College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education
Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: CE 534A: EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Name of Teacher: Engr. ERNESTO B. LIM, JR.

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

Page 1 of 17
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: CE 534A – Earthquake Engineering

Course Coordinator: Ernesto B. Lim, Jr., RCE, RMP, ME1

Email: elim@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 0951-518-0602
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: May 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 108 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: CE 342
Co-requisite: CE 535/D
Credit: 3.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours
Assessment Task Submission
This 4-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery
with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 108 including the
face-to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for civil engineers.
Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the name
of the course coordinator, date of submission and name
of the student. The document should be emailed to the
course coordinator. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission
of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students
will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in
writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index and
other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the
request.

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Grading System
Preferred Referencing Style
Student Communication
Contact Details of the Dean
Contact Details of the Program
Head
Students with Special Needs
Help Desk Contact
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can
elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):
Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual
University system and procedures.
Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
You are required to create a umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person
through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,
please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the
course coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment
tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.
CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
Page 4 of 17
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
0905-526-7834

CEE Administrative Assistant

Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
0956-208-2442
082-227-2902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy,RPm,RGC,LPT
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
0921-2122-846

Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
0906-075-7721

Library Contact Brigida E. Bacani

library@umindanao.edu.ph
0951-376-6681

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello future civil engineer! Welcome to this course CE 534A – Earthquake
Engineering. By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a structural engineer and
that you have enhanced your analysis skills during your take on the mechanics subjects and
other structural related courses. It is important for us as a structural engineer to consider
earthquake loads and its effect on the structure.

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Determine the terms and methodological concepts governing the

computation of lateral forces and analysis of its effects on structures in lined
with the provisions of the National Structural Code of the Philippines.
CO 2: Analyze the transmission of seismic forces to the elements of certain
structures and their adequacy to withstand its effects.
CO 3: Develop problem-solving skills involving seismic forces and frequencies
using various methods

Let us begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
identify seismic terms described in given definitions and enumerate origin of seismicity and
types of building frames with their respective functions.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1. Identify and enumerate the seismic analysis terms
and concepts with respect to its significance in structural design and other
seismic consideration.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.

1. Earthquake. An oscillatory, sometimes violent movement of the ground’s surface that

follows a release of energy in the Earth’s crust.
2. Epicenter. The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
3. Focal depth. The depth from the Earth’s surface to the focus.
4. Faults. A fracture in the earth’s crust along which two blocks slip relative to each other.
5. Intensity. Based on the damage and other observed effects on people, buildings, and other
features.

Essential Knowledge

An earthquake is a phenomenon resulting from the sudden release of stored energy in

the Earth’s crust which creates seismic waves. At the Earth’s surface, earthquakes may manifest
themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes tsunamis, which may
lead to loss of life and destruction of property.
Earthquakes represent the largest potential source of casualties and damage for
inhabited areas due to natural hazard. Although the location varies, the pattern is the same: an
earthquake strikes without warning, leaving cities in rubble and killing tens to hundreds of
thousands of people. Worldwide during the 20th Century, there were ten earthquakes killing
more than 50,000 people and over 100 earthquakes killing more than 1000 people (FEMA 383,
2003).
One of the main goals in Seismic Design is improving the understanding of earthquakes
and their effects. This activity comprises the range of disciplines from Seismology and
Engineering Seismology to Earthquake Engineering. The following aspects must be considered
to achieve this target (FEMA383,2003):
1. Improve earthquake monitoring. Seismic hazard identification and risk assessment
are critical components of earthquake mitigation strategy. Under this goal, a
monitoring system, based on the regional networks of instrumented stations, on the
use of satellite-based observations (GPS monitoring stations) and associated data
centers, has been developed (FEMA 383, 2003).
2. Improve understanding of earthquake occurrence. In the last decades, Seismology has
made significant progresses in understanding the basic physics of earthquakes.
Together with these progresses, modern technologies such as Global Positioning
System (GPS) allow seismologists to forecast the overall long-term seismic activity.
3. Improve fundamental knowledge of earthquake effects. Among the most important
contributions to reducing earthquake losses, there are both the improving of
understanding and the modelling earthquake effects, including the source
properties, the wave propagation from the source to site and the local conditions
characterizing the site. This task implies the development of methods to generate
synthetic seismograms for the expected future earthquakes, incorporating
improved understanding of the rupture process and information about the fault type
and the properties of the surrounding earth’s crust.
4. Improve the seismic design of structures. A new facet of Earthquake Engineering
research concerning the seismic structural response is based on the reliance of
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

