ZAMBIA ASSOCIATION FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES TEACHERS.

CENTRAL PROVINCE, 2011 NOTESTHE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

EUROPE BEFORE 1870

Before 1870, Germany was a confederation of thirty - nine states. Among them the
largest and most important was Prussia. When Kaiser William became the King of Prussia in
1861, he appointed Otto Von Bismarck as Chancellor of Prussia in 1862.

WHO WAS BISMARCK?

Otto Van Bismarck an outstanding diplomat and statesman was born on 1 st April in 1815
at Schonhausen in Brandenburg – Prussia, Germany. He died in 1898.Bismarck was from a
Junker (landed family). After his birth his parents moved to their old estates where the boy
developed rural setting tastes - love of hunting, riding and shooting.

After his education he began working for the government of Prussia. He was convinced
that Prussia‘s future greatness depended upon a strong Monarchy and not on democracy. He
left the Civil service as boring and joined the Prussian Diet. Bismarck made a mark in the
Prussian Diet with his speeches in which he condemned the liberals for their numerous
demands.

From 1851 to 1859, he became a Prussian Minister to the Germany Confederation in

Frankfurt, and was very instrumental in the unification of Germany.

On 22nd September 1862 Bismarck was appointed as Chancellor of Prussia. His main aim
as chancellor was to unite all the German states under the leadership of Prussia which he
achieved through a combination of diplomacy and after a series of wars.

WARS OF UNIFICATION

Bismarck knew that the unification of German as an empire would not be easy because of
opposition from Germany’s neighbours, Denmark, Austria and France. He had to destroy the
powers of Austria and France by fighting each of these countries separately.

PRUSSIA AND DENMARK 1864

The two quarreled over ownership of Schelswig and Holstein. He organized the Prussian
army and begun by fighting over the two duchies of Holstein and Schleswig which were in
union with Denmark but had their own separate constitution.

While Denmark attempted to annex the two duchies of Holstein and Schleswig under a
single constitution, Bismarck rejected the attempt to annex the duchies by Denmark and
claimed that they were German.

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 As the crisis over the Duchies between Prussia and Denmark worsened, Bismarck invited
Austria to fight with Prussia against Denmark in return for Holstein and in 1864, the Danish
war broke out in which Denmark was defeated.

PRUSSIA TURNS ITS BACK ON AUSTRIA – HUNGARY.

After the Danish war instead of sharing the duchies with Austria as earlier agreed
Bismarck annexed both of them much to the annoyance of Austria and so this led to war with
Austria in 1866. The Danes were not prepared for war therefore; Austria was crushed at the
great battle of Sadowa by the superior military strength of the new Prussian army and
expelled from the German confederation after only seven weeks of war.

PRUSSIA AND FRANCE 1870-8171 (FRANCO – PRUSSIAN WAR)

Before the unification of Germany States could be complete, Bismarck had to crush
France and in 1870 the France – Prussian war broke out. This was caused by a succession
dispute to the Spanish throne following a military uprising that deposed and forced the
reigning Queen into exile.

The Spaniards were looking for a new monarch. The Spanish throne was offered to
Prince Leopold, a member of the Prussian ruling family and Bismarck persuaded Leopold to
accept the throne because he hoped to provoke France. The French protested because they
were horrified at the prospect of being surrounded by hostile neighbours to the East and
West.

France threatened war on Prussia if Leopold did not withdraw his candidature. So, he
finally stepped down. France was not satisfied with the withdrawal of Leopold; the further
demanded that the Prussian King should promise that Leopold or any other relative of
William I would never be a candidate for the Spanish throne. For this purpose, the French
ambassador was sent to the Prussian King who was on holiday at EMS but the king refused
to make any promise.

When the King sent a telegram to Bismarck informing him of the negotiation with the
French ambassador, Bismarck seized his chance to provoke France and changed the wording
of the telegram before releasing it to the French and German press.

The telegram showed that Kaiser William I insulted the French ambassador and refused
to see him when requested. French demonstrated in the streets of Paris left the French
government with no option but to declare war on Prussia on 19 th July 1870. Later in 1871,
France was crushed at the battle of Sedan.

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 France made peace by signing the treaty of Frankfurt in 1871 and the following were the
provisions:

(i) French Industrial provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany.

(ii) France was told to pay war damages in terms of money and coal.

(iii) French emperor was deported.

With the defeat of Austria and France, German was finally united and the new Germany
Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, Paris in France in
1871.

BISMARK’S HOME POLICY

After the unification of Germany, Bismarck as the chancellor faced lot of problems and
the following were the problems:

1. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

One of the main obstacles of the power of the state was the Catholic Church according to
Bismarck. In 1864, Pope Pius ix condemned civil marriage and secular education. In 1870 the
Vatican council came up with the dogma of papal infallibility meaning the pope does not make a
mistake on issues of faith and morals and that his direction should be taken without questions.

A minority of Germany Catholics did not take this doctrine and they were ex-
communicated. Some teachers and professors who tried similar views lost their jobs. Bismarck
didn’t agree with this because this meant that the church was interfering in the state control of
education system. There was not going to be a state within a state, because of this the church
launched a campaign against Bismarck.

Bismarck decided to crush the powers of the Roman Catholic Church by passing the laws against
the church. There laws were called the May laws of 1872.By these laws he expelled the catholic
Jesuits of Germany. He prevented Jesuits from inspecting schools; they were to be inspected by
government inspectors. All schools and colleges were to be owned by the state and civil
marriages were made legal.

Priests who contradicted these rules were imprisoned. The struggle against the church
was called KULTUR KAMPI. Struggle for civilization against the Catholic Church which was
said to be backward, however, the Pope died in 1878 and was replaced by Pope Leo xiii who
compromised with Bismarck and most of the May laws were removed.

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2. SOCIALISTS

Bismarck looked at this group as independent in the empire which had convections with
other socialists in other countries. These socialists influenced the workers interest by propagating
KARL MAX’S idea which aimed at overthrowing property owners so that the society can be
organized under communist’s principles. These ideas threatened Bismarck.

Using the excuse of the attempts on Kaisers life, Bismarck forced a bill in parliament
[Reichstag] banning the socialist movement. Under the same law the socialist newspaper was
suppressed and known supporters were exiled from Germany.

To win support of the workers sick, old and disabled were to be provided with social aids,
and for the workers he introduced industrial benefits accidents. In 1889, the old age personal
schemes were introduced. He however failed to crush socialization totally.

3. TARIFF QUESTIONS

The other problem at hone was that of cheap foreign goods flooding the Germany market
threatening the home industry .Bismarck imposed high tariffs on all imported goods so that
Germany could depend on local industries.

4. COLONIES

Since Germany initially never took part in the colonial race there developed a problem of
colonies to supply raw materials and markets. In 1884, Bismarck accepted the idea of colonies
and called for the Berlin Conference 1884-1885 for the peaceful acquisition of colonies.

5. MANY LANGUAGES

After the unification of Germany, there were many languages that were spoken in
Germany; Bismarck came up with one main language [Germanisation].

6. DISPUTE WITH KAISER

Bismarck differed with Kaiser over a number of issues like socialist questions and
colonies which were favoured by Kaiser William ll.

In 1890, Bismarck resigned his chancellorship to mark the end of his political career.

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BISMARK’S FOREIGN POLICY

In this policy, Bismarck had four main aims;

To isolate France so that she could not wage a war of revenge for the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.

To avoid war from two countries.

To consolidate Germany’s big power in Europe

To maintain peace for a united Germany so that the country can develop politically and
economically.

Bismarck was able to achieve these aims by signing treaties with other countries that he had
fought wars with before. The following were treaties he signed:

THREE EMPERORS’LEAGUE OR DREIKAISERBUND – 1872.

In 1872, Bismarck was instrumental in forming the Dreikaiserbund or Three Emperors’

League, a kind of a Holy Alliance. The members were Russia, Austria – Hungary and Germany.

The terms of the alliance were that the three countries would help one another to fight against
the growing strength of socialism and republicanism. Secondly they agreed to consult one
another on important issues especially the Balkan crisis. And further create friendship and
understanding among themselves.

DUAL ALLIANCE 1879

The members were Germany, Austria-Hungary and the terms were;

To support each other if a combined attack was launched against Germany or Austria-Hungary
by France or Prussia and if it was France alone, Austria-Hungary would remain neutral.

RENEWAL OF THE THREE EMPEROR’S LEAGUE 1881

This was a renewal by Austria-Hungary and Germany. A written agreement was signed
in; terms of the treaty were the same.

THE TRIPPLE ALLIANCE 1882

The members were Germany Austria-Hungary and Italy. Italy was brought into the
alliance because Bismarck encouraged French seizure of Tunisia which was an Italian colony.
The terms were; to help each other if one was to be attacked by a third power.

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-Italy pledged not to be involved in any war against Britain.

THE SECRET REINSURANCE TREATY 1887

The members were Germany and Russia and the terms were that Russia would remain
neutral if Germany was attacked by France and that Germany would remain neutral if Russia
was attacked by Austria-Hungary.

The treaty recognized Russia’s interest in Bulgaria and Turkish strait. The treaty was to
be renewed every three years.

REASONS WHY BISMARK RESIGNED

Bismarck differed with Kaiser William ll over Germany’s home and foreign policies on
these issues. At home Bismarck wanted to make Anti-socialist laws permanent while Kaiser
William wanted to be friends with the socialists.

Abroad Bismarck wanted to negotiate on extension and removal of the re-insurance treaty
and maintain both Prussia and Austria-Hungary.

Kaiser wanted an expanded navy and colonial conquest. Bismarck thought this would
bring Germany as [strong as the British navy] a British enemy with these happening, Bismarck
was asked to draw an order restricting the chancellor’s power which he refused and resigned in
1890.

However, Bismarck was able to achieve the objectives of his foreign policy because he had
great diplomatic skill and tact. The creation of the alliances helped to achieve peace in Europe
while Bismarck was in office but after his departure, things fell apart.

REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT POWERS TO BISMARCK’S ALLIANCES

1. France was not happy with their alliances for she felt isolated completely, as she could not
wage a war of revenge.

2. Prussia was annoyed with Bismarck especially at the Berlin conference in 1878.When she was
unfairly treated by Bismarck when he sided with Austria-Hungary.

3. Italy was happy when she signed the triple alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in
1882 because she was no longer weak and isolated.

4. Britain was happy because she was able to follow the policy of splendid isolation without any
interference.

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5. Austria- Hungary was happy because Bismarck assisted her to colonies some Balkan states
and finally Balkan states were annoyed because Bismarck delayed their independence. With
these mixed reactions, there was a counter signing of alliances from 1890 after dismissal of
Bismarck. This divided the world into camps later leading to the outbreak of the First World War.

DUAL ENTENTE 1894

This was signed between Russia and France ending France’s isolation. This came as a
result of Germany’s antagonism of Russia and also the attitude of Kaiser William II. For instance
he refused to grant Russia a loan when it was pursuing economic development. Russia turned the
attention to France who proved to be of help. They agreed to help each other if they were
attacked either by Germany or Austria-Hungary. Russia was obliged to help France if attacked by
Italy. If any member of the triple alliance mobilized then both Russia and France mobilized.

ANGLO - JAPANESE ALLIANCE 1902

This was signed to end Britain’s policy of splendid isolation and signed by Japan and
Britain. They agreed that Japan was to check Russia expansion in the South East Asia and
defeated the British position there.

ENTENTE CODIAL 1904

This was signed by Britain and France. The two agreed that in return for French
recognition of the British position in Egypt. Britain recognized the French in Morocco. They
equally similarly compromised in other parts of the World like West Africa and New Found
Land. However, the Cordial Entente was not a military alliance. It was sometimes called the
Anglo – French Alliance.

They agreed to support each other in their policies in Egypt and Morocco against the
objectives of any other power.

They agreed to consult regularly on their navy and military matters and to have special
consultations in case of change from great power. The following factors facilitated the signing of
the Cordial entente of the Anglo French alliance.

ANGLO – RUSSIAN ENTENTE 1907

This was signed between Britain and Russia. According to this treaty both were to leave
Tiberst. Russia agreed not to intervene in Afghanistan and Spheres of influence of Russia were
drawn under British influence. The central areas were left to the Persians.

TRIPPLE ENTENTE 1907

The members of this treaty were Britain, France and Russia. This was a purely diplomatic
understanding among the three member countries. It was not a defensive or military alliance.

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With the signing of the Triple Entente Alliance the world was divided into two camps (the Triple
Entente – Britain, France and Russia and the Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria – Hungary and
Italy) these two enemies were likely to crush soon or later, which happened in 1914 when the
First World War broke out.

THE PATITION OF AFRICA (IMPERIALISM)

DEFINITION

This is a policy where an imperial power controls other counties by political and economical
means. It can also be described as a policy of creating, organizing and maintaining an empire by
a more superior power. These powers fulfilled their desire through colonization furthering their
economic advantage.

During the last quarter of the 19th century through up to the early years of the 20 th century (1884
-1914) several European powers were involved in organizing empires in Africa and other
countries. This process was done so hurriedly that journalists coined the term scramble for Africa
to refer to the partition of Africa.

REASON FOR THE INCREASED DEMAND FOR AFICAN COLONIES AFTER 1870.

The demand for colonies was low before 1876 because the Europeans were committed in
the Far East and Latin America where economies were booming. Africa was also referred to as
the Dark Continent hence little information was known about the interior of Africa. Europeans
feared geographical barriers such as mountains, un navigable rivers, thick forests, tropical
diseases, swamps and fierce wild animals.

There was a general increase for the demand of colonies after 1870 because of the
following reasons which can be divided into:

ECONOMIC

1. Desire by European nations to open fresh markets where to sell their industrial product.
They could not sell these in Europe because of protective tariffs which raised prices of
imported goods.

2. They needed to control the source of raw materials such as rubber, palm oil to increase
their industry capacity.

3. They wanted to invest surplus profit in Africa because investment opportunities were
declining in Europe due to stiff competition.

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4. The Europeans needed trading bases were trade could be conducted.

5. Colonies were acquired as a symbol of prestige, for example Germany and Italy,
‘Germany wanted a place in the sun.’

6. Settlement of excess unemployed population displaced by the Industrial revolution.

Britain acquired Zimbabwe and Kenya to settle her excess population. This surplus
population wished to migrate and yet remain under one colonial power’s flag.

7. Some colonial territories served as strategic areas. This was the case of Egypt colonized
by Britain to enable her have effective control of the Suez Canal were a military base was
established for defense.

8. The discovery of diamonds and gold made the colonizers to scramble for such areas to
explore these minerals. Closely connected to this is the fact that European countries had

acquired colonies in Africa in order to protect their traditional companies like the British
South Africa Company and Imperial British East Africa Company.

RELIGIOUS

9. The missionary factor was another reason. Early missionaries appealed to their home
governments to impose colonialism so that they could easily spread Christianity and the
so called western civilisation.

POLITICAL

10. Others came following invitations from some individual African chiefs such as Khama of
Bechuanaland and Lewanika of Barotseland

11. Ambitious men such as John Cecil and king Leopold of Belgium played an important
role.

12. Colonies were got to compensate for lost territories in Europe. This was the of France’s
loss of Lorraine and Alsace.

13. Work of administrators such as Lord Laggard in Nigeria

HUMANITARIAN REASONS

14. Some countries were colonized following some humanitarians who wanted to stop or end
slave trade in Africa and Asia.

OTHER REASONS:

15 Other European countries looked at colonies as a source of troops. France colonization of

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 Senegal is a good example.

MEASURES TAKEN TO AVOID ARMED CONLICTS AND AGREEMENTS WHICH WERE

REACHED.

BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884- 1885

To avoid armed conflicts, Bismarck convened an international conference in 1884 -85 in Berlin
which he chaired. The following measures were taken:

1. Effective occupation of the area under question

2. Doubts over borders to be settled by the European countries concerned.

3. Acceptance of freedom of trade on major rivers such as the Congo and Niger.

4. Suppression of slavery and slave trade in the colonies.

5. Areas already proclaimed protectorates were accepted and recognized.

6. Notification of occupation to other powers

7. Treaties to be signed with African chiefs.

WHERE AND WHY BRITAIN GOT COLONIES

Britain colonized certain areas for specific reasons. In North Africa for instance she got
Egypt in 188 in order to protect British there are investments. She wanted to use the Suez Canal
too for strategic reasons to guard the water of the Nile for the British to fulfill Cecil Rhodes’
dream of Cape to Cairo and also to re occupy it since it was taken during the 1885 conquest.

Other areas of tropical Africa such as Niger, Ghana and Uganda were colonized to
protect and develop trading bases to act as suppliers of raw materials such rubber, palm oil and
gold.

Colonies like Nyasaland (Malawi) were got because of humanitarian movements of

missionaries and anti – slavery campaign groups who requested their government’s protection to
carry out their work, to act as source of raw materials and markets for their finished goods and
also to realize the Cape to Cairo dream. Most of these where acquired through signing of treaties
with local chiefs and at times threatening use of force.

Most of the colonies in Southern and Central Africa were acquired by Britain to act as
sources of raw materials and civilisation of African to counter balance the rising economic power
in Transvaal after the discovery of gold and in 1885 -86 and for investment after the discovery
of diamond at Kimberly in 1887.

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 Other reasons were to protect missionary road from Cape to Kurumani against Germany
annexation of Namibian as well as Germany possible link – ups across the Continent. Other areas
were Bechuanaland (Botswana) in 1885, Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia
(Zibabwe), Swaziland and Lesotho.

COLONIAL CLASHES OVER COLONIES (BRITAIN, FRANCE AND GERMANY).

THE FASHODA INCIDENT OF 1898

The dispute was between France and Britain on the 6 th of September 1898 at Fashoda in
Sudan. This was when France wanted to link French West Africa with Somaliland while Britain
wanted to link Egypt to South Africa. As the two were trying to achieve their objective they met
at Fashoda where the French were under the command of Major Merchand while British troops
were under Lord Kitchener.

The two forces almost fought when they met at Fashoda leading to crisis. However,
during the crisis, they consulted their mother governments which ended into France baking out
and Britain occupying the area.

Later the British changed their area from Fashoda to Kodak and the dispute ended in
1899 after the French government gave way to British threats.

FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS 1905

The first Moroccan crisis was in 1905.There was dispute between France and Germany over
Morocco. Morocco was an object of rival ambition between Germany and France because of its
strategic position and alleged presence of iron ore deposits.

However, this time it was a deliberate move taken by Germany to test the strength of the
friendship between Britain and France after the signing of the Cordial Entente of 1904. In 1905
Kaiser William II landed at Tangier in Morocco and openly proclaimed Germany support for
Morocco independence and encouraged the people of Morocco against France.

This soured further the relationship between France and Germany which was settled by an
international conference called Algeciras (Algiers) conference. This was held in 1906 in Spain
where Britain, Italy, Spain supported French control over Morocco which was a serious
diplomatic defeat for Germany who realized the strength of the new friendship between France
and Britain.

SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS (AGADIR CRISIS) OF 1911.

The Second Moroccan crisis was the Agadir crisis which took place in 1911. Kaiser
William II sent a gunboat called the panther to the Moroccan parts of Agadir, a Moroccan Sea
port hoping to pressurize the French into giving Germany some compensation, perhaps Congo

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French. This was done after the French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan capital to put down
rebellion against the Sultan Abdul Aziz, with a seemingly French occupation of Morocco.

However, Britain was not happy and warned Germany that Britain would not stand by
and be taken advantage of where her investments were virtually offered through the famous
Mansion House Speech. Because of this strong stand by Britain, Germany withdrew her troops
and recognized France in Morocco and France recognized Germany in French Congo
(Cameroon) and war was averted and the dispute finally ended.

ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE

In 1906 the Algecias conference war held in Spain to solve the Moroccan crisis of 1905 were
Britain affirmed its support for France after the first Moroccan crisis which was an attempt by
the Germans to test the recently Anglo-French alliance. To the amazement of the Germany and
Britain, Russia, Italy and Spain supported the French demand to control the Moroccan bank and
police. This was a serious diplomatic defeat for Germany and showed that Germany was
isolated.

L. George used the slogan “Hang the Kaiser and let Germany pay.” He wanted Kaiser William II
and other Germany criminals punished. More over, Germany as a nation was to be punished
through a paying for all damages of war.

