9
V olume U sing Rings M ethod (Horizontal) = π × ∫((√x + 2) 2 − ( 3x + 2)) 2 × dx
0

V olume U sing Rings M ethod (Horizontal) = 31.5π un 3 = 98.9601 un 3

Figure 9. Calculation for Volume of Solid Using the Ring Method

Figure 9 shows how to calculate the volume of the solid created when the region bounded

by f1(x), or y = √x, and f2(x), or y = x/3, is rotated around the horizontal axis of rotation y=-2. In

this case, because there is a horizontal axis of rotation and the cut is perpendicular to the axis of
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rotation, a dx cut is utilized. Furthermore, the horizontal axis of rotation means that the radius of

the larger disk is the distance between the axis of rotation and the y value of the outer function,

and the radius of the smaller disk is the distance between the axis of rotation and the y value of

the inner function. Therefore, the radius of the larger disk is the outer function √x minus -2, the

horizontal axis of rotation. On the other hand, the radius of the smaller disk is the inner function

x/3 minus -2, the horizontal axis of rotation. It is important to note that when the axis of rotation

is to the left of or below the function, the radius is the function minus the axis. When the axis of

rotation is to the right of or above the function, the radius is the axis minus the function. In this

case, the axis of rotation y=-2 is below the function, so each radius is the function minus the axis.

After the smaller radius squared was subtracted from the larger radius squared, it was multiplied

by the depth dx and pi in order to find the volume of one ring. Finally, the infinite amount of

small rings were added up from the interval x=0 to x=9 (the intersection points of the bounded

region) in the definite integral, resulting in 31.5π un 3 as the final volume of the solid.

The final method of calculating the volume of three-dimensionally revolved solids is the

shells method, which is very different from the disk and rings method. In the shells method, the

cut is taken parallel to the axis of rotation rather than perpendicular. Thus, a dx cut is used when

there is a vertical axis of rotation and a dy cut is used when there is a horizontal axis of rotation

in order to make the cut parallel to the axis of rotation. The shells method can be quite

convenient at times, because everything can be left in terms of x rather than having to convert

everything in terms of y when there is a vertical axis of rotation.

In the shells method, an infinite amount of tiny shells are created inside a specified

interval from a to b. The shells method and the infinite amount of tiny shells can be visualized in
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Figure 10. The tiny shells that are created are similar to hollowed out cylinders with a height that

is equal to the y value of the function and a thickness of dx. The radius is equal to x minus the

axis of rotation when the axis of rotation is to the left of or below the function, and the radius is

equal to the axis of rotation minus x when the axis of rotation is to the right of or above the

function. The area of one cylinder is found by calculating the circumference (2pi * r) and

multiplying it by the height. The volume of one shell is then found by multiplying the area by the

thickness dx. Finally, the volume of the entire solid is found by summing the volumes of an

infinite amount of tiny cylinders on the interval from a to b. The equation for the shells method

can be viewed in Figure 11.

Figure 10. Visualizing the Shells Method of Calculating Volume from Witten, David.
“Calculating a Volume Using the Shell Method.” ​Mathwizurd​, Mathwizurd, 15 Dec. 2015.

Figure 10 shows a visual representation of the shells method to calculate volume. As

shown in Figure 10, an infinite amount of tiny shells are created inside a specified interval from a

to b. The volume of the entire solid is found by summing the volumes of an infinite amount of

tiny cylinders on the interval from a to b.

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b
V olume U sing Shells M ethod = 2π × ∫ radius × height × thickness
a
Figure 11. Equation to Find Volume Using the Shells Method

Figure 11 shows the equation that is used to calculate the volume of revolved solids about

an axis of rotation using the shells method. When rotating about a vertical axis of rotation, the

radius is in terms of x, and when rotating about a horizontal axis of rotation, the radius is in

terms of y.

Cross-Section Method​:

Another method that can be utilized to calculate the volume of a solid is the cross-section

method, which is also known as the slabs method. However, this method is unlike any of the

other methods. With the cross-section method, the solid is not created by revolving a region

about an axis of rotation; there is no revolution involved. Instead, in the cross-section method,

cross-sections of a shape, such as squares, isosceles right triangles, semi-circles, etc. are created

within a region. There are an infinite amount of cross-sections created within the region that are

stacked together. Therefore, similar to the methods of calculating volume for solids of

revolution, the area of one cross-section is found and multiplied by the depth (dx or dy) to obtain

the volume of one cross-section. Afterwards, the volumes of the infinite amount of cross-sections

are summed up using a definite integral, which calculates the total volume of the formed solid.