integrated experimentation, theory, databases and model-based computer

simulations. Under this objective the priorities refer to improving the understanding
of behavior and collapse mechanisms of various classes of structures under different
earthquake types, in order to establish new methodologies for performance-based
earthquake engineering. These new methodologies must consider different design
philosophies for structures situated in low to moderate and strong seismic areas.
The objective implies also developing new materials, new technologies and new
structural systems for earthquake resistant structures.
5. Start development of next generation performance-based codes. The goal of these
activities assures the ability to reduce seismic vulnerability of structural systems,
learning from the lessons given by the last strong earthquakes and from the
remarkable knowledge development during the last decades in the frame of
Seismology. The main considered task is to transfer the accumulated results from
the academic research works to the design practice, filling the existing gap between
these to activities, disseminating upgrade guidelines and new codes, cooperating
with professional associations, promoting education for practicing professionals.
In view of the mitigation of seismic risk some distinct topics have been developed:
a. Engineering Seismology, developed to solve the problems of the Earthquake hazard, is a
branch of Seismology, having the purpose to use the seismological knowledge for the
seismic design of buildings, by proposing the seismic actions function of the source and site
characteristics.
b. Earthquake Engineering, with the task to solve the problems of construction vulnerability,
is a branch of more general field, the Structural Engineering Science, having the purpose to
develop specific methodologies for analyzing the effects of seismic actions on constructions,
very different from that used in case of other actions like dead,live,wind,snow,etc.,loads.
c. Seismic Design collects the data given by Engineering Seismology referring to seismic loads
and using the methodologies proposed by the Earthquake Engineering and performs a
complex examination of structures, including numerical analysis, structural conformation,
solutions for details, and eventually an engineering overview on the designed structure. The
main scope of Seismic Design is to obtain the economical victory over a strong earthquake
by reducing structural damage controlled by the designer.
A severe earthquake is a terrifying experience. Relatives, homes and goods can be lost
in only a few minutes. Compared to any other natural event, the earthquake is the most frightful
one, because it undermines the basic stability of human existence and the confidence that this
stability is under control. When this stability is destroyed by the violence of nature, fright and
panic reach an intolerable level.
As natural as wind and snow are in the atmosphere, the seismic movements develop
inside of the Earth. The entire lifetime of the Earth is a continuous sequence of underground
movements with more than a billion quakes per year, an average of one quake every 30 seconds.
Therefore, the Earth is like a living body in permanent motion. This movement is produced by
the convection currents developed in the viscous mantle due to the prevailing high temperature
and pressure gradients between the crust and the core. These convection currents result in a
circulation of the Earth masses: hot molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes down
into the Earth.

Tectonic Plates and Faults

Today it is accepted that the Earth is covered by some rigid plates which move across
its surface, over and on a partially molten internal layer. Using geological terms, the plates form
the lithosphere, which is the Earth’s solid rock. The rigid lithosphere can be considered to float
on the ductile asthenosphere, which flows. So, the lithosphere (surface of the Earth) is broken
up into what are called tectonic plates; Plate tectonics (from the Greek tecton), meaning one
who constructs and destroys) being the theory of geology developed to explain the
phenomenon of continental drift. This theory defines the tectonic plates and their boundaries.
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

In function of their surface, the tectonic plates are divided into major and minor plates. Tectonic
plates can include continental crust, oceanic crust or both. The distinction between continental
crust and oceanic crust is based on the density of constituent materials. The continental crust
is composed primarily of granite, so it is relatively light. An average thickness may by around
30-40 km, while the thickest part is about 70 km in the zone of the Himalayas and Tibet. The
oceanic crust is denser than the continental one, being composed of basalt. It is relatively thin,
about 7 km thick. As a result, the oceanic crust generally lies below the sea level, while the
continental crust is situated above the sea level.
Fault networks. The relative movements are produced along the boundaries with
velocity varying across the Earth, but with an average of the order of tens of centimeters per
year. In the region where the hot molten lava comes out, the movement of the two boundaries
is divergent and so some fault in the form of a rift is created. Contrary, in the region where the
cold rock mass goes into the Earth, the movement of the two boundaries is convergent and, due
to the collision along the fault, some volcanoes and mountain chains are formed. Considering
these relative movements, different boundary types exist (Figure 1):
a. Divergent boundaries, when two plates move away from each other, due to the
ascension of molten lava, which fills the opened fault between the two plates.
b. Convergent boundaries, when two plates move slower in the front or in contrary
directions.
c. Transform boundaries, when two plates move side-by-side along the same fault with
different velocities or in opposite directions.
Figure 1.