Woodrow Wilson the United States president was arguing contrary to his two friends. He wanted
reconciliation as he realized that revenge would lead to another war in future. He came up with
fourteen (14) points which he hoped would be the basis for the peace settlement.

BRITAIN AND THE POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION.

Definition of the term splendid Isolation

This is a policy that Britain followed until 1895.Under this policy Britain tried to limit
her political and military involvement in European affairs and avoided alliances with other
European powers by staying aloof from European affairs in the last quarter of the 19 th century.
She was isolated and never bothered to have any allies.

Reasons for following this policy

Britain persuaded the policy of isolating herself because of a number of factors. Here are
some of them: Crimean war of 1854 – 1856 caused the British politicians and the public to urge
the British government to limit Britain’s costly commitment abroad especially in Europe.

Britain had a strong and reliable navy with which she could effectively defend herself and
her colonial possessions.

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 Geographical Position, separated from continental Europe by the English Channel, she
remained apparently safe; in her island kingdom hence by nature she was isolated.

As a result of the industrial revolution she started, she became the richest country in
Europe and she did not need any economic help from any country.

Lord Salisbury’s Government (1895 – 19020’s regime seemed to favour isolationist

stance her Britain maintained it under her rule.

Above all, Britain wanted peace in Europe so that she could continue with the policy of
overseas expansion without interference. Following the settlement of the eastern question at the
congress of Berlin in 1878, Britain felt that it was highly unlikely that she would be involved in
any war.

Why Britain abandoned her policy of splendid isolation

However, Britain had to abandon her policy of splendid isolation for a number of reasons.

1. The formation of the Dual Entente.

In 1895 the Dual Entente was formed between France and Russia. This appeared to be a
direct threat to Britain. The French-Russian agreement made it possible that should war break out
between Britain and any of them, they might support each other.

After the Berlin conference of 1884-85 the scramble for Africa caused so much tension
among European nations and contributed to the abandonment of Britain’s policy of isolation.

The policy of splendid isolation discouraged European nations from co-operating and
supporting Britain.

For example when she asked other European nations for support on the question of
Turkey following the American massacre of 1896, no nation responded.

The Congratulatory Telegram from Kaiser William II of Germany to Paul Kruger the
leader of the Boers during the Jameson raid when the British were defeated. This was direct
provocation on the side of Britain who saw Germany as siding with Boers in South Africa.

She also faced challenges passed by nations such as France, U.S.A and Germany to
Britain’s military and economic power. There was competition in ship building aimed at
improving the naval power between Britain and Germany and Britain saw this as a threat to her
naval supremacy.

The proposed railway line from Berlin in Germany to Baghdad in Iraq which was to
connect Germany directly to the middle-east was seen as a threat to British colonies of Egypt and
India.

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 When the First World War broke out in 1914, British policy of splendid isolation started
to crumble when Germany emerged as an empire. The threat of Germany’s military and
economic power as well as her aggressive policies towards Britain forced Britain to abandon her
policy of splendid isolation finally.

How Britain abandoned her policy of Splendid Isolation.

She ended the policy of splendid isolation through a series of alliances

1. ANGLO - JAPANESE ALLIANCE 1902

This was signed to end Britain’s policy of splendid isolation and signed by Japan and
Britain. They agreed that Japan was to check Russia expansion in the South East Asia and
defeated the British position there.

2. ENTENTE CODIAL 1904

This was signed by Britain and France. The two agreed that in return for French
recognition of the British position in Egypt. Britain recognized the French in Morocco.
They equally similarly compromised in other parts of the World like West Africa and
New Found Land. However, the Cordial Entente was not a military alliance. It was
sometimes called the Anglo – French Alliance.

They agreed to support each other in their policies in Egypt and Morocco against the
objectives of any other power.

They agreed to consult regularly on their navy and military matters and to have
special consultations in case of change from great power. The following factors facilitated
the signing of the Cordial entente of the Anglo French alliance.

3. ANGLO – RUSSIAN ENTENTE 1907

This was signed between Britain and Russia. According to this treaty both were to leave
Tiberst. Russia agreed not to intervene in Afghanistan and Spheres of influence of Russia
were drawn under British influence. The central areas were left to the Persians.

4. TRIPPLE ENTENTE 1907

The members of this treaty were Britain, France and Russia. This was a purely diplomatic
understanding among the three member countries. It was not a defensive or military alliance.
With the signing of the Triple Entente Alliance the world was divided into two camps (the Triple
Entente – Britain, France and Russia and the Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria – Hungary and
Italy) these two enemies were likely to crush soon or later, which happened in 1914 when the
First World War broke out.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)

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 In 1914 the First World broke out causing far – reaching social, economical and political
changes, as well as tremendous devastation and loss of life.

CAUSES

Causes of the First World War are divided into two long term causes and short term causes.

LONG TERM CAUSES.

1. NATIONALISM

There was growing nationalism among nations in Europe. The spirit of nationalism led to the
establishment of nations such as Germany, France, Prussia and Serbia.

Whatever their desires and actions many nations were struggling to win independence
and this was a continued threat to the existing political structure of Europe which helped to make
war more likely. For example Serbia, the most powerful of the new states in the Balkans was
determined to free her fellow Slavs from Turkish rule and was also anxious to drive Austria from
land inhabited by the Slavic people. Austria on the other hand wanted to halt Serbian nationalism
which she feared would prove a disaster to her own multinational state.

2. IMPERIALISM

Imperialism among European nations also contributed to the cause of the war. There was
fierce competition among the powers for raw materials for the factories of Europe and cheap
food for factories workers and colonial markets especially between Britain and Germany. The
hopes and fears and national pride, patriotism and jealousies that were typical of the fifty years
preceding 1914 did not make war inevitable but certainly helped to make it extremely likely.
Those European powers had many colonial disputes which contributed to the outbreak of the
First World War such as the Moroccan crisis of 1905 – 1906 which left Germany with bitter
feelings.

Many nations strongly felt that they cannot be united and defended from attack unless
they have strong armies. The consequence of nationalism and imperialism was the growth of
large armies and navies and Germany for example emerged from its wars of unification in 1870
with the largest and strongest army in Europe. Thus European nations were obviously becoming
steadily more prepared for war so that the nervous tension grew and the actual danger of war also
increased.

3. THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM.

By 1907, Europe had been divided into two opposing and heavily armed camps namely,
the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

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 The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria – Hungary and Italy. The
members of the triple Entente were Britain, France and Russia. These alliances created a series of
crisis which tested the alliances, for example the crises in the Balkans between 1908 and 1913.
These two camps were heavily armed and were just waiting for an opportunity to go to war.

4. ARMS RACE

After 1897, the Germany government started building up an enormous navy that could
challenge the might of the British navy. The Germans knew that a world wide empire would
have to be defended by a powerful navy. This was so because the Germans had started
building an overseas Empire like the British.

In 1900, the Germany government passed a law ordering the building of a new huge fleet
of 41 battle ships and sixty cruisers. The British responded energetically to this threat by
increasing the size of their navy. They introduced a new powerful battleship called the
Dreadnought in 1906. The Germans responded by building similar or imitation ships.

Other countries also took part in the arms race. For example, the French increased their
forces such that by 1914, France had four million soldiers. Russia also build a lot of railways
and carriages for transportation of soldiers to fight Germany and Austria – Hungary. Because
of a huge Russian military expenditure, Germany lived in fear that the mighty Russia force
could nay time attack her.

5. THE BOSNIAN CRISIS – 1908.

Serbia wanted to bring all Slavic people under her rule. These people were mostly found in
two Slavic states of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fearing a strong Serbia, Austria – Hungary
annexed the two Slavic states of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia was outplayed as the Austrian
move blocked her hopes of creating a large Serbian Kingdom to include most of the Southern
Slavs.

As a result, Sebia complained to the big brother Russia with the desire to protect their fellow
slavs, and their own desire to gain access to the Eastern Mediterranean , supported the Serbs and
opposed Austria. With this support for war Serbia prepared for war against Austria Hungary.
Germany readily supported Austria Hungary and asked Russia to accept Austrian move or face
war with Germany. Weakened from their defeat in the Russo – Japanese War of 1904 -1905,
Russians were afraid to ask for war. As a result they backed down but vowed to revenge. Russia
called for an international conference hosted by Germany. In attendance were the British, French,
Germany, Austrians and the Serbs. Russia request for British and French assistance in dealing
with Austria – Hungary, Fearing a war with Germany which supported Austria, Britain and
France refused to assist Russia deal with Austria Hungary, as a result Russia went away
disappointed and prepared for war next time Serbia came asking for assistance.

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6. THE FIRST BALKAN WAR – 1912

The Ottoman Empire covered parts of two continents i.e. Europe and Asia. Wishing to get the
European parts of the Ottoman Empire, Serbia Bulgaria, Montengro and Greece formed the
Bulkan League in 1912. The Balkan League declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1912
which the league won. However, the League members could not agree on how to share the
Ottoman Provinces of Macedonia and Albania.

7. THE SECOND BALKAN WAR – 1913.

Bulgaria complained over her share of the European parts of the defeated
Ottoman Empire. As a result, Greece, Serbia, Romania and the Ottoman Empire attacked
and defeated Bulgaria. The result was that the victorious powers grabbed all the
territories from Bulgaria leaving her with a small part of Macedonia.

The two Balkan War heightened tension among the great powers- Germany and
Russia.

8. THE FIRST MOROCCAN CRISES – 1905

Britain had assured France of her support if she colonized Morocco. The German Kaizer
who wanted to test the British and French alliances’ strength declared to support
Morrocco maintain her independence. In 1905 the Kaizer landed at Tangier in a Germany
ship called the Panther. Kaizer William II declared:

(a) Support for Moroccan independence

(b) To settle the Moroccan question, an international conference at Algiers was called, in
attendance were Spain, Britain, France, Germany and Italy among others. Britain,
Spain and Italy supported France’s move to colonise Morocco.

SHORT TERM CAUSES OF FIRST WORLD WAR.

The following are the short term / immediate causes of the First World War.

1. THE SARAJEVO INCIDENCE

The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of the Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, who was crown prince to the Austrian throne and his wife. The city of
Sarajevo in Bosnia was the centre of World attention in June 1914. Bosnia was part of
Austria – Hungary but many of it’s people were Serbs who wanted to be ruled by the

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 neighbouring states. On 28th June, 1914 a Serb called Gavrilo Princip shot dead the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand a heir to the throne of Austria – Hungary, and his wife.

The spark had now been lit. The assassination presented an opportunity for Austria to
start a war against Serbia. On 23 rd July 1914, Austria handed Serbia an almost impossible
ultimatum which was to be accepted within forty-eight hours for being responsible for the
assassination. Serbia accepted two of the demands but rejected the third, which required Austrian
police to go into Serbia to investigate the assassination. As a result Austria declared war on
Serbia on 28th July, 1914.

On 29th July 1914, Russia started mobilizing to assist Serbia, Germany asked Russia to
demobilize but this was ignored.

On 1st August, 1914 Germany, Austria’s ally declared war on Russia. On 3 rd August 1914,
France declared war on Germany. On 4 th August 1914, Britain declared war on German because
of violating the Belgium neutrality according to the London Treaty of 1839.

1. THE SCHLIFFEN PLAN.

The Schlieffen plan was the basis of the German war plan. Ever since the formation of the Dual
Entente of Russia and France of 1893, German politicians had been worried on how to fight a
war on two fronts that is the western Front against France and the Eastern front against Russia.
Because of this worry, the chief of the German General Chief of staff called Alfred Von
Schlieffen, devised a plan in 1906 named Schlieffen plan, which entailed attacking France
through Belgium and then capture Paris within six weeks before turning to the East to attack the
slow moving Russians.

Why attacking France through Belgium?

Because:

(i) The Franco - German Border was hilly and mountainous

(ii) The Franco - German Border was heavily guarded.

STAGES OF THE PLAN

(i) A wheeling movement across Belgium by armies of the Right wing and then capture
the channel ports.

(ii) Move south wards and capture the French capital Paris, from the West.

(iii) Push the French soldiers East wards towards Alsace and Lorraine in order to
surround them and force them to surrender.

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 FAILURE OF THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN.

Britain declared war on Germany on 4th August 1914 in order to defend Belgium’s
neutrality agreed upon by the Great powers in the Treaty of London in 1839. Germany’s
attack on Belgium was violation of this treaty. Within days the British expeditionary force
was in Belgium to fight against the German army. This delayed the Germany advance and
gave the French more time to prepare. Russia mobilized more quickly than the Germans
has expected. Germany was forced to transfer some troops from the western Front to the
eastern front before defeating France. This weakened the Germany armies on the western
front and they failed to defeat France.

General Von Kluck the command of the Germany armies in France changed the
Schlieffen plan.He gave up the idea of going round paris and advanced towards the
south.This left paris and the sea ports along the northern coast of france free from
attacks.This enabled france to continue the war and British reinforcements to get to
France through the northern

Serbia fought bravery against Austria until October 1915 when she was attacked
by Bulgaria.Austria Hungary was obsessed by the move to smash Serbia and could not
send enough troops to help Germany in the campaign.

French and British armies commanded by General Joffre counter-attacked the

Germans at the battle of Marne in September 1914. The German advance was stopped
and both the German armies and the Anglo-French forces began to dig defensive lines of
trenches. The war of movement was over and it was replaced by a static trench warfare.

As the German armies moved far and deep into France, communication with its
Headquarters in Berlin became increasingly difficult. For this reason, local commanders
like General Von kluck made changes to the Schlieffen plan without consulting the
German army Headquarters. Distance from Berlin also made it difficult to supply
equipment and food to German armies in France.

By December 1914 Germany had lost her numerical superiority on the western
front. Large numbers of German troops had been transferred to the eastern front to fight
against Russia. On the other hand British troops had continued to land in France to
support France and Belgium. The Schlieffen plan had completely failed to achieve its
objectives of knocking out France from the war.

Germany had to fight a war on two fronts from 1914 to 1918.

REASONS WHY GERMANS SCORED EARLY SUCCESSES.

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1. Geographical Position. Germany was situated at the centre of the war zone and this
enabled her to reinforce and transport her troops to the two battle fronts (east and west) at
a much faster rate than the opponents.

2. The armies of the central powers (Germany with Austria - Hungary) fell under one
command. This was an advantage over the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia and
later Italy and the USA who entered the war as individual countries).

3. Germany had the best trained army on the European continent. Her troops used advanced
weapons e.g. artillery, launcher, machine guns etc. Germany also devised effective
military tactics that the enemy found it difficult to conquer her at early stage.

4. The communication system i.e. roads and rails were all developed and efficient to meet
the demands of the war troops and other supplies were transported to the battle fronts at a
faster rate than it was in the case of the allied powers.

5. Economic reasons, when Germany declared war she was economically self sufficient.
The developed economy enabled her to support her soldiers in war. The German
industrialists produced enough war materials which she supplied to the fighting forces.
There was also enough food, medicine and troop carriers.

6. The un preparedness of the Allied Powers when the war just started assisted the Germans
to become victors in the early stages of the First World War.

7. Germany had completed officers like Von Hindenburg and Ludendorff.

REASONS WHY GERMANY LOST THE FIRST WORLD.

1. The Germans had underestimated the strength of their enemies and this led to the failure
of the Schlieffen plan. The Belgian army put up some strong unexpected resistance and
so delayed the advance of German forces and brought in the British ground forces.

2. The German advance was checked by the French and British forces. The German forces
failed capture Paris due to the battle of Marne.

3. Russians mobilized and came into the field earlier than had been anticipated and this
forced Germany to move some soldiers from the Western front to counteract the Russian
threat in the east.

4. According to the war plan (the Schlieffen plan) France was expected to be defeated in six
weeks time. And Russia in six months time. But this war which was planned to be short
and quick turned into a war of blockade and attrition. Raw materials were no longer
reaching Germany due to the blockade.

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 5. Germany was fighting a war on two Fronts. After launching an offensive on the west,
Germany was compelled to send some troops to the East to Counter the Russian threat.
On the Western front the Germany forces failed to break through the British
expeditionary force.

6. Germany had weak allies who contributed to the exhaustion of her resources. The fall of
Greece and Turkey was a great blow to Germany as the route to the Mediterranean was
closed.

7. The Germany Coast was blockaded; even the battle of Jutland in 1916 did not break the
blockade. The unrestricted sub marine (U – boat) campaign of 1917 failed due to the
British sea power.

8. The entry of Italy into war her detention of formidable Austrian forces which might have
been deployed elsewhere at critical times weakened the central powers.

9. The entry of the United States of America (USA) brought vast manpower supplies and
Morale to the Allies. At this time Germany forces were losing morale due to Trench War
fare, the dead lock and constant allied bombardments.

10. By 1918 Germany was exhausted and the final assault drained her last resources of
energy and morale. With American support the Allies had sufficient supplies. Mutinies
were the order of the day. Germany had no alternative but to concede defeat.

PROVISIONS OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES MOST RESENTED BY THE

GERMANS.

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty which was signed in 1919 between the
victorious allied powers: France, Britain, Italy and United States of America and the defeated
Germany and this sought to punish Germany as being the causer for the outbreak of the First
World War.

One of the major provisions of the Treaty of Versailles was Germany territorial losses.
The Germans soon discovered that changes had been made on every frontier. Thus they lost
Alsace- Lorraine which they had taken from France in the war of 1871. The rich Saar basin was
to be administered by the League of Nations for fifteen years and a plebiscite was to decide its
future while Rhineland was demilitarized and Germany was banned from keeping troops in the
region. The treat also prohibited any future unity of Austria and Germany. Dazing was to be
become a free city under the League of Nations while Memel, another Germany Baltic port was
too given to Lithuania. Meanwhile, the coal mines were given to France. Germany lost West
Prussia, Silesia and Posen to the re- established nation of Poland so that the Polish Corridor now
separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. That is to say Germans were assigned to
Belgium while North Schlewig was given back to Denmark.

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 Germany lost all her overseas colonies and placed under the various mandates of the
League of Nations and some of them were shared. For instance Britain got West Togo and joined
Ghana at independence while East Togo and Germany Somaliland went to France. Germany
West Africa was given to South Africa and German East Africa to Britain.

In the pacific and South East Asia, Bismarck Archipelago and New Guinea were taken by
Austria. Marshall Islands were obtained by Japan while Samoa I islands went to New Zealand.

To make sure that the Germans would not go to war again, their army was reduced to
100,000 men including Officers. The Air force was banned while the Navy was severely reduced
to six battle ships, six tight cruisers, twelve destroyers and twelve torpedo boats.

The Navy personnel were limited to 15,000 and submarines were out lawed. Germany
was not allowed to manufacture weapons such as tanks and armoured cars.

The Germans hated the Versailles Treat because they saw it as a ‘dik tat’ (forced on them)
and the policy of determination was not applied to Germany. The Germans were forced to accept
the ‘war- guilty clause’ making Germany responsible of having started the war.

But this was not all. She was also forced to pay enormous reparation for damages caused
by the war. The actual amount of these reparations was never fixed although something in excess
of six billion pounds was envisaged. What the Germans resented most was the loss of many
German speaking nationals, valuable resources, industries and loss of territories especially to the
Prussians whom they looked down upon as dung people.

Considering the tremendous losses suffered by the allies during the war and the emotional
propaganda directed against the Germans by allied newspapers and politicians, it is not
surprising that the demands of the victorious nations were harsh and it was this harsh treaty
imposed on Germany that led to rise of Adolph Hitler in power in 1933 and contributed to the
outbreak of the second world war. By 1935 the Germans had not only denounced it, but had also
done away with it completely and there was little the allies could do except sit and watch
helplessly for they too realized their mistakes.

W.WILSON: The US president was arguing contrary to his two friends. He wanted reconciliation
as he realized that revenge would lead to another war in future. He came up with fourteen (14)
points which he hoped would be the basis for the peace settlement.