Calculating the area of one cross-section differs depending on which shape the

cross-section is. If the cross-sections were squares, the formula for the area of a square, length

multiplied by width, would be used. If the cross-sections were equilateral triangles, the formula

for the area of an equilateral triangle, half the base multiplied by height, would be used. Overall,

the area formula that is used is the area formula for whatever cross-section shape is created.
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Returning to the example problem shown in Figure 3, in which there is a region bounded

by f1(x), or y = √x, and f2(x), or y = x/3, say this bounded region becomes the base of a solid.

For this solid, cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles right triangles with one leg

on the base. This scenario can be visualized in Figure 12. Using the cross-sections method, the

volume of this solid can be found.

Figure 12. Visualizing the Cross-Sections Method of Calculating Volume

Figure 12 shows a visual representation of the cross-sections method of calculating the

volume of a solid. In the scenario pictured in Figure 12, as stated previously, the bounded region

between f1(x) and f2(x) becomes the base of the solid and one of the legs of the isosceles right

triangle. Both of the legs of an isosceles right triangle are equal in length, thus the height of the

triangle is also equal to the distance between f1(x) and f2(x), as depicted in Figure 12. With the

length of both the base and height of the isosceles right triangle cross-section known, the area

can be found, because the area formula is half the base multiplied by height. Figure 13 shows the

calculation to find the area of one isosceles right triangle cross-section. After the area of one

isosceles right triangle cross-section is known, the volume can be found by multiplying by the
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depth dx. Finally, integrating from 0 to 9 (the intersection points that create the bounded area)

sums up the volumes of the infinite amount of isosceles right triangle cross-sections, and the

resulting answer is the volume of the entire solid. Figure 13 shows the calculation to find the

volume of the entire solid after the area of one cross-section is found.
1
Area of One T riangular Cross Section = 2
× base × height
1
Area of One T riangular Cross Section = 2
× (f 1(x) − f 2(x)) × (f 1(x) − f 2(x))
1
Area of One T riangular Cross Section = 2
× (√x − 3x ) × (√x − 3x )
1
V olume of One T riangular Cross Section = 2
× (√x − 3x ) × (√x − 3x ) × dx
9
V olume of Entire Solid = 1
2
× ∫(√x − 3x ) × (√x − 3x ) × dx
0

V olume of Entire Solid = 1.35 un 3

Figure 13. Volume of Entire Solid Using Cross-Sections Method

Figure 13 shows how to use the cross-sections method to determine the volume of the

scenario depicted in Figure 12. As stated previously, both the base and height of the isosceles

right triangle cross-section is equal to the distance between f1(x) and f2(x). Half the base

multiplied by height calculated the area of a single cross-section. Afterwards, the area was

multiplied by depth dx to obtain volume. Finally, the volume of the entire solid was found by

integrating from 0 to 9 to sum up the volumes of the infinite amount of isosceles right triangle

cross-sections. When this was done, the volume of the entire solid was found to be 1.35 un 3 .

Conclusion​:

In conclusion, the area under a curve, the area between two curves, and the volumes of

different three dimensional solids can be found by employing definite integrals. Along with

derivatives, integrals are one of the most important operations utilized in the study of calculus, as

proven by their repeated use in this paper. Simply, integrals involve cutting a figure into an
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infinite amount of regions with extremely small widths that approach zero, but are not equal to

zero. Afterwards, the area of one region is found, and multiplied by the depth dx or dy to obtain

volume. Finally, all of the regions are summed together to obtain the total volume of a solid.

With this knowledge, the engineer can now easily find the volume and surface area of the

nuclear power plant’s cooling tower. The quality control team can now calculate the volume and

surface area of the Hershey Kiss. The student can now calculate the volume and surface area of

their water bottle. For both experienced engineers and high school students alike, integrals can be

applied to calculate the volume of obscure shapes, which opens the door into solving more

advanced problems that are faced on a daily basis.

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Works Cited

“A Brief History of Calculus.” ​A Brief History of Calculus | Wyzant Resources,​

www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/math/calculus/introduction/history_of_calculus.

“Function Revolution.” ​Interactivate: Function Revolution,​

www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/FunctionRevolution/.