Types of Earthquake Sources

A large number of earthquakes daily occur on the Earth. So, earthquakes can
strike any location at any time. But the history shows that they principally occur in some
specific zones of the Earth. Many earthquakes occur in narrow regions around the plate
boundaries.
In function of the earthquake position, there are the following main earthquake
types (Fig.2):

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2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

a. Crustal interplate earthquakes, are produced along the tectonic convergent

plate boundaries, where a fault exists due to previous plate movements.
Along the fault, shear friction forces between the two plates equilibrate the
gigantic tectonic plate force sand the elastic strain energy is stored. When the
shear force capacity is reached, sudden slip releases the large elastic strain
energy stored in the interface rocks. So, in case of interplate earthquakes, the
slipping occurs along these tectonic plate boundaries and their positions are
well defined. Only in case of existing parallel faults, the activated one is an
unknown. This are produced in the interior crust of a tectonic plate, far from
the boundaries, in the diffuse zones. In this case, the ground movements are
caused by the previous rupture, or by a new one, due to the reaching of the
rock bearing capacity. Thus, generally, an intraplate earthquake occurs in the
same seismic area but not in the same place, as in the case of interplate
earthquakes. So, the position of an intraplate earthquake is, generally, very
difficult to determine beforehand.
b. Intraslab (inslab) earthquake, affected by thermal phenomena, the
earthquake occurs in slab (subducted oceanic plate), at shallow or deep
depth. It is situated in a slab, in a zone under the Earth crust, where the solid
rock begins to be transformed into molten-lava, due to the high temperatures
and pressures. Therefore, very special features, different from the cases
presented above, characterize this source type.
Figure 2.

Earthquakes and Ground Motions

The proper definition of ground motions, in order to evaluate the structural

response, is the first field where the contact between Engineering Seismology and
Earthquake Engineering is directly established. Earthquakes do not directly produce
building collapse. Ground motions are the real cause of seismic damage. The dynamic
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

response of buildings to ground motions is the most important cause of earthquake-

induced damage in buildings. Therefore, it is very important to understand in which
way the sudden movements of the source are transformed in ground motions at the
building site.
The basic concepts of today’s Earthquake Engineering were born almost 70 years
ago, when the knowledge about seismic actions and structural response were rather
poor. Today, the earthquake-resistant design has grown within the multidisciplinary
fields of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, wherein many exciting
developments are predicted in the near future. Looking to the development of the
Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, it is very clear that the major
efforts of researchers were directed towards the structural response analysis. As a
consequence, the structural response can be predicted fairly confidently, but these
achievements remain without real effects if the evaluation of seismic actions is doubtful.
In fact, the prediction of ground motions is still far from a satisfactory level, due to both
the complexity of the seismic phenomena and the lack of communication between
seismologists and engineers. This remark can be confirmed after each important
earthquake, when new and in situ lessons regarding the ground motions are learned,
instead of providing in advance the missing data from seismological studies. So, the
reduction of uncertainties in seismic action modeling is now the main challenge in
structural seismic design. This target is possible only if the impressive progress in
Seismology will be transferred into Earthquake Engineering. Any progress in this field
is impossible without considering this new amount of knowledge recently cumulated
in Seismology.

Factors Influencing the Ground Motions

In the last few years, the understanding of earthquake characteristics has

considerably increased, due to the tragic experience from several recent earthquakes.
As a consequence of the direct observations and subsequent studies, now it is possible
to quantitatively predict strong motions for dangerous earthquakes, provided that the
source mechanism, wave travel path and site geological conditions are correctly
modeled. Therefore, a clear representation of an earthquake can be obtained, by
considering the source typology as a matrix, where the influence of some factors
connected to traveling path and site conditions are overlapped (Fig. 3). This procedure
gives the opportunity to separately analyze the influence of each basic factor in the
frame of the anatomy of an earthquake.
Source. Earthquakes occur in a fault, in a network of faults or in an area of faults.
In the first case, the positions of faults are known due to the seismological studies; in
the second case, the fault is poorly or not known and the earthquakes can occur in a
large region having uniform seismic potential. Each source has some specific
characteristics, in function of the fault type and the rupture area.
Traveled path. The propagation of seismic waves depends on the percentage of
the path travel through rock or soft sediment, with the presence of mountains and
valleys from the source to the site. The results of the traveled paths are the
amplification, attenuation or modification, more or less, of the source basic
characteristics.
Site conditions. Multi-layers with different properties and thicknesses compose
the site soil profile. The alternations of these layers, the presence in the site of hills,

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

valleys or important buildings, are very important factors, which can modify the source
characteristics.
Therefore, the seismicity of a site depends on some fundamental input
parameters and some additional factors. In order to establish the seismic hazard for a
site, the first step is the identification of the source type. The second step is the
evaluation of the influence of the distance from the source and the site and the study of
the local conditions. For the determination of the seismic risk, these data must be
represented by means of values referring to accelerations, velocities, displacements,
durations and number of pulses in the site, as a function of the source type, magnitude,
duration, directivity and the local influence as attenuation or amplification, site
stratification, relief, etc. These factors will be analyzed in the following sections.