WILSON’S FOURTEEN (14) POINTS

1. A renunciation of all secret diplomacy

2. A balanced freedom of navigation on the sea both in peace and war zone except in
territorial waters.
3. Removal as far as possible of economic barriers
4. Reduction of armaments (disarmament) to the lowest level

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 5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims
6. Evacuation of Russian territories
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Liberation of France and return of Alsace and Lorraine
9. Re – adjustment of Italian frontiers along recognizable line of nationality.
10. Autonomous development for the people of Austria- Hungary
11. Evacuation of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro with Serbia recovering access to the
sea.
12. Self – development for the non- Turkish people of the Ottoman Empire and free
passage of the Dardanelles.
13. Creation of independent Poland with free and secure access to the sea.
14. Formation of an international organisation to look into issues of peace and security.

LLOYD GEORGE: He was a British representative at the peace settlement and was in favour of
a less severe settlement to enable Germany to recover quickly so that she could her role as a
major customer for British goods. However Lloyd George had just won a election with slogans
such as ‘Hang the Kaiser’ and talk of getting from Germany ‘everything that you can squeeze out
of a lemon and a bit more’. The British public therefore expected a harsh peace settlement but he
settled for a compromise position between Clemenceau ‘Tiger’ and the idealist Woodrow Wilson
of USA.
CLEMENCEAU: He was a French representative who wanted harsh peace to punish and ruin
Germany economically and military so that she could never again threaten French frontiers. He
wanted to make Germany pay and also win permanent security against German aggression. He
was nicknamed ‘the Tiger’.
ORLANDO: He was an Italian representative who wanted Italy to be rewarded territories in
accordance with the London Treaty of 1915. Orlando wanted the ‘terre irridente’ or unredeemed
lands but was disappointed because views/conditions at London treaty differed from those of the
Versailles treaty and he almost came out of the peace conference empty handed. Orlando claimed
that Italians had won the war but lost the peace.

TERMS / PROVISIONS OF THE VERSILES TREATY.

TERRITORIAL LOSSES: Germany was to lose territories in Europe and outside Europe, for
instance Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France, Eupen, Mamedy went to Denmark,
West Prussia and Porsen went to Poland. Dazing main port of West Prussia was to be free city
under the League of nations.

The Port of Mamel went to Lithuania, the Saar an important coal field was to be
administered by the League of nations for fifteen years when a plebiscite would decide whether
it would belong to Germany or France. Meanwhile France was to use its Coal.

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 Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania handed to Germany at Brest-Litovsk were taken away from
Germany and given to Poland.

Germany armament were strictly limited to a maximum of 100,000 soldiers, no

conscription, compulsory military service, no tankers, no armoured cars, no military air craft
service, no submarines only light battle ships. Rhineland was permanently demilitarized
(Germany troops were not allowed in the area.

ANSCHLUSS that is the Union of Germany and Austria – Hungary was forbidden
because of the fear of what would be their strength.

The war guilty clause fixed the blame for out break of the First world War solely on
Germany and her allies (central powers).

Germany was to pay reparations for war damages. Actual amount was not fixed at
Versailles but was announced later in 1921 passed at £ 6,600 million.

Frozed amounts of coal were to be handed to France as fixed number of cattle was to be
handed over to Belgium.

An international organisation for preservation of peace and security was to be set up.
This came up as in the name of the League of Nations.

Germany was de-linked from international trade hence she was not allowed to trade
internationally.

Germany was subjected to a democratic system of government with the establishment of

the Weimer republic.

The Germany had very little choices but to sign the treaty though they strongly objected
and signing took place in the hall of mirrors in the same place where the unification of Germany
had taken place earlier.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

The League of Nations formally came into existence in January 1920 with its headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland. It was brainchild of the then USA President, Woodrow Wilson. The
League’s principle aim was to preserve international peace and security.

AIMS of the LEAGUE of NATIONS

1. To achieve peace through collective security i.e. acting together against an aggressor.

2. To take care of mandated territories.

3. To register and supervise International Agreements.

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 4. To encourage disarmament.

5. To promote International co-operation in economic and social development.

6. To fight against hunger, poverty, diseases, human and drug trafficking, child labour,
slavery and ignorance.

ORGANISATION/STRUCTURE of the LEAGUE.

1. THE ASSEMBLY: It was the Parliament of the League. It comprised representative of all
member states. Each country was represented by a delegation of three but had only one
vote. The Assembly met once a year and in times of emergency. Decisions made by the
Assembly had to be unanimous i.e. had to be agreed by all members. Its functions were:
To admit new members; To elect non-permanent members of the League’s Council; To
propose a revision of new treaties; To approve the League’s budget.

2. THE COUNCIL: The Council was the police force organ of the League. It comprised
four permanent members namely Britain, France, Italy and Japan, and four non-
permanent in 1920. The number of non-permanent members increased to nine by 1926.
The non-permanent served for three years on rotational basis. The Permanent members
had powers to veto decisions i.e. one permanent member could stop the Council acting
even if all other members agreed. It meet three times a year – September, January and
May. It could also call for an emergency meeting when need arose. Any decision taken
had to be unanimous. Its functions were: to deal with specific political disputes as they
arose and recommend to the assembly on specific action to be taken against aggressor
nations; To encourage disarmament; To advise on protection of member states; To
mediate in international disputes;

3. THE SECRETARIAT: It was the Civil Service organ of the League. It was based in
Geneva, Switzerland and was headed by a Secretary General who served on five-year
periods. The functions of the Secretariat were: To carryout day-to-day administration of
the League; To prepare the budget for the League; To send notices and prepare Agendas
for meetings; To provide interpreters, secretaries and other personnel; To keep records of
the League; To fact-find, collect and record information on health and social problems,
disarmament etc.

4. PERMANENT COURT OF JUSTICE: This was established in 1922 at Hague in Holland

and was an International court of appeal. It was also known as the World Court or
Judiciary. It was made up of 15 judges drawn from different member states. Its functions
were: To deal with legal disputes referred to it by member states; To give legal advice on
international disputes. However, the court lacked authority to enforce its decisions.

25
 5. COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES: To deal with other major and specific problems,
the League had the following Commissions and Committees:

a. Disarmament Commission- Its aim was to encourage disarmament and reduction of

armed forces. To try to achieve this, it organised a number of disarmament
conferences e.g. the 1933 Disarmament Conference in Paris, France.

b. Mandates Commission- Its task was to look after the former colonies of defeated
power like Germany and Turkey. The colonies were shared among the Allies under
the supervision of the League of Nations as Mandated Territories. Each Mandate
Power was to administer its mandate territories as a trustee for the benefit of the
colonized peoples and prepare them for independence.

c. Slavery Commission- This worked to abolish slavery around the World.

d. Minorities Commission- This worked to safeguard the interests and rights of the
minority groups.

e. The International Labour Organisation- It was set up to secure international

agreements on wages and conditions of labour i.e. it acted as a watchdog over
conditions of service and salaries for workers in the League’s member states. It
brought together Employers, Governments and Workers’ representatives once in a
year. ILO collected statistics and information about working conditions and it tried to
persuade member countries to adopt its suggestions.

f. Refugees Committee- This helped to return or resettle refugees to their original

homes after the end of the First World War. Much of this committee’s work was done
by Fridtjof Nansen, a Norwegian explorer.

g. Health Committee- This attempted to deal with the problem of dangerous diseases
and to educate people about health and sanitation.

SUCCESSES of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

a. It secured loans for Austria and Hungary to rebuild their economies after the First World
War.

b. It settled border and territorial disputes, e.g.-

- A quarrel between Finland and Sweden over Aaland Islands. The League ruled in
favour of Finland in 1920.

- The League decided that Upper Silesia should be partitioned/divided in 1921

between Germany and Poland, who had both claimed its ownership.

26
 - The League decided that the province of Mosul claimed by Turkey and Iraq goes
to Iraq.

c. It settled a war between Greece and Bulgaria after Greece invaded Bulgaria because of
the shooting incidents on border. The League swiftly intervened by ordering Greece to
withdraw its troops from border and pay compensation to Bulgaria.

d. It settled squabbles between Colombia and Peru, and between Bolivia and Paraguay.

e. It carried out relief work in various countries to help refugees and other affected
peoples. For instance, it solved the problem of former prisoners of war marooned in
Russia at the end of the war. After 1933, valuable help was given to thousands of people
running away from Nazi persecution in Germany.

f. It worked hard to reduce the outbreak of serious epidemics in the post war period .e.g.
the Health Organisation did good work in investigating the causes of epidemics and it
was especially successful in combating the Typhus epidemic in Russia which at once
seemed likely to spread across Europe.

g. It helped in reducing drug trafficking in member countries.

h. It supervised the government of mandates territories through its Mandates Commission.

The commission responsible the administering the Saar coal fields was successful in
organizing the 1935 plebiscite in which the majority voted for the return of the Saar to
Germany.

i. It handed over the port of Memel to Lithuania. This ended the disputes between
Lithuania and Germany over who should own Memel.

j. The International labour organisation under its French socialist Director Albert Thomas
managed to collect and publish huge amount of information and approached many
governments to take action for the improvement of conditions of service i.e. fixed
maximum fort eight hour week and an forty eight hour day; specified minimum wages
and introduced sickness and unemployment benefits and as well as old age pensions.

FAILURES / WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

1. The absence of the United States of America (USA) made the League of Nations weak
in the sense that it deprived the organisation of the much needed financial support from
her.

2. The League of Nations had no army of its own hence it depended on collective security
for maintenance of peace. Therefore, it was difficult to enforce law and order.

27
3. The Conference of Ambassadors in Paris was an embarrassment. The conference was
established to operate temporarily until the machinery of the League became
operational. Unfortunately it continued to operate even after the League of Nations had
become operational. It brought confusion and undermined the authority and
effectiveness of the League of Nations.

4. The League was too closely linked to the Versailles treaty and this made it unpopular
and appears to be an organisation formed to perpetuity the suffering of defeated nations.
It was considered as a club of victorious powers.

5. The League had serious constitutional defects which made it difficult to take swift and
decisive actions for instance, it was difficult to achieve unanimous decision; the
International court of Justices could only handle disputes brought to it by disputing
nations.

6. The League of Nations was Eurocentric in nature and was consequently not supported
by the non European countries.

7. The World Economic crisis of 1929 and the rise of dictators led to the decline of the
League of Nations. The 1929 economic depression brought unemployment and failing
living standards to most countries and caused extreme right wing governments to come
to power in Japan, Italy and Germany. These dictators refused to keep to the rules and
took a series of factions which exposed the League’s weaknesses.

8. Other important powers were not involved: Germany was not allowed to join until 1926
but finally withdraw from the League in 1933. USSSR only became a member in 1934.
Italy left the League in 1936 after the invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and Japan also
left in 1933 after the invasion of Manchuria.

9. Failure of the 1932 -33 World Disarmament Conference made Hitler withdraw Germany
from the League of Nations.

10. Lack of commitment by Britain and France to the cause of the League. The policy of
appeasement towards Germany weakened the effectiveness of the League and gave
Hitler chance to commit acts of aggression.

11. The League was financially weak therefore it depended on contributions from member
countries which were not forth coming.

12. The big powers never respected the League. They resolved their differences outside the
League.

13. International interest was subordinate to National interest as a result League was
rendered toothless.

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BENITO MUSSOLINI IN ITALY

Mussolini was born at Dovia in 1883. His father was a blacksmith. Mussolini was an
average student but managed to complete his education. He trained as a teacher, but only taught
for a short time and resigned. He chanced a job as the editor of a socialist paper called Avanti. He
used his position to criticize the monarchy, the church, Italian nationalism and imperialism. He
lost his job as journalist when he joined the army and fought in the First World War. He fought
bravely and rose to the rank of corporal.

After the First World War, Mussolini was one of the ex-servicemen who were unhappy
with the situation in Italy as he was unemployed Benito Mussolini was the founder of the
National Fascist Party formed in March 1919 and ruled Italy from 1924 to 1943.

The Fascist Party was made up of ex- soldiers, industrialists; unemployed youths and some
church

members who feared Communist takeover. Italy’s post war economic and social problems
frustrated most

Italian and forced them to support extremist parties like the Fascist.

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED MUSSOLNI TO RISE TO POWER

After the First World War, Italy was in disorder and faced many problems. Italians were
not happy because post - war payments to Italy during the peace Treaty of Paris were not
satisfactory according to the London Treaty of 1915 concluded Between Italy and the western
allies.

Italy had hoped to gain Dalmatia, Albania and some other colonies of Germany and
Turkey but she only gained Tyrol, Istria and Trentino. Mussolini’s propaganda promise to gain
colonies for Italy by force became popular.

Land shortage, rapid population growth and the restriction on emigration to the USA
worsened the problem of land shortage.

Numerous political parties; the multi- party system and lack of experience in democracy
led to the rise of numerous political parties.

Coalition governments which ruled Italy after the First World War lasted for short period.
Mussolini was seen as a strongman who could bring about political stability.

Mussolini promised to give back the church property from government seized in 1070.
This made him win the support of the Roman Catholic Church. He also won support of the
business community and King Emmanuel II who feared a communist revolution in Italy.

29
 Disparity in economic development between the industrial north and the agricultural
south produced political disunity.

Inflation and prices rose by 500 percent from 1915 to 1919, unemployment was worsened
by demobilization of the army and the return of ex - soldiers after the war.

There was also reduction in the production of goods. The unemployment crowded the
cities and there was widespread violence, riots, strikes and demonstrations which led to the total
breakdown of law and order.

The Fascist Party employed the Black Shirts which was the military wing of the party to
carry out terrorist acts against their opponents and soon people began to support the black Shirts
as they appeared more organized and stronger than the police.

Mussolini demanded cabinet posts in 1921 when twenty- two fascists were elected to
parliament. His demand was however rejected,

The 1922 general strike led by the socialist party, presented Mussolini with an
opportunity to seize power. The Fascist Black shirt went on a march to Rome to suppress the
general strike. Fearing a possible Civil war Between the Communists and the fascist, king Victor
Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister October, 1922.

In 1923, Mussolini organized general elections because he wanted to gain majority seats
in parliament due to rigging of votes and intimidation and cheating by party militants the Fascist
party won elections amid criticism from the Socialist Party led by Giacomo Mattioti. Mattioti
was murdered at Mussolini‘s orders.

When the socialist members of parliament marched out of parliament in protest.

Mussolini expelled them from the house permanently.

MUSSOLINI’S DOMESTIC POLICY

AIM

The aim of Mussolini in his home/ domestic policy was to strengthen Italy through the method of
dictatorship and totalitarianism.

HOW HE DID THIS

To strengthen his political power, Mussolini formed a coalition government with the
Liberal party in 1922. he kept the important posts of Prime Minister, Minister of Home Affairs
and Minister of foreign Affairs for himself.

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 Mussolini introduced a new electoral law in 1923 called the Acerbo Law. Any party
which got 25 percent of the votes could get two third of the parliamentary seats. He rigged the
elections of 1924 and his fascist party got two third of the seats in the parliament. When socialist
MPs protested he expelled them from Parliament. Mussolini’s changed the constitution in 1926
and banned all political parties, except the Fascist Party.

Another election law in 1926 gave Mussolini and his Fascist Grand Council the power to
nominate MPs. Elections were abolished.

In order to make Italy self-sufficient in food especially wheat, an agricultural project

called the “Battle of Wheat’ was introduced. Under the (Battle for land), Mountain sides were
ploughed the Pontine Marshes near Rome were drained and land distributed to peasants, thus
grain production increased.

The “Battle for Births” was aimed at increasing the population and raise a large army for
colonial conquests.

The “Battle for the Lira” was aimed at making the lira stable during the Great depression
of 1929-1933. Salaries of workers were lowered but strikes were banned.

Public works created employment. Marshes were drained, roads, railways, bridges, canals
and electricity power stations were built to make transportation easy.

In the field of education, Mussolini ordered the re-writing of all text books and teaching
materials to include fascist propaganda like: Mussolini is always right, Italy had won the First
World War for the allies, and Italians are the master race and the strongest. The education system
was expanded and high institutions of learning established to provide the necessary skilled and
semi skilled manpower needed in the factories and industries. Emphasis was put on new
technology through the teaching of science in schools.

The Lateran Treaty and the Concordat of 1929 ended the old dispute Between the
Catholic Church and the State. The Pope recognized Mussolini’s government. In exchange the
Pope was given the Vatican City. The Roman Catholic faith became a state religion and the
government paid compensation to the church for the property seized by the government in 1870.
Catholic priests were paid by the government.

Italy became a corporate state. Trade unions and strikes were banned. Unions were
replaced by co operations consisting of fascist officials, employers and employees.

MUSSOLINI’S AIMS AND MAIN EVENTS OF HIS FOREIGN POLICY.

When he came to power as ruler of Italy in 1934, Benito Mussolini followed an

aggressive and dangerous foreign policy which was mainly guided by extreme nationalism.

AIM
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Mussolini had a number of foreign policy objectives which he desired to achieve for Italy:
Mussolini wanted the restoration of the ancient Roman Empire and the pride of Italians. He also
wanted compensation for Italy which she was denied at the Treaty of Versailles settlement. His
other objectives were to set up a colonial empire for Italy in Africa and secure the security of
Italy’s northern border and to control the Mediterranean Sea.

COURSE

The main events in Mussolini’s foreign policy are as follows: In 1923 an Italian General
and members of the Italian commission while trying to settle a dispute on the Greek border were
murdered. Mussolini accused Greece for the murder of the General and demanded compensation
and an apology. Greece wanted the matter to be settled by the League of Nations but Mussolini
refused the League to intervene and before any final solution could be found on the matter,
Mussolini invaded and occupied the Greek port of Corfu.

Mussolini then invaded Abyssinia in 1935, after the Italians occupation of Somaliland
and Eritrea as he wanted to expand into this ancient Kingdom. The Italian Air force bombarded
Addis Ababa from the air and the army seized the capital and forced the leaders into exile.
Mussolini declared Italian King Victor Emmanuel III as the emperor of Abyssinia. The League of
Nations condemned Italy and banned shipment of arms but there was no ban on the oil, coal iron
and steel and the sanctions were too late and ineffective. Mussolini angered by criticism over his
action especially by Britain and France withdrew Italy from the League of Nations in protest in
1936 but Ethiopia remained under Fascist occupation until 1943.

Mussolini interfered in the Spanish civil war of 1936 to 1939, He poured troops and
weapons in the Spain in support of General Franco who wanted to set up a Nazi type of
dictatorship in Spain. This led to tension among European powers.

In 1937 Italy joined the anti- commintern pact between Germany and Japan which was
formed in 1936 to fight against Russian international communism. The new alliance became
known as the Rome- Berlin- Tokyo Axis. This was a military pact which was aimed at promoting
cooperation between member states in international matters, fighting socialism and communism.
The Rome- Berlin- Tokyo Axis put Mussolini in a difficult position to resist Hitler when the
Nazis seized Austria in 1938. The Germany now had a common border with Italy.

In 1939, Mussolini seized Albania in his attempt to build better relations with the Balkan
States especially Albania which received much Italian aid.

Germany successes in the First World War in 1940 impressed Mussolini and in June 1940
he declared war on Britain and France. The French and the Greeks defeated Italy in 1940 and in
the same year British forces drove Italian forces out of Egypt.

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 By 1943, Italy lost Somaliland, Eritrea and Mussolini was voted out of power by the
Fascist Grand Council and was kept under house arrest. Mussolini was short dead by the Fascists
in 1945.

THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

The Weimar Republic was the name given to the maiden democratic republic born in
1919 out of war-torn Germany. After the death of Kaiser William II, socialist politicians led by
Friedrich Ebert then met in a quiet rural town in Germany called Weimar on 10 th November,
1918 and came up with a constitution to bring about democracy to Germany.

TERMS OF THE WEIMAR CONSTITUTION

The following were the terms of the Weimar Constitution which came into effect on 19 th
November, 1918.

(i) Term of office for an elected president was fixed at seven years.
(ii) The Chancellor and his Cabinet held real power
(iii) The Chancellor and the Cabinet were held responsible by the Reichstag (Legislative
Council).
(iv) Germans of twenty years and above elected the Reichstag
(v) The Chancellor was elected by popular vote
(vi) Representation in the Reichstag was by proportional vote by all political parties
whether big or small.
(vii) Political parties to campaign in the general election were formed.
(viii) The President could suspend the constitution and rule by degree in case of national
emergency.
WEAKNESS OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC.