Figure 3.

Source Characteristics

A sudden movement of rocks along a fault plane causes earthquakes. The

movement or displacement is called fault rupture. When the fault rupture progresses
upward, it creates a surface fault rupture. This surface can remain beneath the surface,
being a blind fault, or reach the Earth’s surface, creating a surface faulting.
The rupture begins at some depth called focus or hypocenter (Fig. 4). The
rupture then spreads outward in all directions along the fault plane, but there is a
dominant direction.
The characteristics of the fault rupture depend on the following factors:
- rupture surface;
- type of fault;
- depth of the fault;
- amount of the fault slip;
- age of faulting.
The earthquake magnitude depends on the length of the fault rupture. The
highest magnitude earthquake, in Chile1960, has a lengthabout1300kilometers. The
formation of a rupture surface along a fault is a very complex phenomenon, which raises
many questions. There are regions where great earthquakes occur along some plate
boundaries, while there are also quiet regions along the same fault. Why does it happen?
Why are there segments of fault very active in some periods and quiet in others? The
best example is the Mexico coast, where the Cocos plate sub-ducts the North American
plate. The different segments of this plate boundary are very active in different periods.

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There is also a gap, named Guerrero gap, where for a long time no earthquakes were
recorded. The aspects can be observed along the North Anatolian fault. Generally, the
gaps are often considered to be the sites of the next great earthquakes. A way to explain
these regional variations in seismicity along plate boundaries is to introduce the fault
asperities and barriers, whose size varies from one place to another.
Figure 4.

Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting

In a global sense, tectonic earthquakes result from motion between a number of

large plates comprising the Earth’s crust or lithosphere. These plates are driven by the
convective motion of the material in the Earth’s mantle, which in turn is driven by heat
generated at the Earth’s core. Relative plate motion at the fault interface is constrained
by friction and/or asperities (areas of interlocking due to protrusions in the fault
surfaces). However, strain energy accumulates in the plates, eventually overcomes any
resistance, and causes slip between the two sides of the fault. This sudden slip, termed
elastic rebound by Reid [1910] based on his studies of regional deformation following
the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, releases large amounts of energy, which constitutes
or is the earthquake.
The location of initial radiation of seismic waves (i.e., the first location of dynamic
rupture) is termed the hypocenter, while the projection on the surface of the Earth
directly above the hypocenter is termed the epicenter. Other terminology includes near-
field1 (within one source dimension of the epicenter, where source dimension refers to
the width or length of faulting, whichever is shorter), far-field (beyond near-field), and
meizoseismal (the area of strong shaking and damage). Energy is radiated over a broad
spectrum of frequencies through the Earth, in body waves and surface waves [Bolt,
1993]. Body waves are of two types: P waves (transmitting energy via push–pull
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

motion), and slower S waves (transmitting energy via shear action at right angles to the
direction of motion). Surface waves are also of two types: horizontally oscillating Love
waves (analogous to S body waves) and vertically oscillating Rayleigh waves.
Faults are typically classified according to their sense of motion (Figure 5). Basic
terms include transform or strike slip (relative fault motion occurs in the horizontal
plane, parallel to the strike of the fault), dip-slip (motion at right angles to the strike, up-
or down-slip), normal (dip-slip motion, two sides in tension move away from each
other), reverse (dip-slip, two sides in compression move towards each other), and
thrust (low-angle reverse faulting).
Generally, earthquakes will be concentrated in the vicinity of faults. Faults that
are moving more rapidly than others will tend to have higher rates of seismicity, and
larger faults are more likely than others to produce a large event. Many faults are
identified on regional geological maps, and useful information on fault location and
displacement history is available from local and national geological surveys in areas of
high seismicity. Considering this information, areas of an expected large earthquake in
the near future (usually measured in years or decades) can be, and have been, identified.

Figure 5.

Measurement of Earthquakes

Earthquakes are complex multidimensional phenomena, the scientific analysis

of which requires measurement. Prior to the invention of modern scientific
instruments, earthquakes were qualitatively measured by their effect or intensity,
which differed from point to point. With the deployment of seismometers, an
instrumental quantification of the entire earthquake event — the unique magnitude of
the event — became possible. These are still the two most widely used measures of an
earthquake, and a number of different scales for each have been developed, which are
sometimes confused. Engineering design, however, requires measurement of

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earthquake phenomena in units such as force or displacement. This section defines and
discusses each of these measures.
An individual earthquake is a unique release of strain energy — quantification of
this energy has formed the basis for measuring the earthquake event. Richter [1935]
was the first to define earthquake magnitude while seismic intensity is a metric of the
effect, or the strength, of an earthquake hazard at a specific location. While the term can
be generically applied to engineering measures such as peak ground acceleration, it is
usually reserved for qualitative measures of location-specific earthquake effects, based
on observed human behavior and structural damage.

Pacific Rim

The Philippine archipelago is largely situated on the Philippine plate which itself
is caught between the much larger Pacific and Eurasian plates. To the east, the
Philippine plate is sub-ducting beneath the northwestward moving Pacific plate at
about 7 cm per year, while to the west the Eurasian plate is sub-ducting beneath the
Philippine plate along the western sides of Luzon and Mindanao Islands at about 3 cm
per year. The result is high seismicity and volcanism associated with the following
oceanic trenches: Philippine, East Luzon, Manila, Negros, Sulu, Cotabato, and Davao, and
the following collisional and fault zones: Palawan-Mindanao, Zamboanga-Mindanao,
Philippine Fault zone, Digdig Fault, and many other active faults, for example, Lubang,
Tablas, Casiguran, and Mindanao (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Self-Help

*Booth, E.D., (2014). Earthquake Design Practice for Buildings (3rd ed.), London: Thomas
Telford
*Agnes, N. (2015). Handbook of earthquake engineering, New York: Callisto Reference
*Anderson, J. C. (2012). Basic Structural Dynamics, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
*Ambrose, J. (2012). Building Structures (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
*Bruno, C. (2015. Advance Earthquake Resistance Structures, New York: NY Research Press

Let’s Check

Activity 1. Now that you know the basic concepts in the study of earthquake engineering. Let us
try to check your understanding of the concepts. In the space provided, write the term/s being
asked in the following statements:

_________________1. It refers to as a branch of more general field, the Structural Engineering Science,
having the purpose to develop specific methodologies for analyzing the effects of seismic actions
on constructions, very different from that used in case of other actions like dead, live, wind, snow,
etc., loads.
_________________2. It is the boundary types in relation to earth’s movement that when two plates
move away from each other, due to the ascension of molten lava, which fills the opened fault
between the two plates.
_________________3. It is the boundary types in relation to earth’s movement that when two plates
move side-by-side along the same fault with different velocities or in opposite directions.
_________________4. It is a type of body wave that transmits energy via shear action at right
angles to the direction of motion.
_________________5. It refers to as the first location of dynamic rupture when there is initial
radiation of seismic waves.

Activity 2. Now that you know the meaning and concepts of earthquake engineering. Let us try
to check your understanding of the concept. In the space provided, you are tasked to discuss the
significance of earthquake engineering in structural design. Site seismic design considerations
that were used in order to incorporate earthquake engineering to structural engineering.
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

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Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Getting familiar with the essential concepts in the study of earthquake engineering are
not enough, what also matters is you should also be able to identify and enumerate with regards
to the mentioned topics. Now, I will require you identify seismic terms described/used that were
discussed with regards to the origin of earthquake, causes of structural damages due to
earthquake and seismic design considerations and its significance in structural design. Then,
enumerate the origin of seismicity and types of building frames with their respective functions.
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Page 16 of 17
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

In a Nutshell

Activity 1. The study of concepts on earthquake engineering is indeed a vital part in the
proceeding topics to be discussed. It is very important for you to understand the content and the
terms used in earthquake engineering because these will be utilized when you are about to
consider seismic design in the analysis and design of vertical structures.

Based from the presented concepts of earthquake engineering and its design considerations that
you have done, please feel free to write your questions, clarifications, or lessons learned below. I
have indicated some of my lessons learned.

1. The nature or earthquake is sometimes violent movement of the ground’s surface that
follows a release of energy in the Earth’s crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden
dislocation of segments of the crust, a volcanic eruption, or a man-made explosion.
2. With regards to earthquake characteristics, intensity and magnitude is different. It is
important to differentiate the two because sometimes the two terms are being confused.
Intensity is based on the damage and other observed effects on people, buildings, and
other features while magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the
earthquake.

Your Turn

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