From the beginning the Weimar republic had numerous weaknesses and problems as
follows:

Firstly the choice of the town, Weimar was a wrong one because Weimar was a rural and
insignificant town, so it did not inspire most of the powerful Germany groups. It was connected
with inferiority by groups such as army officers, state officials, landowners and industrialists. So
the government which was formed lacked the loyalty of these powerful groups.

The new government was imposed on Germany by the victorious allied powers; it was
therefore, opposed, hated and not accepted by many Germans especially the conservatives.

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 Hunger and unemployment brought untold misery to the Germany population. There
were widespread riots, demonstration and general lawlessness incited by the Russian Communist
revolutions forcing Kaiser William II to abdicate the throne to Prince Marx who was also forced
to hand over power to Ebert, leader of the German Social Democratic Party.

There was no limit to the number of political parties to be formed, so several political
parties came up, of which twenty four were the popular ones.

Proportional vote representation in the Reichstag of all the political parties brought a lot
of confusion. Lack of experience and respect for a democratic government caused further
problems.

The government was too tolerant of groups hostile to democracy, like the Nazi Party and
Communist, so these built up their own private armies. This was a recipe for chaos.

PROBLEMS OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

The disunity in the country encouraged revolts and coup attempts organized by people
from both the right and left wings. In 1919 socialist leaders Karl Liebnecht and Rosa Luxemburg
organized a revolt called Spartacist rising. In 1920, a right wing attempted coup was organized
by Derkapp and General Von Luthwitz. Both rebellions were crushed. In 1923, Hitler organized
the Beer hall Putsch which also failed and Hitler was imprisoned for nine months. The new
government had now become so unpopular as it failed to maintain law and order.

In 1920, when Germany failed to raise 100 million pounds to pay reparations due to the
instability of the Weimar republic, France occupied the Ruhr Industrial area in a bid to force
Germany to pay promptly. The Germany workers in the Ruhr out of Germany and imposed duty
on all goods leaving the Ruhr to Germany.

The results of the French occupation of the Ruhr region were disastrous. There was a
decline in the production of food and inflation rose sharply in Germany while unemployment
rose with dismissed workers and demobilized soldiers. Germany was declared bankrupt and the
Treaty of Versailles which imposed severe penalties on Germany made her economic recovery
almost impossible.

Germany workers went on strike demanding for their salaries as well as salary increase
since prices had gone up due to unstable government and economic weakness of Germany at the
end of the First World War.

To try and answer all these problems, the government printed a lot of money and this led
the currency becoming valueless.

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 In 1929, the economic recovery enjoyed under Gustav stress man came to an end
following his death and the coming of the World depression. The U.S.A government withdrew its
dollar loans it gave to Germany to support Dawe’s plan which wanted to revive Germany
economy. The results of the withdrawal of American loans to Germany were devastating to
Germany‘s economic growth.

Emergency measures were instituted and this included cuts in the public expenditure,
insurance benefits, unemployment benefits, salaries for civil servants. The closure of public
works and services threw six million Germans out of jobs by 1930. The resultant problems
particularly unemployment led to the popularity of the Nazi Party under Adolph Hitler.

GERMANY UNDER HITLER.

BACK GROUND TO HITLER.

Hitler was born in 1889 at Braunau, Austria – Hungary, in the United Germany. Hitler
joined the army and fought for his country against the Allied powers in the First World War of
1914 to 1918. Unfortunately for him his country was defeated.

STAGES AND REASONS FOR HITLER’S RISE TO POWER IN GERMANY IN 1934.

He joined the Nazi Party in 1919. This Party was made up of disappointed people and
when Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party, he blamed the Treaty of Versailles and
democracy for most of Germany’s problems.

Beer Hall Putsch.

In 1923, Hitler attempted to seize power in a Beer Hall Putsch but his coup attempt was
crushed by soldiers. Hitler was imprisoned to five years prison term but served only for nine
months. During his stay in prison, he wrote a book entitled ‘Mein Kempf’ meaning my struggle,
in this book he outlined his aims in the foreign policy.

Hitler’s personality

He came out of jail determined never to try a violent revolution again. He realized that
for the Nazis to seize power in Germany, they must win the support of the majority of the
Germans so that the Nazis dominate the Reichstag. Hitler was a talented orator (fluent public
speaker) and brilliant organizer who devoted most of his time and energy to the organization of
the Nazi Party. His attractive and effective propaganda which appealed and impressed the
unemployed,

The demobilized soldiers

35
 The demobilized soldiers and those whose wealth and hopes were lost in the post- war
problems of Germany, also helped him to rise to power. In 1924, Hitler and the Nazi Party stood
for elections and gained fourteen (14) seats out of 612 seats in parliament. In 1924, Hitler was
not very popular as Germany economy began to show signs of some improvement following the
reforms introduced by Stressman. In 1928 elections were held again and the Nazi scored even
less votes – they got twelve (12) seats in the Reichstag.

The death of Stressman and Economic factors

In 1929 the death of Stresemann and the world depression led the Germans losing their
sense of direction and Hitler gained popularity.

There was reduction in the production of essential goods, inflation and unemployment in
the Country. Most Germans lost hope and faith in the government and were prepared to support
the Nazi Party which promised to provide a strong and effective government.

Hitler impressed the millions of Germans who became jobless as a result of the world
depression. Through his opposition to communism, Hitler won support of the big landowners
and industrialists who feared communist takeover. These wealthier businessmen funded his
campaigns (by printing his campaign materials) and the plane they bought for him made him to
be more mobile than his opponents.

As Hitler wanted the unity of all Germans, his campaigns appealed to the German spirit
of nationalism- hence his support. Most Germans were militarists and thus Hitler‘s call for the
reversal of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and promise of rebuilding German’s armed forces
earned him a large following.

In 1930, therefore, Hitler got 107 seats in parliament while his nearest rival, the
Communist Party scored seventy seven (77) seats. In 1932, Hitler stood for presidency against
Hindenburg. Hitler scored fourteen (14) million votes against Hindenburg’s nineteen million
votes.

In 1933, Hitler was appointed by Hindenburg as Germany chancellor and called for
general elections in the same year. His aim was to secure majority seats in parliament. A day
before the elections , the parliament building was burnt by Hitler ‘s agents but the blame was put
on the socialist MP who was found in the building and this bred anti-socialist feelings and
brightened Hitler ‘s political chances.

In 1934, Hindenburg died and Hitler combined the posts of presidency and Chancellery
until his death in 1945 – the Weimar republic was no more.

HITLER’S HOME POLICY UP TO SEPTEMBER, 1939

36
 When Hitlerassumed power in 1934 his home policy was aimed at removing opposition
to his rule and Nazi control of all aspects of the life of Germany was obtained in a variety of
ways.

Hitler‘s main aim in his home policy was to ban all political parties other than the Nazi
party. Trade Unions were abolished, their leaders arrested and executed without trial. All workers
were compelled to join the German labour front which dealt with all industrial disputes and
related problems. Workers wages and prices of goods were fixed by the government and strikes
were outlawed. The state governments and parliaments were abolished and Germany ceased to
be a federation.

The German civil service and judiciary were brought under Nazi control, so that there
was no protection for anybody that the Nazis wished to terrorise. The press, radio and all forms
of art and literature were subjected to a deadening censorship. Education was controlled and
school textbooks were re- written to suit Nazi values.

Roehm, commander of the SA (Nazi Army) had greatly helped Hitler to get into power.
When Hitler came to power, Roehm had hoped to become Defense Minister and expected Hitler
to make the SA the backbone of the Germany army which could not happen. Roehm was also in
favour of social reforms while Hitler wanted nationalism. Hitler began to perceive Roehm as a
threat and so on 30th June 1934 Roehm and other opponents to Hitler‘s rule were arrested and
executed all over Germany. At least 150 people lost their lives on this day which became to be
known as the ‘night of long knives’. Hitler replaced the SA with the SS (elite fighting Group)
and the Gestapo (secret police). By July 1934, Hitler had eliminated all his opponents.

In 1936, the Nuemberg laws on race were enacted and deprived the Jews of the
citizenship rights, forbade any marriage between Jews and non- Jews and nationalized Jewish
property. Jews were forced to sweep streets and wear a barge around the neck called the ‘Star of
David’. The Jews suffered because they were accused of supporting the enemy during the World
War One. Many Jews went into voluntary exile and millions were killed in gas chambers.

The great estates were sub- divided into small units and those who opposed the move
were sent to concentration camps where they suffered barbaric punishments and death.

In August, 1934, Hindenburg had died and Hitler in addition to being Chancellor became
both president and commander-in- chief of the Armed Forces.

Meanwhile, the government embarked on public works in the form of construction of

houses, roads, railways, schools hospitals, and land reclamation, conscription into the army and
re- establishment of re- armament factories. This employed a growing number of people and the
German economy had begun to recover.

37
 Although Hitler’s home policies were very radical, the German people supported his
regime which had ended disorder, removed unemployment and through its foreign policy
brought back national prestige.

HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY

When Hitler came to power 1934, he wanted to achieve so much for Germany. Some people
believe that Hitler was an improviser who reacted to events, while others believe that he had a
number of more of less precise objectives and had a planned time table for achieving them.

AIMS OF HITLER IN HIS FREIGN POLICY

Firstly Hitler’s main aim was to restore Germany’s military strength to its position before
the First World War. He further wanted to regain territories lost by Germany as result of the
Versailles Treaty for example Danzig and the Polish Corridor. Secondly, Hitler wanted to cancel
those parts of the Treaty of Versailles he disliked.

Thirdly, he also wanted to improve on Bismarck’s work of unification by uniting all German
-speaking people under one flag and one Germany government, the Reich. Fourthly, was to
undermine the League of Nations and French influence. Lastly, He aimed at purification of the
German race Aryan.

In trying to achieve his aims, Hitler became aggressive and in the process he broke
international laws and agreements particularly those connected to the Treaty of Versailles and
League of Nations. While Britain and France wanted peace and hence following the policy of
appeasement.

POLICY OF APPEASEMENT.

The policy of appeasement basically stood for avoiding war with aggressive powers by giving
way to their demands. Unfortunately this policy soon turned into a negative policy especially
between 1919 1939.

HOW HITLER ACHIEVED HIS AIMS.

Geneva Disarmament Conference and League of Nations

In 1934, Hitler withdrew from the Geneva Disarmament Conference and League of Nations
because France rejected to Germany’s request to increase her armament levels. A month later,
Hitler embarked on an ambitious and massive conscription and re- armament programme a move
seen as a direct violation of the terms of the treaty of Versailles settlement concerning
disarmament of Germany.

Occupation of Austria:

38
 Hitler wanted Germany to unite with Austria (Anschluss) which was Germany speaking
and his country of birth as he grew up in Vienna.

He encouraged the formation of the Nazi party in Austria. In 1934 Austria Nazis
assassinated the Austrian Chancellor Dollfus and attempted to take over power with the help of
Hitler’s troops but failed. New Austrian Chancellor Schuscnigg asked for Mussolini’s help.

Mussolini sent troops to Brennerpass and prevented the German occupation of Austria.
However, in 1938 the Austrian Nazi leader Seys Inqwart attempted to overthrow Chancellor
Schuscnigg but failed.

Occupation of the Rhineland

In 1936 Hitler took advantage of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia to send troops to
occupy the demilitarised Rhineland. The gamble paid off as there was little or no protest against
Hitler’s action.

Occupation of the Sudetenlands and Czechoslovakia

The Sudetenland was a province of Czechoslovakia which had over three million German
nationals. Hitler desired to incorporate those into the German Reich. He encouraged the
formation of a Nazi party in the Sudetenland. Later he claimed that the Germans in the
Sudetenland had been denied the right of self determination and were persecuted by the Czechs.

The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain held a series of meetings, one of which
was the Munich Conference of September 1938 which gave the Sudetenland to Hitler. Within
weeks of occupying the Sudetenland, German troops occupied half of Czechoslovakia (Bohemia
and Moravia)

Occupation of Poland.

Poland was created by the Versailles Treaty. It included former German territories such as
Posen, Silesia, Western Silesia and the Port of Danzig which was administered by the League of
Nations.

Eastern Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor. Hitler
wanted to invade Poland and retake all the land that she had lost under the Treaty of Versailles

In 1934 Germany and Poland signed a ten year non - aggression pact. By 1939 Germany
had become strong and Hitler was determined to recapture land that German had lost to Poland
following the Versailles Treaty.

The invasion and occupation of Poland was preceded by the signing of the Nazi - Soviet
Pact which assured Hitler of the neutrality of Russia in the event of war against Poland. Also
signed the Pact of steel which assured Hitler of Italy’s support in war.

39
 On 1st September German invasion of Poland begun and on 3rd September, Britain and
France declared war on Germany and the Second World War begun.

Hitler interfered in the Spanish Civil war in 1936 to help General Franco establish a Nazi
type of dictatorship in Spain. He then took Germany into alliance with Italy and Japan which
became popularly known as Rome – Berlin – Tokyo Axis, arrived at helping Italy and to crush
communism- a move aimed at frustrating the work of the League of Nations. Germany troops on
Hitler’s orders marched in Austria in 1938 and became the real ruler of that country for the next
seven years.

In 1939, Hitler annexed the whole of Czechoslovakia instead of Sudetenland, which were
full of Germany population and installed a Nazi controlled government there. Britain and France
took no action and war appeared eminent.

Hitler wished to get living space for the Germans by defeating the Slavs and the Poles. In
August 1939 he signed the Nazi – Soviet Pact which was a non- aggressive pact in which he
deceived Russians that he was for peace Hitler and Stalin agreed to share Poland. In 1939
Germany prisoners dressed in Germany Army uniforms were killed along the German – Polish
border. Hitler claimed and announced that Poland attacked and killed the Germans at the border
post and declared war on Poland. Britain and France wanted to protect Poland from Germany
aggression and so on 3rd September, 1939 declared war on Germany- the Second World War had
began.

Hitler achieved most of his unscrupulous, ruthless and aggressive foreign policy objectives but at
a great cost because he took the world down with him when he plunged it into six years of the
most brutal, destructive and devastating war ever fought.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

CAUSES

TheWorld experienced the most wide spread, horrifying and destructive war in its history,
the Second World War from 1939 to 1945.There were several factors which caused the Second
World War which included the following:

1. Aggression and greed of Hitler

The Aggression and greed of Hitler who wanted to rule the World. And because of
distrust among the main nations especially Britain and France these could not cooperate against
the dictators.

2. The rise of dictatorship

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 The rise of dictatorship in Europe to replace weak democratic governments after the First
World War. This greatly contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War as countries like
Germany and Italy under dictatorship governments carried out acts of aggression by attacking
other nations which caused a lot of tension in Europe and their hostile propaganda helped their
nations develop hatred for other groups of people and prepared them psychologically for war.

3. Spirit of nationalism and the theory of fatherland

Hitler in Germany encouraged the spirit of nationalism and the theory of fatherland
among Germany minorities in the neighbouring countries. This led to violent campaign by
Germans in Austria and Sudetenland for a union with Germany. For example Italy invaded the
Greeks port of Corfu in 1923 and Ethiopia in 1936. Japan invaded the Chinese province of
Manchuria in 1931. Germany occupied the demilitarised Rhineland in 1936 and seized Austria in
1938. Germany‘s occupation of other countries also caused tension. Japan was guilty of
aggression but the League of Nations was too weak especially in dealing with aggression.

4. Failure of disarmament

The failure of disarmament also contributed to the Great War. When Hitler withdrew
Germany from the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1934, this led to failure of disarmament.
Germany later embarked on an ambitious and massive rearmament programme in the same year.
Germany‘s rearmament led to the armament race which contributed to so much tension and
threat to peace in Europe. The world was already in a state of readiness for war as a result of the
arms race. Meanwhile, France which declined in its military power failed to provide an effective
check or keep the balance of power in Europe.

5. The Two rival and hostile camps

By 1939 Europe was clearly divided into two rival and hostile camps as a result of
military pacts and alliances prior to the war such as the Rome- Berlin- Tokyo Axis, Locarno Pact
and Nazi Soviet Pact. While a dispute between two defensive camps could not have caused war,
their ambitions and attitudes made war more likely.

6. Policy of appeasement

In addition, the Anglo- French policy of appeasement after the First World war
contributed to the war.

7. Peace treaty of Paris of 1919

Another cause was the Peace treaty of Paris of 1919 which was unsatisfactory to many
nations such as Italy, Austria- Hungary, Turkey Germany and Russia. This also brought about
unbalanced military power among nations.

8. Conquest for living space

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 Further more, Hitler’s desire to achieve the conquest for living space in the east led to the
Second World War. Hitler demanded the surrender of the Czechoslovakian province of
Sudetenland accusing Czechoslovakia of ill- treatment of millions of Germans in the region.
When his demand was rejected Hitler sent an ultimatum to Czechoslovakia giving 1 st October
1938 as deadline for the surrender of the territory. By the Munich Pact of September 1938, an
agreement was reached by Chamberlain, Hitler, Mussolini and Daladier who were in attendance
to grant Hitler Sudetenland despite protection from Czechoslovakia as a peaceful settlement to
the problem instead of confrontation over Hitler’s demands. In October, 1938 the Germany
troops marched into Sudetenland and Hitler deceived Chamberlain that he had no more territorial
claims in Europe. But by 1939, Germany troops invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. This
aroused so much tension- the appeasement policy was a complete failure and war was eminent.

Reinforced with the knowledge that he was no longer faced with the prospect of two front
wars after the Nazi – Soviet Pact of August 1939, Hitler invaded Poland on 1 st September 1939.
Britain and France in support of Poland declared war on Germany on 3 rd September, 1939- the
world was at war again.

THE COURSE OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR.

1. Germany invades Poland.

It all started when Germany invaded Poland on 1st September 1939. Britain and France in
support of Poland declared war on Germany on 3 rd September, 1939. Russia joined in that attack
of Poland by capturing small parts of Finland. This was in accordance with the Soviet – German
pact of 1939.

2. Norway attacked

April 1940, Norway was attacked and defeated by Germany. The reason for attack was
the greed of Hitler and his love for power. Hitler won the war because of using superior weapons
and enjoying the support of countries already under Germany control, but more especially
because of the help received from the Norwegian Nazi leader called Major Quising. On 10 th May
1940, Belgium, Holland, the Balkans, Luxembourg and Switzerland were all attacked by Hitler.
The reason for this was that Hitler wanted ton use them as neutrals, which showed, his greed and
love for world power. They all surrendered one by one. This was because they were taken by
surprise as thought they were neutrals.

3. Germany declares war on France

On 10th May, France was attacked by Germany with the help of the neutrals and defeated
nations. She surrendered on 22nd June 1940, and two – thirds of France was occupied by
Germany, leaving one – third under the control of General Petain who was a puppet of Hitler at
Vichy, his capital. France was defeated because of lack of mechanisation in her army, the

42
Maginot mentality, superior weapons used by Germany and the support Hitler got from the
conquered nations under his control. Britain tried to help out France but came in late, so she only
gave limited aid. British soldiers who were sent to help out France were caught and were
stranded at Dunkirk beaches until they were evacuated to Britain by British planes and ships.

4. Italy joins the Second World War

On 10th June 1940, Italy joined the Second World War on the side of Hitler. She declared
war on Britain and France but physically attacked Greece and Yugoslavia. However, Italy was
very weak and was about to be defeated when Germany came to her aid and conquered both
countries by April 1941

5. War on the sea.

The Atlantic Ocean was attacked in 1940 by Germany through sinking United States and
British cargo and warships. The reason was that these ships were carrying support to the enemy
nations against Germany.

6. War in the North and Far East

North Africa and Middle East were all attacked by Italy in 1940 on behalf of Germany.
The main aim here was to capture the Suez Canal, to be used as a strategic port and the Middle
East oil fields to be used in the war. However, Italy was weak, so Germany had to send General
Rommel to help her.

7. Germany declares war on Denmark

In 1941, Denmark was attacked and defeated by Germany. The cause of this attack was
Hitler’s greed and love for world power. Hitler won this invasion.

8. Operation Sea Lion

This is the code name for the attack of Britain by Germany from August to September
1940.Winston Churchill was the Prime minister of Britain, he took a number of measures to
prepare for the Operation Sea Lion. The course of this operation was as follows; Germany sent
field Marshal Goering to man the Operation Sea Lion with his Navy and Luftwaffe (air force).
He started off by:

(i) Ordering an attack on the southern coast harbours with aim of blocking the island.
This move failed

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 (ii) Ordering the bombing of London, the capital, for three weeks during the day. The aim
here was to gain control of the air space but this move also proved a failure as the
RAF managed to beat off the attacks. The use of Radar System coupled with heroism
was more than a march for Goering.
(iii) Bombing Britain as a whole to weaken the defence force at night, but it also failed
due to the heroism of RAF and the Radar System.
The failure of these attacks meant Britain was not defeated by Germany, probably saving the
whole world from Nazi domination as Germany was checked for the first time.

9. Operation Barbarossa (22nd June 1941)

This was the code name given to the attack of Russia by Germany. Reasons for this attack
were as

follows:

(i) Hitler wanted to carve out more living space for the Germans in Russia when they would
be

controlling the whole world.

(ii) Hitler regarded Russians as sub- humans only fit as slaves of the Germans.

(iii) Germany needed the Wheatland of the Ukraine and the oil fields of the Caucasus, which
were

all in the hands of Russia.

During the Operation Barbarossa Britain and the USA promised support to USSR and
helped through offering supplies but USSR had to depend on her own armies and arms supplies.
It was a bitter war and the Soviet Union soldiers put up a great resistance helped by the severe
Russian winter, for which the German soldiers were not adequately prepared. In January 1943,
the German soldiers were defeated and surrendered at Stalingrad.

10. Pearl Habour saga

The Far East, Japan was the strongest power which before the war began, had already
occupied huge areas in China, Hong Kong, Indo – China and Korea. When Germany invaded the
Soviet Union in June 1941, Japan decided to join the war on the side of Germany.

On Sunday 7th December, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Habour, a United States of America
base in Hawaii. Many air force planes and battleships were destroyed. This action by Japan
forced America to join the war on the side of the Allied Powers. Meaning the Axis powers were
now facing too many powerful nations a sign of near defeat.

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11. Operation Jubilee 1942

This was the name given to the first move by the allied forces to counter attack Germany.
This attack was on Festung Europa, a European fortress made up of the Germany – occupied
countries in the West. This was Hitler’s idea to prevent a major allied assault on the continent, so
he used forced labour gangs to build the west wall.

The allies wanted to switch off Germany quickly by destroying her where she was
strongest and consequently waged a full-scale invasion of Europe and Festung Europe using
several regiments such as the Royal Marine Commandos, Canadian Infantry Regiments and
Royal Regiments of Canada.

The outcome was complete disaster to Allied forces as each one of these regiments was
defeated by Hitler.

The lesson learnt by the Allied planners was not to wage a full scale invasion of Europe
at a heavily defended port. They decided to attack from different directions.

12. The Defeat of Italy

By June 1944 Italy was defeated. She surrendered on 29 th April 1945.the same month, the
Soviet Union forces and American forces met in Berlin, Germany. On 30 th April 1945, Hitler
killed himself and was succeeded by Admiral Doenitz who on 7 th May accepted the
unconditional Germany surrender at Reims in France. This marked the end of the war in Europe.

13. Hiroshima and Nagasaki

In the Far East the Japanese were proving very strong for the American forces. However
the Japanese military strength was tremendously reduced when the Americans for the first time
in the world, used the nuclear bombs. One as dropped at Hiroshima on 6 th August, 1945 and the
other was dropped at Nagasaki on 9th August.

Their devastating effects on human life led to a quick unconditional surrender by Japan
nd
on 2 September, 1945 marking the end of the Second World War between the Allied Powers led
by France, Britain, Russia and later joined by USA and Central or axis Powers led by Germany,
Italy, Japan and other countries in Eastern Europe.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Loss of Life.

The Second World War led to loss of life. For example over eight million Germans died
in the war, over twelve million people in the soviet union perished, six million polish died and
million were dead in France, Britain and the United States as a direct or indirect result of the war.

45
2. Loss of Property

The U.S.SR had the worst property damage as a result of the war. Her total damage was
estimated at over Thirty million British Pounds Sterling. European cities, especially in
continental Europe, were left in ruins. In all, Europe was completely devastated by the war.

3. Formation of The United Nations Organisation (U.N.O.)

The 1941 document, called the Atlantic Charter, prepared by Roosevelt and Churchill,
President of the U.S.A and Prime Minister of Britain respectively, became the basis on which
United Nation Organization was formed. This new peace organization promised to keep peace,
encourage co-operation between nations and defend human rights. It also promised to attack
problems of mankind such as ignorance, disease, hunger and poverty.

4. Broking down of War Time Alliances

After the war, the wartime alliance between the U.S.SR and the U.S.A broke down. It was
later replaced with the cold war. There was a clear confrontation in Europe between these two
Super Powers of the world. The U.S.A was trying to stop the Soviet Union intrusion into Europe.
She was fighting the increasing communism that was being ‘infiltrated’ into the democratic
capitalist Europe.

5. Formation of Communist Satellite.

By the end of the war, the USSR had taken over land in excess of 300, 000 square
kilometers and controlled over 22 million people in the East European countries. Her influence
had extended over 500 kilometers west of her 1939 western border. Thus, the whole of Eastern
Europe became a communist satellite under the USSR and the west of Europe was capitalist
democratic Europe under the United States of America. This scenario was what Churchill had
predicated in 1946, when he said an iron curtain had descended over Europe. He was the one
who coined the term “Iron Curtain”

6. Creation of Two Defensive Alliances.

The cold war that developed after the second European war led to the creation of two defensive
alliances by the two super powers – the U.S.S.R and the U.S.A the two powers were fearing and
distrusting each other after the war. One of the defensive alliances was the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation formed in 1949 and comprising the U.S.A, Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg,
Canada, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Italy and Portugal. It was later joined by Greece and Turkey.
The other one was the Warsaw Pact formed by the USSR and its east European communist
satellites as members.

7. Dividing of Germany

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 One of major effects of the war was the dividing of Germany, Hitler’s land into two, one
controlled by the U.S.SR soldiers and the other controlled by the U.S.A., French and British
forces, the French zone and the U.S.SR zone. The British, French and American zones took the
Western side of Germany while the USSR took the Eastern side of the country, which included
Berlin, a Germany city which was over 200 kilometers from the Western side of country, yet the
city was also divided into zones. The Western side of the city was taken by the Americans,
British and French while the Eastern side of the city was in the hands of the Soviet Union.

8. Division of Europe.

Hitler’s aim was to conquer and unite Europe. He also wanted to re – establish the pre-
Versailles treaty German Empire. Unfortunately the war he started divided Europe into two
zones, the East and the West the Eastern part was under the communist he hated most. Worse
still, his own country was divided into two, East and West Germany.

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

STEPS LEADING TO THE FORMATION OF UNO.

The United Nations Organisation (UNO) is the successor of the League of Nations. The
idea of forming UNO arose from the Roosevelt – Churchill meeting of the Atlantic Charter of
1941. The Washington D.C meeting took place in 1941 and approved the Charter as an important
document upon which a future peace plan could be based.

A detailed plan was finally made in 1943 during the Moscow meeting based on the
Atlantic Charter and the aims of the League of Nations. Great Britain, United States of America
(USA), Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and China were the four allied powers
behind the formation of UNO. The first group of nations to sign the original Charter of the new
world organisation were five, namely Britain, United States of America, France, China and
USSR on 20 June 1945 at San Francisco in America.

The following conferences were held before signing the charter:

(i) In 1943, the big four met in Moscow to set up the UNO Relief and Rehabilitation
Administration
(ii) In the same year, they met at Hot- Springs in Virginia to set up the Food and
Agricultural Organisation (F.A.O.).
(iii) In 1944, they met at Breton Woods, USA to set up the International Monetary Fund
(IMF)
(iv) In 1944, they met at Dumbarton Oaks where broad outlines of the Charter were
finally agreed upon.
(v) In 1944 they met at Chicago to set up the International Aviation Organisation (ICAO).

47
 (vi) In 1945, they met at Yalta in Crimea, USSR to discuss voting arrangements; share
Germany and Berlin into four parts; join UNO which would aim at keeping peace
after the war; liberated countries from German rule to hold elections to choose their
government; hunt down and punish war criminals responsible for genocide, and
eastern Europe to be seen as a Soviet sphere of influence.
(vii) In 1945, the San Francisco meeting where the drafting of the UNO Charter was done.
After all these preparatory meetings the charter was signed on 26 th June, 1945, and the UNO
came into effect on 24th October, 1945 with its new headquarters in New York, USA.

THE AIMS OF THE U.N.O

The main aims were to: maintain international peace and security, promote disarmament,
promote Economic and Social development through international co-operation in order to
eradicate ignorance, poverty, hunger and disease, to develop friendly relations among nations
and promote respect for fundamental human rights.

ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

An organ of the United Nations in which all members are represented. It meets once a year in
New York except in case of emergency meetings. It acts as a World Parliament which debates
international issues and makes recommendations and each member state has only one vote. It
acts as a world diplomatic centre. It elects temporary members of the Security Council. It
considers applications of new United Nations members.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

This is the main peace keeping organ of the United Nations. It is composed of 15 members.
The five big powers (United States America, Russia, Britain, France and China) are permanent
members with powers to veto decisions. The other ten are temporary members elected for a two
– year term by the General Assembly. It meets frequently as need arises. It has powers to
dispatch United Nations peace –keeping forces to areas of conflict. It imposes Economic
Sanctions on offending states. It makes recommendations on how disputes should be settled.

THE SECRETARIAT

This is the Civil Service of the United Nations composed of International workers. It is
headed by the Secretary General based at United Nation Headquarters in New York. It is
responsible for the routine administrative work of the United Nations. It keeps the United
Nations records and prepares U.N reports. Keeps United Nations Financial Accounts.Provides
personnel to translate the six official languages of the U.N namely English French, Chinese,
Russian, Spanish, and Arabic).Prepares the Agenda for the meetings of the organs, the
Commissions and agencies of the United Nations.

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THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

Is the Judicial Organ of the United Nations consisting of 15 judges elected by the General
Assembly and approved by the Security Council for a term of one year. Founded as part of the
League of Nations in 1920 and it was called the Permanent Court of International Justice. It
advises the United Nations on matters of International Justices. It advises the United Nations on
matters of International Law. It interprets international Treaties and Agreements when required to
do so. It deals with cases referred to it by United Nations member states. Its Headquarters are at
the Hague in the Netherlands.

THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)

United Nation organ concerned with Human Rights and Social-Economic development

It consists of 54 members elected by the General Assembly to serve a three year term. It meets
twice each year. It coordinates and supervises the work of the specialized agencies and
commissions of the United Nations. It prepares draft conventions. It promotes Human Rights and
Socio-Economic development.

SUCCESSESS OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION.

Mainly in the fields of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Secretariat and
Trusteeship Council and to a lesser extent, in the field of General Assembly and Security
Council.

With the Security Council, the limited success is mainly due to circumstances beyond its
control but it tries its best. For example:

(i) In 1946, it helped in the gaining of independence for Indonesia.

(ii) Throughout the period it supervised various truces and it acted as a buffer.
(iii) In January 1949, it failed to enforce a plebiscite which resulted in the Indo- Pakistan
wars of 1965 and 1971, after succeeding in maintaining peace for some year.
(iv) In 1956, it maintained peace between Israel and Egypt up to 1967 when Nasser
asked for its withdrawal so that he attacks Israel. It quickly withdrew and war broke
out the same year.
(v) In 1964, it maintained order between the Greeks and Turks in Cyprus as well as
managing to calm the situation down. Bishop Makarios was restored to power
(vi) Monitoring peace together with the organisation of African Unity (OAU) forces
during the independence of Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe and in 1989,
Namibia.

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 FAILURES OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION.

In 1948, it failed to either unite or divide Palestine which was handed over to the UNO in
1948 by Britain. Palestine was divided between the Arabs and the Jews. The UNO envoy, Count
Bernadottee, was assassinated by a Jewish terrorist and the Jews set up the independent state of
Israel by forces in 1948.

Between 1950 1953, it failed to unite Korea which in 1989, was still divided between USA,
South Korea and USSR, North Korea. In 1950, war broke out in Korea with an attempt to unite it
under democracy but USSR, fought hard to try and win it over to communism. The result was
that South Korea was in 1989 still under USA and North Korea under USSR.

In 1960, Moise Tshombe was controlling Katanga Province of Zaire under Patrice Lumumba.
War broke out in which Lumumba was murdered. Tshombe was exiled, UNO Secretary General,
Dag Hammarskjöld was killed while on a peace mission to strife, torn Katanga in a plane crash
in Ndola, Zambia. Restoration of failed and by 1964 the peace keeping force ran out of money
and was withdrawn. Civil war continued with both sides heavily aided by big powers until in
1965 when Mobutu Sese Seko took over power. By 1989, Mobuto was still in power in Zaire.

A number of invasions took place, but the UNO Security Council failed to take action due to
lack of money, for example,

In 1950 China seized Tibet and invaded north – East India in 1962.

In 1956 USSR invaded Hungary and turned it into a communist state.

In 1968 USSR invaded Czechoslovakia to re-affirm it as a communist state.

The UNO did nothing when stronger nations were flouting specific resolutions such

(i) India avoided a plebiscite in Kashmir

(ii) Egypt refused Israel ships to use the Suez Canal
(iii) South Africa rejected UN authority in Namibia, until in 1988 when it agreed to UNO
supervised elections.
In all these events, the UNO did nothing due to lack of money to raise an army as it received
its finances from subscriptions from its members. Those who defaulted could not forced to pay
and many members were in arrears.

HOW STALIN ESTABLISHED AND CONSOLIDATED HIS POWER AS LEADER OF

THE SOVIET UNION. HIS POLICIES IN INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE.

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 Joseph Stalin was a Russian dictator who ruled from 1927 to his death in 1953. Due to
the role he played in the communist revolution, Lenin appointed Stalin as member of the
communist party’s supreme policy making body, the Politburo and promoted him to the post of
Secretary General of the Party.

During his life time, Lenin feared that there would be a struggle for leadership after his
death. In his letter to the Communist Party Congress, Lenin preferred Trotsky to Stalin and even
recommended Stalin’s removal from the post of Secretary General of the Party. Lenin however
did not name his successor so when he died in 1924 he left a power vacuum in Russia. During
the next three years there was a struggle for power between two most powerful men in Russia,
Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. The two men had different policies in their approach to the
spread of Communism. Stalin wanted a policy of permanent communist revolution within Russia
only, while Trotsky favoured a policy of a Communist revolution world wide under Russia
patronage.

The outcome of the power struggle was that the communist congress preferred the policy
of the dull band incapable but dangerous Stalin to the policy of the brilliant and capable Trotsky
and made him a potential replacement to Lenin. Using the support of his friends in the Politburo
and his position as Secretary General of the Party, Stalin did not only expel Trotsky and his
followers from the Politburo but also expelled them from the Communist Party. Trotsky was
finally assassinated in 1941 by Stalin’s agent, in Mexico where he lived in exile.

By 1927 Stalin had strengthened his position as the most powerful man in Soviet Russia
and had taken over as Lenin’s successor. He was able to rid the party of his opponents because
the party congress and the Politburo were dominated by his supporters.

Stalin’s policy of further strengthening his positions by assuring himself of complete

power reached its peak with the purges. This was Stalin’s ruthless and brutal policies which came
about in 1938 through which he eliminated thousands of untrustworthy men and removed the
influential Bolsheviks and replacing them with his own trusted followers in the Politburo. The
victims of purges were accused of disloyalty, plotting to murder Stalin, wrecking Russia’s
military and economic power. Through the purges Stalin was able to consolidate his position as
the dictator of Russia by eliminating his potential rivals and he remained supreme.

Stalin, once in power embarked on one of the most ambitious development programme in
history- the industrialization and collectivization of Russia. Stalin realized that to make socialism
succeed, it was necessary to make Russia a power industrialized country. His aims were to
transform his backward country into an industrialized country. His aims were to transform his
backward country into an industrilised country within ten years. He stated a series of five years
development plans to modernize his vast country.

Since agriculture was the backbone of the Russian economy. Stalin decided to
revolutionise the sector. He set up huge arms called collective farms where a number of families

51
worked on these farms collectively under the supervision and control of the Communist party.
Russian farmland was nationalized and peasant farmers were forced to give up their farms and
livestock to the collective farms. The produce from the farms were sold to the state while trading
in food stuff by individuals was banned. By 1937 the collectivization policy had succeeded and
worked with reasonable efficiency especially with the use of machinery.

17. THE CAUSES OF THE UNITED STATE OF AMERICA (U.S.A.)’S DEPRESSION OF

1929. MEASURES TAKEN BY PRESIDENT FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT TO
SOLVE THE PROBLEMS BROUGHT BY THE DEPRESSION? WHY THE MEASURES
WERE OPPOSED BY THE SUPREME COURT.

The Depression was an economic slump or crisis which started in the U.S.A and later
spread to the rest of the World.

The Great economic depression had both remote and immediate causes: one of the
remote causes was over production of goods. The use of improved methods of production, use of
labour saving machinery and wide spread use of electricity led to over production of goods. This
was more prevalent in the Agricultural Sector. This led to a decline in prices. Consequently
farmer’s income was reduced.

In addition, changes in the eating habit and life style also contributed to the depression.
To some extent, the common man in the U.S.A was responsible. In the 1920’s people’s life style
changed in such a way as to reduce the farmers’ income drastically for example, people preferred
artificial fabric cloth to cotton cloth and ate fruits, vegetables and drunk milk instead of eating
meat and bread, because of this wheat local market dwindled and the problem was further
worsened by a decline in international trade. Many farmers were compelled to abandon their
farms as some fell behind with their mortgage loans. Many farmers sought employment but
unfortunately, the industrial sector was having its own problems and farmers could not find
employment.

The industrial sector also experienced reproduction of goods but wealth was concentrated
in only a few hands. In relation to prices of goods wages remained stagnant while prices kept on
rising; consequently the workers purchasing powers weakened and most of the workers resorted
to hire purchase but could not pay in time. This meant that businessmen could not make enough
profit and little capital to expand their firms.

Another contributing factor to the causes of the depression was trade restriction. As result of
over production of industrial goods in the late 1920s many European countries introduced high

52
 tariff on the imported goods. To some extent, it was in response to American’s trade restrictions
of European produced goods. American imposed tariffs on these goods.

This introduction of high tariffs severely affected American business as this contributed
to the decline of U.S.A. international trade. During the First World War, the U.S.A enjoyed a
favourable balance of trade. The European powers that were at war (1914 – 1918) brought
American goods within a few years. After the war these nations became trade rivals rather than
customers. Argentina and Canada began competing with the U.S.A in the production of meat
and wheat respectively. America’s loss of foreign trade as a result of rivals and trade restrictions
was such that by 1928, she experienced an unfavourable balance of trade. This development
contributed greatly to the depression.

The other contributing factor was the failure by Britain and France to pay back American
loans, the U.S.A had given out loans to Britain and France to help them in their war efforts.
These counties accumulated such heavy debts that they failed to pay back in time. Worse still,
between 1924 and 1929 under Dawes plan, America gave out large sums of money to Germany.
A lot of money was leaving the country and little was coming into the U.S.A reserve Bank. This
had an adverse effect on the economy. Many banks ran out of the money and while long queues
of people trying to withdraw their money became common.

The immediate cause of the depression was the collapse of the Wall Street Stock market
in 1929. By October, 1929 share prices had fallen so low that many people chose to sell their
shares. The Reserve bank had encouraged a policy of easy money and also encouraged credit
inflation.

President Roosevelt (1932-45) came to power at the height of the Great Depression of
1929-1933.He introduced the New Deal as a solution to the American people. Upon resuming the
economic restoration programme he came up with Hundred Days plan (4 March – 16 June 1933)
Here radio chats to restore morale of the people and win their confidence were put in place. A list
of proposal for new laws were drafted and presented to the Congress. These new laws passed by
Congress set up new schemes for tackling the social and economic crisis.

One of the New Deal Laws and Schemes was the Emergency Banking Act. Through this
act banks on the verge of collapse were provided with Federal Government funds to keep them in
business. This created confidence in the Banking Industry.

Secondly was the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA).It aimed at reducing output but
modernize methods; to avoid overproduction. Farmers who cut production were given a subsidy.

Thirdly, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was set up to give cash
relief to the poor and to help Local Authorities with their poor relief schemes.

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 Fourthly the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): was set up to provide work for the
unemployed. By 1940 two million people aged 18 – 25 years were employed by the Civilian
Conservation Corps. They planted trees and cleared swamps.

Further more, The Civil Works Administration (CWA): was set up to provide work on
public works. In 1935 it was replaced by Works Progress Administration (W.P.A). It built
schools, roads and hospitals.

A National Recovery Administration Act (NIRA) was set up by the NIRA It abolished
child – labour, shortened the working week and fixed minimum wages. It also allowed workers
to form Trade Unions.

The Wagner Act forced employers to recognize Trade Unions. It set up the National
Labour Relations Board to handle Labour disputes.

The Social Security Act introduced old age pensions and insurance against
unemployment. Relief for the poor, the handicapped and dependent children

Through National Housing Act government provided money for building more houses at
low rents affordable to the poorest families. As if this was not enough a Home Owners’ Loan
Corporation (H.O.L.P) was set up to help house – owners to pay back mortgages (house loans).
Through this loans for paying mortgages at low rates of interest were given.

Lastly, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was set up to build dams to control floods; to
general electricity; to provide water for irrigation and to create employment opportunities in the
Tennessee River Basins. The scheme served seven American States

The Supreme Court is the guardian and defender of the Constitution of the USA. It hears
cases brought before it by people who believe that an act passed by Congress is a violation of the
Constitution.

The Supreme Court declared several measures introduced by Roosevelt as interference in

individual freedoms of the employers and their business firms.

The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) and the National Recovery Administration
(NIRA) were declared invalid by the Court in 1935 and 1936 respectively

Roosevelt was said to be a Marxist Revolutionary who believed in State Controlled

economy by his opponents.

COLD WAR

MEANING OF THE TERM COLD WAR

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 The Cold War was a war of words and competition between the Western Capitalist
countries led by the United States of America and the Eastern Communist countries led by the
U.S.S.R. It was also known as the war of nerves and it began after the Second World War.

This war was characterized by competition to win support of neutral countries through
economic and military aid, building of arms and nuclear weapons.

REASONS FOR THE COLD WAR

There were many reasons for the Cold War. One of the major reasons was suspicion of
each other’s military strength. Each side thought the other side was stronger than its own side
militarily. This led to an arms race.

The formation of two military alliances in Europe – the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) formed in 1949 by Western allies headed by the U.S.A. and Warsaw Pact
formed in 1955 by the U.S.S.R and East European Communist Countries was another reason for
the increase in international tension, leading to the ‘Cold War’.

They also strengthened the ‘Cold War’ especially when each side began buying more
military hardware, spying on the military secrets of the other and producing propaganda by radio
and newspapers on each other. Such activities led to serious international crises that could have
led to a hot war. Though such crises did not end in open wars between the two power blocs they
were serious enough to worry the whole world.

INCIDENCES ILLUSTRATING THE COLD WAR.

(i) The Yalta Conference: February, 1945

The main players at the conference were Joseph Stalin of the U.S.S.R, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt of the United States of America and Winston Churchill of Britain who met to map out
the details of the post war settlement.

Roosevelt played a mediatory role between Stalin and Churchill’s plans to push western
troops as far into Eastern Europe as possible. The west was not happy with the position taken by
Roosevelt.

During this conference the three leaders agreed that post- war Germany was to be divided
into allied zones of occupation. Germany was to also be completely disarmed while Allies were
to take machinery and goods from Germany. They were to use these to repair damage done to
their own countries with half to be given to USSR which had suffered most.

They also agreed that Poland would lose land in East to the USSR and gain land in the
West from Germany. The USSR which was allowed to set up a communist government in Poland
promised to hold free and fair elections immediately. Other liberated countries were to be
assisted to set up their own democratic governments.
55
 War criminals were to be tried and punished. It was also at the same conference where
they agreed that a new international organization (UNO) was to replace the defunct League of
Nations.

(ii) The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

This Conference was held at Potsdam which was the old rural suburb of Berlin between
17 July and 2nd August 1945. At this time, of the war time Big Three friends, only Stalin had
th

remained. Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as British Prime Minister while Vice president
Harry Truman became USA president on the death of Roosevelt.

No agreement was reached by wartime allies beyond terms of the Yalta conference. In
fact, Truman and Clement Attlee were annoyed because Russia had occupied Germany east of
the Oder line and allowed the pro – communist government of Poland to run it.

Truman used the atomic bomb against Japan without informing Russia, a clear lack of
trust on the part of the USA. The Potsdam conference further looked into the details concerning
the treatment of Post – Second World War Germany. Berlin was also to be split into four – power
Allied Control Commissions. USSR got a part on the East of Berlin while USA, Britain and
France shared the part on the Western side.

Each power was to take reparations from its own zone as it saw it fit. It was actually
publicly declared that the divided Germany was to be reunited in the foreseeable future when a
peace treaty would be signed but this failed to be a reality.

(iii) The Iron Curtain.

Allies were suspicious of Russia’s behaviour in Eastern Europe. Russia set up

Communist government in all the territories that she liberated from German occupation like
Poland, Bulgarian, Romania and Albania.

In a speech at Foultain in March 1945, Winston Churchill described the pro- Communist
Countries that were established in Eastern Europe by Russia as an “Iron Curtain”

Russia continued to tighten its grip on Eastern Europe. By 1947 all states in Eastern
Europe had Communist governments except Yugoslavia, and Russia treated her zone of Germany
as if it belonged to her.

(iv) The Truman Doctrine

The fear that Russia would control Greece forced Truman to persuade Congress to accept
an American commitment to free Europe from aggression by armed minorities and outside
forces. Congress voted 4 billion to pay for American forces in Greece and Turkey.

(v) Marshall Plan

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 In June 1947, U.S.A Secretary of State, George C Marshall announced that the USA was
willing to provide Massive aid to help European recovery go on.

The idea behind the plan was to suppress Communism. To do away with poverty was
seen as the means to be available to both communists and the democratic Europe.

To the contrary Soviet Russia showed hostility and prevented her satellites from gaining
though most of them could have benefited dearly from such aid.

(vi) The cominform

The Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) was formed in September 1945 by

Stalin. Its aim was to co – ordinate the activities of the European communist Parties to be in line
with policy dictated from Moscow. It was infact, the formation of the COMINFORM which led
to the purge of communist Leaders.

(vii) The Berlin Blockade (1948 – 1949)

In 1945, Germany was divided into four parts controlled by France, Britain, USSR and USA
to prevent Germany from ever rising.

Berlin, the Germany capital was in the Russian zone and was divided into four parts on
Communist lines and the remaining parts on democratic lines. In 1948 France, Britain, and
USA allowed free elections in their zones and changed the Germany currency which was
valueless. Allowing elections was seen by Russia as a way of bringing capitalism.

In a bid to force Western Capitalist Countries out of Berlin, Russia imposed a blockade
which resulted in air lifting of supplies by Western countries into West Berlin. In this
blockade all roads, rails, bridges and canal links between Berlin and the boarder in the West
were cut off. Electricity from the Russian Sector was cut off. The blockade lasted for ten
months between 1948 and 1949.

The three Western zones (France, Britain and USA) came together to form the Federal
Republic of Germany – West Germany and the other sector in the name of East Germany
remained under Russia.

In 1948 France, Britain and USA did not only allow free elections in their zones but also
changed the Germany currency which was valueless. In reaction to the currency issue, Russia
forbade the circulation of the new currency in their zone and Berlin as a whole. The stopping
of all traffic by rail and road throughout could have begun a war; instead these countries were
just fighting a war of nerves.

(viii) The Formation of NATO – 1949

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 The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) came about due to the realization that
the Brussels group: Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg who in March
1948 had signed the Treaty of Brussels aimed not only at the revived Germany but also the
military presence of the Soviet Union in Europe. The Brussels pact did not have enough
power to counter balance the might of the Soviet Union.

NATO was formed in March 1949 comprising members of the Brussels Pact, the USA,
Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Italy, Portugal as well as Turkey and Greece who joined
later in 1952. It was not an arrangement to operate only in time of war but an institution with
Headquarters in Paris to exist even in peace.

NATO was seen both as a vital defensive organization against Communism aggression
and a successful step towards European Co-operation. It led to the development of the
German armed forces since NATO marked the final recognition of West Germany
sovereignty by the Western Allies.

It was at no time an equal match for the forces of Russia and her satellites. The strength
of NATO actually was that it had support of the USA with her atomic weaponry.

(ix) The WARSAW Pact 1955. Lillian

In response to NATO, the Soviet also organized a Warsaw Pact consisting of the USSR,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Albania in 1955
though Albania left the defense System later.

The German Federal Republic (West Germany) sponsored by Britain, France and USA
with a capital at Bonn took its place in NATO. At the same time, the German Democratic
Republic (East Germany) settled in the Warsaw Pact Organisation. Therefore, NATO and
Warsaw Pact became rival organizations.

(x) The Korean War (1950 – 1953) Steven

After World War II Korea was divided to make South Korea and North Korea. It was one of
the Cold War spotlight essentially fought by the two super powers - United States of America
(U.S.A) occupying South Korea while Union Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR)-Russia occupied
North Korea. The two Koreans were divided at 38th parallel (line of latitude). In June 1950
Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The matter was taken to the United Nations
Security Council.

The Security Council condemned North Korea aggression and decided to send U.N
troops led by the U.S.A to defend South Korea. The U.N forces led by Mac Arthur of the U.S.A
landed in Korea and pushed North Koreans back to Yalu River. Meanwhile Chinese volunteer
forces joined on the side of North Korea and UN forces were pushed back to the 38th parallel.

58
 Commander of U.N forces, General Mac Arthur, decided to drop an atomic Bomb on
China, but the U.S.A government dismissed him before hand. This could have resulted into a
third World War since USSR was equally an atomic power. In July 1953 peace talks at
Panmunjon divided Korea along the 38th parallel. The war ended after three years, but Korea
remains divided to this day.

(xi) The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Bernard

This was the most critical phase of the Cold War waged between the West and the East after
World War II. Cuba, which is an island off the Coast of USA under the dictatorial government of
Fulgercio Batista was over thrown by Fidel Castro in 1958. Batista went into exile in the U.S.A.
While there, he organized a Cuban invasion with the help of the American government and
American trained Cuban exile rebels. The American president at this time was J.F. Kennedy. In
April 1961 he authorized the invasion of Cuba, at the Bay of Pigs. However, the invasion was a
total failure.

The American backed invasion was a warning for Castro, who asked for help from the
U.S.S.R. Indeed in October 1962 American President John F. Kennedy announced that Russia
had deployed Nuclear Missiles on Cuba which were capable of hitting most of the American
towns.

In return the U.S.A government announced a Naval Blocked of Cuba and demanded the
withdrawal of the missiles or the U.S.A would invade Cuba. At this hour a nuclear war involving
the U.S.A and Russia looked likely and world peace was greatly endangered.

Finally, Russia agreed to withdraw the Nuclear Missiles and in return the U.S.A promised
not to invade Cuba. This marked the end of the missile crisis. To crown it all Russia and the
U.S.A decided to install a direct telephone link between Moscow and Washington known as “The
Hot Line” in order to settle future crisis quickly.

(xiii) The Vietnam War, (1956 – 1973) Chishimba

Vietnam was part of the French Indo-China. The other countries being Laos and
Cambodia. The Vietnam War of 1956 to 1973 was one of the international crises between the two
super powers since 1945 where actual clash took place indirectly between these two power blocs.

To win the cold war and the USA’s determination to suppress the spread of communism
were the major causes of the Vietnam War. This was after France’s failed attempt to regain
control of Vietnam between 1945 and 1954 as a pre- war colony. Even if France remained in
Vietnam after 1945, her forces found the Vietnamese attacks unbearable.

In 1954, France pulled out of Vietnam for good. By this time Hochi Minh from the
northern part of Vietnam was becoming very strong. Infact, the north was an independent region

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under Ho’s control. The south was under Ngo Dinh Diem. However, Ho was determined to unite
the two regions and form one Vietnam.

From May to July 1954, representatives of France, The Soviet Union, Britain, The United
States and Several Asian States met at a Geneva Conference. The aim of the Conference was to
find ways of ending fighting in Vietnam. However, the decision of the conference was very
disappointing for Ho Chi Minh. It was decided to divide Vietnam and South Vietnam was
created. The 17th parallel was the boundary. It was also decided that elections for the unification
of Vietnam be conducted in July 1956, two years after the French left the country. The elections
were never conducted. The Vietnamese were very angry especially, Ho Chi Minh who wanted a
united Vietnam. As a consequence a communist guerrilla movement called Viet Congo of North
Vietnam was formed in South Vietnam to fight for a free United Vietnam. It got its support from
the Soviet Union and the Chinese government.

The Guerrilla attacks were a threat to Ngo Dinh Diem’s government in South Vietnam.
This forced him to request for support from the United States of America. The USA did
everything possible to keep South Vietnam non – communist between 1954 and 1964. It offered
money, weapons and advice to anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem who was assisted to
form government. North Vietnam and the Communist cause were supported by Russia and China
while the United states of America spend vast sums of money and effort in supplying South
Vietnam and bombing North Vietnam key points and communications links though failed to
effectively deal with the tough Viet Cong. It was now a war between the Soviet Union backed
North Vietnam and the American backed South Vietnam. America did not find it ease in this
encounter, one American soldier who tried to measure the strength of the Viet Cong stated -
‘finding an enemy Viet Cong was like trying to identify tears in a bucket of water’. Even the
Second World War USA- trained generals lacked experience in this war where, by 1968, 36,000
USA soldiers were killed.

From 1968, however, Richard Nixon took office as president of the United States of
America. He started to solve the Vietnam Crisis. He aimed at finding a permanent solution to the
Vietnam problem. He thought of withdrawing U.S.A troops in order for South Vietnamese to take
over the fighting themselves. The Local army was greatly increased while Nixon supported them
with modern weapons. South Vietnam was encouraged to invade both Cambodia and Laos so as
to cut off supplies to the Viet Cong.

In response, North Vietnamese also invaded Cambodia and Laos and set up Communist
government s there. The Viet Cong were equally still as active as ever. At this stage, the Vietnam
War became bitterly unpopular in the U.S.A. The Congress refused to vote for the money needed
in that war forcing Nixon in 1973 to pull out the U.S.A troops before victory and safety of South
Vietnam was not yet assured.

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 In 1975 North Vietnamese armies and the Viet Cong captured Sargon and took over
South Vietnam with the help of outsiders. The United States of America lost in the Vietnam War
largely due to Russian Long – Range Artillery as well as North Vietnamese courage and
determination.

Vietnam therefore became a single country in 1975, under a communist regime. This is
evidence of the cost of suppressing communism in distant parts of the world had proved
unbearable for the Americans in terms of money, man power and national unity.

Gorbachev’s Reforms and the Soviet Collapse

Brezhnev died in November 1982. Two elderly members of the Politburo, Yuri Andropov, a
former head of the KGB, and Konstantin Chernenko, a crony of Brezhnev’s, filled his shoes for
the next several years, before they, too, expired in office. In March 1985, upon the death of
Chernenko, the Communist Party’s Central Committee elected Mikhail Gorbachev as general
secretary of the party.

Gorbachev launched his program of perestroika (restructuring) of Soviet society and economy to
enhance and modernize the system, not to bring it down. His initial approach was to tighten
discipline within party ranks and in workplaces and to stage a campaign against alcohol
consumption. Within a year, Gorbachev assumed more radical positions and recruited advisers
who favored a far-reaching overhaul of Soviet practices and institutions.

In the economic realm, Gorbachev resurrected some pieces of Lenin’s New Economic
Policy of the 1920s, authorizing the formation of cooperatives and family businesses and
permitting collective farms to sell some of their produce on the market at the going price. The
government also relaxed restrictions on foreign trade and investment and reduced central control
over the managers of state-owned firms.

In addition to pursuing economic reforms, Gorbachev soon launched ambitious political

and social reforms. The most dramatic change was adopting glasnost (candor or openness) about
public affairs. In quick succession, the Soviet authorities released Sakharov and other dissidents
from prisons and exile, relaxed censorship in the mass media, kindled debate over the sins of the
Soviet past, and lifted a ban on independent associations and organizations.

Gorbachev accompanied these measures with a shift in foreign policy, pledging to curb Soviet
military spending and negotiate an end to the Cold War with Western nations. His most fateful
decision was the electoral reform ratified in 1988, providing for competitive, multicandidate
elections for the central government and for local and republican governments.

For the first time since the early 1920s, candidates not proposed by the Communist Party were
allowed to run. Gorbachev in 1989 became chairman of the Congress of People’s Deputies, an
elected body that had replaced the Supreme Soviet that spring. In 1990 the congress amended the

61
Soviet constitution to allow non-Communist political parties to organize and put candidates
forward in elections.

Gorbachev’s brand of reform communism opened a floodgate of spontaneous changes in all

corners of Soviet society. He was quickly upstaged by public figures who demanded an
immediate embrace of Western-style democracy and a transfer of power from the central
government to the 15 constituent republics of the USSR. In 1990 newly elected republican
governments passed resolutions affirming their sovereignty and rights in relation to the central
government.

Nationalist sentiments also sprang up in the republic-level branches of the Communist Party. In
response to the erosion of his power, Gorbachev had the Congress of People’s Deputies elect him
the first-ever president of the Soviet Union. Most of the republics matched this move by electing
presidents of their own.

Meanwhile, Gorbachev’s economic policies did not improve living conditions and in some
respects made them worse. Frustration over economic shortages fed anticommunist feeling,
especially in the three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Gorbachev steadfastly
refused to use military force to quell the discontent.

The crisis hit fever pitch when a group of hardliners from the Communist Party, the Soviet
military, and the KGB attempted in August 1991 to institute a state of emergency and turn
Gorbachev into a figurehead leader. However, the coup collapsed within two days, largely
because of opposition by the popularly elected president of the Russian republic, Boris Yeltsin,
who rallied crowds of demonstrators on the streets of Moscow. The leaders of the plot soon
surrendered, but Gorbachev’s authority had been irreparably damaged, and he resigned as
general secretary of the Communist Party. Within days all Communist Party activity was
suspended. Most of the Soviet republics hurriedly announced their independence from the Soviet
Union, and the Communist Party was banned in Russia and many other republics. On December
8, 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus announced the dissolution of the USSR
and its replacement by a loose-knit, voluntary alliance called the Commonwealth of Independent
States. On December 25, Gorbachev resigned as president and the Soviet Union ceased to exist.

THE MIDDLE EAST CRISIS

THE CREATION OF THE STATE OF SRAEL

The Arabs had lived in Palestine for over 2000 years whilst the Jews had lived elsewhere in
the World. They had always been a majority in the area. From the First World War, Britain and
later on the United Nations were seen by Arabs to be more on the side of the Jews than Arabs.
Immigration of Jews into Palestine meant that they would actually constitute a majority of the
population. The creation of Israel would prevent or delay the Arabs struggle for independence in
Palestine from Britain.

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 To bring back and settle the Jews from exile after they were driven out of Palestine by the
Romans in AD 71 was one of the reasons for establishing the state of Israel.
Secondly, was due to the work and influence of the World Zionist Organisation found in 1897
at Basle, Switzerland. This organization encouraged Jews to go back to Palestine and have a
nation in their homeland.
Thirdly, was because of the support and involvement of Britain in 1917 when the British
Foreign Minister, Arthur Balfour, announced that Britain supported the idea of establishment of a
Jewish National home in Palestine. After 1919, when Palestine became a British Mandate, large
numbers of Jews began to arrive in Palestine.
Fourthly, was the Nazis persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933 which caused a flood
of refugees and by 1940 about half of the Population of Palestine was Jewish.
The other reason was the massacre of over six million Jews by Hitler during the Second
World War worsened the situation and made hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees desperate
to return to Palestine.
The determination of the Jews to fight for their national home made them to begin a
terrorist campaign against both Arabs and the British. Such Jewish terrorist campaign led to the
blowing up of King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which the British were using as its headquarters,
ninety one (91) people were killed.
The British weakness and inability to cope with the situation in Palestine after the Second
World War resulted in Ernest Bevin, the Labour Foreign Secretary to ask the United Nations
Organisation to deal with the problem. Consequently, in November 1947, the UNO voted to
divide Palestine. Early in 1948 the British completely pulled out of Palestine and let the UNO to
carry out its own plan.
In May 1948, Ben Gurion declared the independence of the new state of Israel.

WHY ARABS OPPOSED CREATION OF THE STATE OF IRAEL

The Arabs (93%) of the population in 1918) feared that Jewish immigrants would become
51% of the population. Jewish settlers belonged to an alien (European) culture, usually employed
by Jews, and Arabs feared that they would be squeezed out of their own homeland; they began
terrorist activities against the Jews.

The Palestine Arabs rejected the United Nations plan of forming the state of Israel and
neighbouring Arab States assisted them in the 1948 – 1949 war, resulting in an Israel victory
which left Arabs with much less land than the United Nations plan had assigned them.

Arabs and Jews had different religion and could not live together. Arabs claimed Palestine to
be a land of their ancestors, among them Abraham and Ishmael.

Arabs had lived in Palestine for close to 2000 years while Jews had been away from Palestine
for the same number of years. As a result, Arabs believed they had more right to Palestine that
the Jews.

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 Jews gained possession over most land in Palestine through purchase of land from Arabs.

Furthermore, Arabs maintained that they did not deserve to suffer for Hitler’s persecution of
the Jews. And that the creation of Israel led to the problem of Arab refugees.

WHY THE ISRAELITES CLAIM OWNERSHIP OF PALESTINE?

The Israelites claim:

- God gave this land to Abraham (the ancestor of the Israelites) and his offspring.
Genesis 15:18

- Palestine was promised to the Jews as a national home by Britain (according to the
Balfour Declaration) in 1917.

- Hitler’s persecution of the Jews (necessitated) made it possible to have a Jewish

homeland.

- Palestinian refugees can be absorbed in Arab states.

- Jews found Palestine a barren desert but made it a prosperous place.

- Arabs attacked Jews in 1948 on the proclamation of the State of Israel.

- Israel is for peace but Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) is behind guerrilla
attacks on Israel.

- The Camp David Agreement (1978) by Cater (USA), Sadat (Egypt) and Begin
(Israel) was a comprehensive peace for the Middle East.

- Surrounded by hostile neighbours backing the PLO, Israel will not be safe with an
independent Palestinian State on the West bank of the river Jordan. The PLO seeks
to destroy Israel, we can never trust them.

HOW ARAB COUNTRIES OPPOSED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE OF

ISRAEL

Before establishment of Israel, Arabs raided Jewish settlements leading to conflicts between
the two groups.

In 1949 Arab states – Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia attacked the newly found state
of Israel.

In 1956 Egyptian terrorists’ raids on Israel forced Israel to join a joint attack on Egypt by
France and Britain.

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 In 1967 Arab leaders threatened to invade Israel forcing her to attack neighbouring Arab
States.

In 1973 on the Yom Kippur, Syria attacked Israel’s Gollan Heights assisted by Jordan, Iraq
and Saudi Arabia. Egypt also attacked Israel across the Suez Canal.

In 1973 Arab countries pushed the price of oil up, to punish countries that had supported
Israeli during the War.

Arab terrorists and suicide bombers have continued to cause havoc in Israel.

THE FIRST ARAB – ISRAEL WAR 1948

When the Jews announced the creation of the State of Israel in May 1948 the Arabs were
totally against this and they attacked it. Many Arab states, Jordan, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia,
surrounded and out numbered the Israelis. President Weizmann and Prime Minister David Ben
Gurion cry for help to the rest of the world was met with silence.

The Arabs failed to defeat the Jews because their leaders were at odds with one another, each
seeking to gain an advantage from the war. The Arab armies had no coordinated plans; the Jews
could concentrate on defeating first one and then another – Also their armies were badly led,
officers and men fleeing in times of difficulty. On the other hand the Jews had the technical skills
of British – trained officers; the determination of a people which had no option other than to fight
to the bitter end.

On 7th February 1949 the war ended. Israel gained more territory than had been allocated to it
by the UN proposal of 1948. Over one million Arabs fled from Palestine to live in refugee camps
in Syria, Jordan and Egypt.

THE SECOND ARAB-ISRAEL WAR 1956

This began in 1956 after the Suez crisis. This crisis was caused by the nationalization of
Suez Canal by Egypt. The Israelis were angered by Egypt – supported terrorist attacks from the
Gaza strip.

In order to stop these attacks, Britain and France agreed with Israel for a joint attack on
Egypt. The Israelis attacked Egypt in the Gaza strip in October 1956 and they occupied most of
the Sinai Peninsula.

In November, there was a British and French demand on Egypt to withdraw all forces from
the Canal Zone, Nasser refused. The British and French forces attacked Egypt. The Egyptian Air
Force was destroyed on the ground, troops landed at Alexandria to occupy the Canal Zone.

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 The United States and the Russian united to condemn the Anglo-French action and they had
to withdrew but it was only after Arab countries had threatened to cut off oil supplies and also
after Nasser had blown up ships to block the canal.

The British and French were made to appear as aggressors and as failures and many third
world countries turned to Russia for leadership.

THE THIRD ARAB – ISRAEL WAR

This occurred in 1967. It is referred to as the Six-day war. Arab leaders openly threatened an
invasion of Israel due to Russian Support. Moshe Dayan had just been appointed as the Minister
of Defense in Israel. He argued that attack was the best defense.

On 3rd June 1967 Israel launched attacks on all Arab airfields. Israeli troops drove Egyptian
forces across the Sinai, advanced to the Jordan River against the Jordanians and routed the
Syrians on the Golan Heights. On 8th June Jordan surrendered whilst on 11th June Syria and
Egypt surrendered. The Israelis occupied some ports of Eastern Egypt as far as the east bank of
the Suez Canal; Syria was partly occupied, including the Golan Heights. The West Bank of the
Jordan remained in Israelis hands. Sporadic frontier fighting continued until the UN arranged a
cease fire in 1970.

THE FOURTH ARAB-ISRAEL WAR 1973

Egypt wanted to drive out Israelis from the Sinai. Syria wanted to regain the Golan Heights.

On 6th October 1973 the Jewish Holy Day called Yom Kippur, Syria attacked the Golan
Heights and received help from Jordan, Iran and Saudi Arabia; Egypt attacked across the canal
and broke through the Israeli’s defensive Bar-Lev line.

The surprising attack was, at first, successful due to Russian Supplied aid and technical aid to
the Arabs. The USA was, at first, reluctant to aid Israel but they later aided her and when the aid
arrived-planes and artillery-Israel drove the Arabs back. The Syrians were pushed back towards
Damascus.

The Israeli army drove through Sinai and captured the West bank of the Canal, leasing the
Egyptian army surrounding east of the Canal and in Port Said. UN mediators and USA Secretary
of State Henry Kissinger arranged a cease fire. UN forces were sent to separate the Israeli and
Egyptian forces although Israel held on to her gains in the Sinai and on the Golan Heights.

As from 1973 the Arabs pushed oil prices up and by 1974 the prices were 4 times as they had
been in 1972. They used this “Oil Weapon” to threaten to cut off supplies to any country
supporting Israel-Holland being the first sufferer.

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AFRICAN HISTORY

EARLY SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA

- EARLY STONE AGE.The stone age are so called because the men of these periods used
mainly stone tools.
- This period existed from about 55,000 – 40,000 years ago. An example of a creature who
lived in this period was Homo – habilis.
- These creatures were nomadic like in nature and moved from one place to another in
search of food and shelter.

ENVIRONMENT

The early stone age cretures lived near rivers and water falls particularly the victoria and
kalambo falls for three reasons

(i) they wanted water for drinking

(ii) they wanted to catch fish
(iii) they wanted to hunt down the animals that came to drink water.
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE

- In the world fire was first discovered in China towards the end of the early stone age.
Prehistorians believe that this was caused by the greater cold and rain.
- In Africa fire was first discovered at Kalambo Falls in the northern province of Zambia.
- Altough fire was first discovered in this period, these creatures did not have the
intelligence to use it to scare away the fierce animals. As a result they continued to live
in the open grassland and forest.
- At Kalambo falls, the early men of Zambia appear to have built themselves some kind
of shelter. Archaeologist have found amongst the remains of Homo – habilis a rough
circle of stones which they called a Wind break.

TOOLS.

- The earliest tools to be made by these men was the pebble tool which could have been
used for crushing roots and pounding.
- This tool was followed by the handaxe then a cleaver.
- Handaxes were tools which had a straight sharp edge on one end that could have been
used for digging and cutting the animals that they killed.
- The cleaver which had a straight sharp edge on one end could have been used for
chopping and skinning animals.

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 - The handaxe could have been found in most parts of Africa.The bones and tools of Early
Stone Age creatures have been found in India, China, East Africa and South East Asia.
- Proffessor Desmond Clark, is the archaeologist, who really began the study of the past in
Zambia. He found evidence of wooden tools at Kalambo.
- These were preserved because they were in a place too wet for ants that is, these wooden
tools were in different shapes, some were long thin pieces of wood with pointed ends and
could have been used for digging up roots, as knives and also for fishing.The larger and
heavier ones could have been used as a club.
- No bones of Early Stone Age creatures have been found in Zambia.

FOOD

- The food of Early Stone Age man include meat which he hunted fish, wild fruits, roots,
leaves and edible grasses.

THE MIDDLE STONE AGE (40 000- 10 000 years ago)

- This period existed in the period between 40 000 to 10 000 years ago.
- The earliest of these creatures lived about 40 000 years ago and latest of them about10
000 years ago. An example of creatures of this period was Broken Hill Man who lived in
Central Africa and Neanderherman who lived in North Africa and Europe.
- The remains of this creature show that he was more advanced than Broken Hill man.
- Broken Hill man was discovered in 1921 by miners who were digging into kopjes or
small hills in Kabwe (broken hill).
- The miners found a big skull which was sent to London museum were the scientist
studied it and declared that it was a human head. When this was radiocarbon dated it was
estimated to have lived about 25 000 years ago.

(A) APPEARANCE
(i) Brokenhill man looked like modern man
(ii) He had a smaller brain compared to that of modern man
(iii) he had a bigger brain compared to the earlier creatures
(iv) he had a big strong body and a big forehead
(v) he was about six feet tall. ( two feet taller than hommo- habilis).
(B)ENVIROMENT

- Brokenhill man was more intelligent than Homo-Habilis and used his intelligence to
scare away fierce animals using fire and so he was able to live safely in caves and
was therefore protected from the hot sun,Wind and rain.

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 - During cooler nights and days the fire kept him warm.He even learnt how to cook his
food.
- He moved up and down in search of food.The men of the Middle Stone Age lived in
two enviroments

a) Open grassland
b) The forest
a) OPEN GRASSLAND
- Due to the difference the men of the grassland could not use trap snares so
succesfully as the forest men so they learnt to sharpen stone into missile
stones which they threw at the animals. So the men of the grassland made
better and lighter tools than those of the forest

b) THE FOREST
- The forest men developed heavy, clumsy tools needed for digging and
chopping down trees and branches.

BANTU MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICAN BEFORE 1800 AD

- The Bantu speaking people are the largest single group in central Africa.
The word Bantu means people with similar language characteristics.

CAUSES OF THE BANTU MIGRATION

Among the causes many contributing factors have been put forward such as the:

1. Drying up of the Sahara

Could have forced them to migrate in search of water and grazing land;

2. Nature of occupation
The occupation of the Bantu for instance, farming, trading, and fishing contributed to their
migration. For example agriculturalists looking for fertile land, traderslooking for goods and
after controlling the trade routes, hunters in search of game and fishermen searching for big
rivers.

3. Succession disputes
Led those who were defeated to leave for other lands. They fled the new wrath / anger of
those new chiefs they had opposed.

4. Witch hunting
Because of this practice convicted people like those who wee accused of practicing
witchcraft, theft and other crimes left in disappointment and went to new areas.
5. Tribal wars
Also prompted/ forced people to migrate especially after they were defeated.
6. Slave trade

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 As people fled from slave drivers, this also contributed towards migration.

7. Population increase
As a result of good food like bananas, cassava and maize and the fact that some people
stayed in one place for a long time was another contributing factor. Moreover, land became
exhausted so they had to migrate.
8. Customs
Their customs, especially, matrilineal could have led them to migrate. Sons of ruling chiefs
could not succeed their fathers due to the matrilineal custom of succession. If they still
wanted to be chiefs they had to migrate to other areas.
9. Some were interested for Adventure’s sake
Adventure played its part in the migration, especially for those who saw other places better
than their place.
10. Ambition
On the other hand ambitions by some rulers to dominated or conquer other groups and bring
them under their control was another factor.
11. Chitemene system
The system of shifting cultivation also contributed to migration.

COURSE OF THE BANTU MIGRATION

The Bantu migration from their original locations to where they settled later can be described as
follows:
- The first group to leave was a small group which passed through Congo
forest following Zaire River into Katanga around the fifth century. They
camped in Zaire because of the good grazing land, fertile soil and mineral
deposits. From Katanga region by 16th century a wave of immigrants
migrated into Central Africa.
- The second group migrated between the 15th century from the Northeast
Africa via Tanzania and the western side of Lake Malawi. The
descendants of this group are probably the Tumbuka, Tonga of Malawi
and Tonga, Ila in the Zambezi valley. At the same time the Shona, Rozwi,
Karanga group took a shorter route by crossing the Zambezi River and
settled in present day Zimbabwe, before the 18 th century. Also in these
groups were the Hungwe who moved southwards from the north, ending
up in South Africa were they were assimilated.
- Forerunners of the Nguni and Sotho speaking people came from North
East Africa via Tanzania and western side of Malawi where the Shona,

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 Rozwi Karanga displaced them they fled south and south-west until they
settled in South Africa in the ninth and 14th centuries.
- Early Luba groups running away from the rule of Kongolo settled west of
Lake Malawi and Shire Rivers. This was around the 14th century.
- Later groups running away the rule of Kalala Ilunga settled in Zambia like
the Bemba and Kaonde.
- Along with this group came the Lala, Bisa and Kunda who settled in
Zambia. The Lunda kingdom of Mwata Yamvo from the 16th to 18th
centuries among others send:
 Kinguri to Angola in the west
 Chinyama to the south founded the Luvale and the Luanda kingdoms
 Mwambwa founded the Luyi kingdom in the Zambezi flood plains further west by
about 1650 AD.
 Mwata Kazembe founded Mwata Kazembe kingdom south of Lake Mweru about
1700.

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BANTU EARLY WAY OF LIFE
Economy and Technology
- The economic activities of the Bantu included farming, keeping of animals such as cattle
and goats, trading, fishing and hunting. The Bantu also did mining on a small scale.
- The Bantu knew how to smelt mineral ores such as iron from which they made different
tools.
- They knew how to weave baskets and make pots.
Social Organisation
- They lived in small family house holds which belonged to a clan. There was division of
labour between male and female. Women weaved baskets and made clay pots.

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 - They lived in huts made of poles usually by men. These were arranged in circular form
with cattle kraal in the middle for protecting their animals. Their food comprised of
mealy meal porridge, fruits, game meat, vegetables and fish.
- They also drank beer from sorghum and millet. They wore bark cloth and danced and
sang in their spare time. They used to cooperate during funerals, weddings, field
cultivation and religious ceremonies.
- They all treated cattle as sacred animals used for religious ceremonies and paying lobola
during marriage ceremonies.

Political Organisation
- Family households were under the control of the eldest male member of the house hold.
The clan was controlled by the eldest member.
- Family house hold joined to form clans, clans joined to form villages headed by the
headman.
- Villages formed a tribe headed by a chief (chiefdom or a king (kingdom). All these rulers
were semi – divine and ruled in consultation with elders of the tribe.
- The strength of a kingdom was measured on the usefulness of its rulers, to some extent
their authority depend on the environment.

Religious Believes
- All Bantu people believed in a Superior being whom they called by different names
according to their tribes. For example the Luyi called their god Nyambe.
- They approached these gods through there political leaders in conjunction with prophets
and priests.
- There was a spirit for each action. For instance there was a family spirit, rain marker
spirit and ancestral spirit. Among the Shona there was Chabinuka (the rain Marker,
Mhondolo (priest, Kingumbi and Nehanda (the prophets) Mwari their god.
- Ceremonies were usually done under the “Msoro” tree or an ant-hill or on the grave of
the dead ancestor. They offered sacrifices of meat from their cattle, beer and a lot of food.

2. LUBA LUNDA MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICA BEFORE 1800 A.D.

- They originated from Eastern Congo grassland for both kingdoms at about 1500 to 1550
for the Luba kingdoms and about 1600 for the Lunda kingdom.
- There were three kingdoms namely two Luba kingdoms on the Lualaba River and One
Lunda kingdom on the Kasai River.
- The Luba- Lunda migrations are sometimes referred to as the Luba- Lunda dispersal.
- This is the movement of the people from Luba- Lunda empires into present day Zambia,
parts of Angola and Malawi. The migration began in about 1550.

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CAUSES OF THE LUBA – LUNDA MIGRATIONS
- The following were some of the causes; Firstly, there was direct expansion, The Luba and
Lunda chiefs wanted to expand their territories and sent agents into present day Zambia
to monitor such extensions. Some of these agents established large kingdoms in Zambia
and became independent of their original kings as was in the case of Mwata Kazembe.
- The second one was population growth which was as a result of the introduction of new
crops such as maize, beans and groundnuts by the Portuguese and new crops needed
fertile land. Population increase led to land shortage, hence some people moved in search
of arable land for settlement.
- Thirdly, the Luba- Lunda empires grew bigger by conquering the surrounding small
chiefdoms and brought them under their control, this led to political conflicts.
- Related to the political conflicts, is the question of succession disputes. When the ruling
king died, there were usually disputes among relatives of the dead kings as to who should
become the next king. Those chiefs or kings who lost in these disputes, decided to move
elsewhere where they hoped to establish themselves as leaders.
- Fifthly, were social conflicts. Some people who were suspected of witchcraft, adultery or
theft usually opted to flee their homes. Some were even forced by leaders to move
elsewhere.
- Sixthly, the conquered people had to pay tax or tributes to the ruling kings. Those who
failed to pay tributes were sold as slaves to the Portuguese thus taxation and slavery were
also contributing factors
- Furthermore, some individuals were running away from harsh treatment from their rulers.
- Lastly, some people left Katanga as adventurers with a hope to do better elsewhere. They
would go out with few followers wandering or hunting, in the process, they would come
across people with a weak ruler. With the knowledge of chieftainship, the hunters would
establish themselves as rulers. This seems to have been the origin of the Lenje line of
rulers.
- This is how people migrated into present day Zambia, Malawi and Angola from the two
Katanga states of Luba and Lunda.

EFFECTS OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS

- The Bantu migration into Central Africa before 1800 had far reaching consequences to
the way of life of the people they came into contact with.
- It is cardinal to bear in mind that these Bantu speaking people had various occupations;
some were agriculturalists, pastoralists, and hunters.
- While others were blacksmith smelters of copper and other minerals. In short, their early
way of life was totally different from that of the Khoisan, both socially, politically and
economically.
- Therefore, the movement from their location to Central Africa resulted into the following
effects.

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Political and Social changes
- The Bantu migrations led into the building up of powerful centralized states, which
continued to expand and integrate other tribes.
- In other words tribes were transformed from small locally led Iron Age communities to
politically significant and well organized kingdoms or chiefdoms like the Bemba, Lozi,
Ngoni, Mwene mutapa, Mwata Kazembe and the Malawi kingdoms of Kalonga and
Undi.
- Socially, they brought their way of life with them, such as living as a family household
belonging to a clan and setting up of permanent homes by building huts made of poles.
- Their food comprised of what we call nshima today, supplemented by game meat,
vegetables, fish and they also drunk beer from sorghum and millet. They brought the idea
of wearing cloths, recreation and religious ceremonies.
- They also brought the idea of clan or villages, co-operating during funerals, weddings
and field cultivation.
- Economically, they brought new skills in agriculture and new crops such as beans,
millet, sorghum and sweet potatoes. They also brought Pastoralism, fishing and smelting
copper.Women dealt with pottery and basket weaving.
- In addition trade was another form of occupation they came with. This is evident from
Mwata Kazembe who joined the coast-to-coast trade route centered at his kingdom. The
Lozi kingdom traded with the Mbunda on the west coast.
- From 1853 Bemba kingdom took over this trade. The same thing happened to Mwene
mutapa, Rozwi and Malawi kingdoms of Kalonga and Undi, which traded with the
Portuguese along the coast of East Africa.

THE LUBA EMPIRE.

ORIGIN

- The Luba kingdom is said to have been situated between Lake Tanganyika and the upper
Kasai River. The ancestors of the Luba Katanga people lived in the central part between
Bushimai River and the Katanga lakes.
- The western part was ruled by the Bungo who are said to have been the ancestors of the
Lunda people.
- The east is said to have been inhabited by the Kalanga people. About 1,500 years ago a
great immigrant named Kongolo (belonging to the Songye dynasty) is said to have
appeared in the Kalanga lands and conquered the isolated villages and tiny chiefdoms and
built his capital at Mwibele near Lake Boya.
- He became the first founder of the first Luba Empire. Kongolo conquered the isolated
villages and tiny chiefdoms and built his capital at Mwibele near Lake Boya. He became

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 the first founder of the first Luba Empire. Some time later a hunter called Ilunga Mbili
arrived from some place east of the Lualaba belonging to the Kunda dynasty.
- He was well received by Kongolo and even married two of his half sisters: Bulanda bore
Kalala Ilunga and Mabele bore Kisulu Mabale. Kalala Ilunga after defeating Kongolo’s
men is said to have been the founder of the second Luba Empire although it was the same
kingdoms. He was able after wars of conquest to establish his new capital at Munza.

POLITICAL ORGANISI TION

- Politically, the Luba had a central government which consisted of the king at the top and
his title holders who included the war leaders (the twite) keeper of the sacred emblems
(the Inabanza) and also the most important provincial chief and the third main chief
called the Sungu.
- All chiefs with the exception of the owners of the land were called Balopwe. The
Balopwe had all powers to depose a chief and his capital was called Kitenta. However,
every new founder a new capital was instituted.
- All the title – holders resigned at the death of the King who had appointed them. The new
King had the right to forget about them altogether or reconfirm them in their old positions
or give them new offices.
- It is thought that since a new title – holder had to pay heavy taxation in the form of
presents to the King as appreciation for the appointment. The titles were in fact bought.
Although many titles were not hereditary it was close relations to the king that held
certain titles.
- Kingship was based on the concept of Balopwe which was a sacred quality vested in the
blood of and transmission through male descent of Kalongo or Kalala Ilunga. It is for this
reason that the king was believed to have supernatural powers and divine rights although
there seems to have been a superior council for the purpose of counter balancing his
powers.
-
- Moreover, his powers seem to have been temporal, he had half brothers who might want
to oust him from power with the support of their mothers’ patrilineage which could be
backed by the court and the people if the King was cruel to them.
- Unlike the Lunda, the Luba did not leave the conquered people under their original chiefs
but placed one or two Luba families and a chief from the central government to supervise
the vassal state. The Luba unlike were patrilineal.

EXPANSION

- The empire expanded around 1700 when Mwine Kadilo succeded on the throne of
Kalala Ilunga. Mwine Kadilo fought many Songye groups, although he did not
incorporate them into his kingdom.

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 - His son Kekenya also fought wars, but the actual expansion of the kingdom took place
under Kekenya’s son, Ilunga Sungu, and his successor Kumwimba Ngombe. Some
chiefdoms east of the Lualaba were conquered and annexed to the kingdom.
- Those in the Lomotwa country were made tributary, and in the Kiambi area on the Luvua,
warriors were stationed there to prevent invasion from the Bemba.
- The expansion reached its peak under Kumwimba Ngombe. After him the succession
struggle became greater which led to the decline.

COLLAPSE OF THE LUBA EMPIRE

- The decline of this kingdom started with the death of Ndai a Mujinga who was killed by
his brother, Ilunga Kabale who also died in 1850.
- There followed a series of succession disputes, weakening the loyal hood.
- Another reason for decline was the localized patrilineal groups retaining too many
political functions; because they were not fully controlled by the Loyal hood.

THE LUNDA KINGDOM

ORIGIN

- The Lunda kingdom of Mwata Yamvo was founded by Chibinda Ilunga, son of Kalala
Ilunga around 1550 along the Kasai River.
- Chibinda Ilunga married Lueji daughter of Kongolo. At this time Lueji was heiress and
after becoming king he brought all Lunda states into his control and came up with a one
huge Lunda kingdom. This newly formed kingdom had its capital at Musumba on the
Lualaba River.
- Since Lueji did not bore Chibinda Ilunga a son, he married a second wife Kamonga
Lwaza.Following this, a royal line of rulers came from this second wife whose son
Lusenge when he became king introduced the territorial and court titles.
- It was during his ruler ship that the basis of the present Lunda political structure was
built.Lusenge‘s son and successor Mwata Yamvo Naweeji continued the work of his
father and became the first Mwata Yamvo which means master of wealth.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION

- Politically there were systems in the Lunda structure; the positional succession and
perpetual kingship.
- By positional succession, the successor to the throne inherited notonly the office but also
the positional status that had been held by the deceased such ashis name, house, family
and possessions and by perpetual kingship each person appointedto a position of
authority had to be related to the king in one way or the other.
- It was possible for instance to regard certain title – holders as father, son, uncle or
nephew even if that was not the actual relationship. If for example the original holders of
the two Lunda titles had a true blood relationship of father and son, their successor in
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 those respective positions would continue to relate. It has been argued that in practice
these two mechanisms proved extremely useful to the day to day political administration
of the Lundas.
- Unlike the Luba who did not practice the system of indirect rule, the Lunda practiced this
system. The Lunda incorporated the defeated peoples but were allowed to retain their
own chiefs. However, these chiefs were appointed by the Lunda and were given Lunda
titles and guided into Lunda like – organization.
- In this way, the owners of the land became a honoured and respected people. By this
method Lunda customs were introduced indirectly among a non – Lunda people and
consequently a Lunda Colony could be formed in a non- Lunda area.
- At the capital the king and his title-holders comprised the centralized government. The
king appointed officials of all title- holders and had powers to dispose officials of all
ranks. In his day to day running of the state, he was assisted by three types of all ranks as
follows:
- The first group comprised headmen of fifteen oldest villages such as the chief who was a
magician and the custodian of tombs for the deceased kings.
- The second group resided at the capital and included all those that were closely related to
the king by perpetual kingship such as the perpetual mother, perpetual aunt and the crown
prince who was also the war leader.
- The third group included the tributary chiefs who lived in the country side. These chiefs
had permanent representatives at the king’s capital called Ntomb. Within the country side
the Cilolo collected tribute from the chiefs and the people which was presented to the
King. It must be remembered that tribute collection was a very outstanding characteristic
in the Lunda Empire.
- Those nearer to the capital had to pay tax several times in the year whilst those further
away only paid once a year in the dry season. The capital which by 1875 had recorded a
population of between eight to ten thousand people relied for its sustenance entirely on
tribute in food form.
- Every district was linked to the Kings court by a special representative based at the court.
- There was no regular standing army apart from a small police force at the capital.
- However, in times of attack they quickly re- mobilized themselves for defense and attack.
- It reached its peak about 1680 under Mwata Yamvo Mutebe.

EXTENT OF MWATA YAMVO’S KINGDOM.

When it reached its greatest expansion, the Lunda kingdom from Zaire sent off the following:

- Kinguri went to Angola

- Chinyama went to the south and founded the Luvale and Luena Kingdoms
- Mwambwa left and founded the Aluyi (Lozi) Kingdom along the Zambezi flood plain by
1650 AD.
- Ishinde founded a kingdom in the Zambezi district
- Kanongesha founded a kingdom in Solwezi and Kasempa

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 - Mwata Kazembe founded Mwata Kazembe kingdom south of Lake Mweru, about 1700.

KAZEMBE’S LUNDA KINGDOM

ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT

- This Kingdom originated from the already existing kingdom of Mwata Yamvo which was
in Katanga region. Around 1700 A.D Mwata Yamvo Muteba strived to expand Lunda
domination east of his kingdom through conquest so that he could extend his tax base in
terms of trade goods.
- With this in mind history has it that Mutanda Yembe Yembe was sent to expand the
kingdom eastwards. He was accompanied by Chinyata. Sad to say Mutanda Yembe
Yembe was not loyal to Mwata Yamvo. Chinyanta reported him to Mwata Yamvo,
following this report Mutanda Yembe Yembe killed Chinyanta.To show appreciation
Mwata Yamvo honoured Chinyata posthumously by giving his son Nganda Bilonda the
title of Mwata Kazembe on condition that he had to continue the eastward expansion.
- However, Bilonda is said to have drowned in the Luapula while carrying out the mission.
He was succeeded by Kanyembo who became Kazembe II. By 1725 Kanyembo was the
ruler of a vast kingdom to the east of the Lualaba and mainly in the Luapula valley area.
- Mwata Yamvo gave the symbols of power of a Lunda king, comprising a knife, staff, belt,
beads, rings, dress, and a cutting of the Mutaba tree to be planted at Kazembe II’s new
capital.
- Kazembe II defeated the Ushi, Chungu, Chibwe and the Shila around 1740. By 1760 the
Mutaba tree was planted at the village of the defeated Shila chief, Katele.

REASON FOR EXPANSION

- The Expansion of this kingdom is said to be fairly rapid. It started under the first
Mwata Kazembe Ng’anda Bilonda who unfortunately drowned while crossing the
Luapula River in 1725.
- The following reasons for expansion are cited by historians: The Kingdom had a well
organised political structure. They were skilled fighters and had a powerful army,
military discipline and guns from the Portuguese. Kazembe III, Ilunga Lukwesa
completed the Lunda expansion to the east. He conquered Nsama’s Tabwa, some of
Mporokoso’s Lungu, and Nkuba’s Shila.
- Under Kazembe III the Lunda Kingdom covered a vast area from Mwata Yamvo on
the Lualaba to Zambia’s Luapula valley.
- The kingdom was rich in natural resources such as fish, salt, copper and iron, slaves,
ivory and food.
- Trade therefore was one of the contributing factors to the expansion of Mwata
Kazembe’s kingdom who managed to monopolise it. This was well organised, salt,
copper, iron and slaves were all exported. The kingdom was strategically located in
terms of trade routes. By 1800 Kazembe‘s capital was the centre of trade routes

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 crossing the continent. Kazembe obtained guns and woolen goods, Indian cloth, beads
and other manufactures. He redistributed cloth and beads, whilst keeping the guns
firmly in his own hands.
- Conquered chiefs like Nkuba could retain their power as owners of land on condition
of returning tribute to Kazembe.

FACTORS THAT LED TO ITS DECLINE.

- The decline started from the 19th century during the reign of Mwata Kazembe IV who
was called Keleka due to the following;
- In the first place Keleka was economically and militarily weak so he depended on
external aid. These donors dictated affairs in the kingdom to their benefit.
- Secondly, after Keleka’s death in 1862 civil war broke out for twenty years from
1862 – 1882 and weakened it. Traders took advantage of this situation to infiltrate
into the kingdom before a new Mwata Kazembe came up.
- Thirdly, Mwata Kazembe lost control of long distance trade routes to both coasts.
West coast route went to Msiri while the east coast route went to the Yao and
Swahili. In addition sub – chiefs like Tabwa, Bwile and Bisa revolted.
- Fourthly, the rise of powerful kingdoms which challenged Mwata Kazembe such as
Msiri’s Yeke and the Bemba Kingdom. Many conquered people found no protection
from Mwata Kazembe so they broke away. They either traded on their own or
joined the expanding Bemba kingdom.
- Lastly the arrival of the Ngoni warriors also contributed to the decline of Kazembe
kingdom.

THE BEMBA KINGDOM

ORIGIN OF THE BEMBA KINGDOM

- Origins of the Bemba lay in Katanga. They were an off shot of chief Mukulumpe,
the kingdom emerged around 1650.
- Mukulumpe and Mumbi Makasa were blessed with children Chiti, Nkole, Katongo
and Chabala. The chief’s children built a tower which collapsed and killed many
people. The chief’s children fled away as they were joined by their half brother
Kazembe, Chishimba and Mumbi Mukasa.
- One (side) group of Bena Ng’ona remained on the western side of Lake Bangweulu
and gave rise to new tribes such as Ngumbo, Mukulu, Chishimba and Lungu.
- Chiti main Bemba continued moving eastwards along the Chambeshi river, they
conquered the Lala and the Bisa and gave them new chiefs. They entered
Nsengaland and it was here where chief Mwase killed Chiti, Nkole avenged Chiti’s
death and first ruled through his subordinate Chishimba.
- The Bemba chiefs assumed the title of Chiti Mukulu meaning the great one, it was
from the Chinsali capital that they started to expand their kingdom.

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ORGANISATION AND REASONS FOR EXPANSION:

The following were some of the reasons for expansion:

- Since the environment was poor, in order for the Bemba to survive, they had to
become raiders of other kingdoms rich in resources.
- Good leadership as shown by Chileshe Chepela managed to conquer some of the
surrounding groups. Association of Chiti Mukulu with ritual powers, people
believed that Chiti Mukulu had some ordinary powers; this made the Chiti Mukulu
maintain his authority.
- The Ngoni raids helped the Bemba to unite against common enemy, this unity of
purpose assisted the Bemba expansion
- The distance trade between Kazembe, Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese helped Chiti
Mukulu to increase his wealth.
- By nature the Bemba were fearless, they became proud of conquering other tribes.
This led to assimilation of other tribes, this was a Bemba policy.
- Socially the Bemba lived a village life and someone in the name of the village
headman looked after the village. He settled disputes and collected tribute. He
encouraged communal work, they were matrilineal that is to say inheritance was
through the mothers’ line. Marriage was such that the husband had to live with the
parents of the wife.
- Polygamy was not common among the ordinary people only the chief allowed to
have several wives. The Bemba also practiced initiation ceremony (chisungu) the
Bemba imphasized on clan for example the Bena Bowa and Bene Ng’andu

Religious organisation

- The Bemba believed in worshiping the ancestral spirits associated with this belief
was that elders had to be treated carefully so that they could die a happy people.
The traditional priests mediated between the dead and the living. They had tribal
shrine holy places like rocks and big trees where they went to pay homage

Political Organisation

- Chiti Mukulu had absolute power, his powers were unquestionable. He made all
political appointments. Under him were subordinate chief for example Mwamba
and Nkole Nfumu, under the subordinate chief were village headmen and at the
bottom were common people organized in families.

Economical aspects

- The Bemba practiced small scale agriculture based on chitemene, because of the
poor environment they could not raise animals. Under the chitemene system, they
grew sorghum and later cassava. They fished from the surrounding lakes and rivers.

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 This was done by poisoning the fish, trapping in a basket. They also hunted
elephants to obtain ivory.
- Apart from that the Bemba chief traded in ivory, salt and iron on a small scale and
raiding others for items was a very important economic activity together with
tribute (taxation) of other people.

WHY IT DECLINED

- The Kingdom declined because of the following: Sub chiefs like Mwamba began to
challenge the authority of Chiti Mukulu. Eventually Mwamba broke away. He declared
a large section of the kingdom, in this way Chiti Mukulu lost a large section of tribute
from his subjects
- Weak leadership also contributed especially after the reign of Chiti Mukulu Nsampa,
successors proved to be weak leaders.
- The coming of colonial rule that used force when Chiti Mukulu could not co-operate.
For example in 1896 the BSA Company declared Lubemba a British protectorate
territory. As a result Chiti Mukulu lost his power over the kingdom. He only became an
agent of colonial rule, hard on tax collection, and therefore, colonial rule had a lot of
negative consequences on the strength of the Bemba.

ALUYI (LOZI) KINGDOM UP TO 1835

ORIGIN
- The Luyi kingdom originted from kingdom in Katanga although the Luyi claim that they have
their origin in Bulozi. Mwambwa was their leader. Her successor was her daughter
Mbuyamwambwa. This was about 1650.AD

IN ZAMBEZI FLOOD PLAINS

- The Luyi formed states each independent of other and headed by a “ROTSE”. They were all
without the Zamebzi river which overflowes once every year. When water goes back into the
river, fertile silt remains bedhind which people use for agriculture. To ensure a fair distribution
of this fertile land especially when the population grew, a strong and centralized government
was needed. This is how the female rulers gave way to male rulers

POLITICAL STRUCTURE

1. LITUNGA: Strong and efficient

2. MULONGWANJI COUNCIL: (a) To advise the Litunga

(b)To make sure his orders are carried out
3. ROTSE (INDUNAS): Most of them were in charge of Lilalo.

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 4. LILALO (DISTRICTS): (a) To provide an army for the Litunga
(b) To work on public works planned by the government
5. VILLAGE (Headed by INDUNAS).
- The government planned the buildings of canals, fish dams, and sites for villages. This was to
provide means of transport on the Zambezi River and encourage the development of various
skills for providing food and different items for inter-district trade. The Litunga capitalized on
this trade to gain more political power.

EXPANSION
- Expansion started during the first Litunga called Mboo Muyunda, who was the son of
Mbuyamwambwa and Rotse of Kalabo. Some relatives of Mboo left the area in protest and
established their own independent states. These included Mange of the Kwangwa and
Mwanambinyi of the Kwandi. Mboo also sent out some of his relatives to establish Luyi rule
in the surrounding areas through the use of force or diplomacy. But also declare their
independence from Mboo. Therefore, this early expansion lacked a centralized political
system.

- Mboo then tried to centralize this kingdom by defeating these independent states one by one
but he was killed when he tried to defeat Mwanambinji.
- Second and third Litunga went as far as Mboo had gone and ended up being killed also. The
Fourth Litunga Ngalama centralized the political structure by defeating Mange and
Mwanambinji. While the Fifth Litunga kept the situation as it was under Ngalama.
- The Sixth Litunga Ngombala (Ngambela) introduced a co-ruler at Nalolo for this centralized
state. He was to rule the conquered people and was not allowed to become senior Litunga. He
was not supposed to be a Luyi but one of the conquered people. He introduced long distance
trade with the west coast. He conquered more tribes but which were not supposed to be
assimilated so they felt separate and independent.
- Succession to the Litungaship was by civil war which left the kingdom weak. Examples of
groups he conquered were Totela, Shanjo, subiya and Mashi. The relationship between the
Litungaship and his co-rulers was unhealthy so it made him have very little control over the
subordinate chiefs who obeyed the co-ruler more than the Litunga. All these achievements of
Ngombala (Ngambela) created the weakness within the kingdom especially when other
Litungas came up who did not understand these changes. The seventh and two successive
Litungas maintained the situation as it was under Ngombala (Ngambela).
- Tenth Litunga: Mulambwa ruled approximately between 1778-1830. He brought the
kingdom to its greatest extent. He had over 25 different ethnics groups under his control. He
introduced a law code for the leaders and people. He made his son “MUBUKWANU” as his
co-ruler and his other son “SULUMESLUME” as his heir. He skillfully handled the Mbunda
immigrants of Mwene Chiengele and Mwene Kandala because of their skill as dancers and
magicians but rejected direct trade with Mbari and Ovimbundu because they were dangerous as
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 trade partners. This was dangerous as these opened up new trade routes away from the Luyi
kingdom and diverted all the trade to their new routes.

AFTER THE DEATH OF MULAMBWA

- Civil war weakened the kingdom. It was between the co-ruler and Silumelume
helped by the Mbunda. At this point Kololo people led by Sebetwane from the
South entered the kingdom between 1833-1835. They joined the civil war by
enlisting one candidate against the other with the help of the conquered people
and new migrants. By 1840 the Luyi surrendered and Sebetwane was in total
control. His skillful leadership and experience in fighting with the Assegai made
him win the civil war.

REACTION OF THE LUYI

- Some Luyi under the Rotse accepted Kololo rule. Some fled with Mbunda
support to Nyengo in the west and Lukwakwa(Lukulu) in the north where they
formed important centres of opposition.

KOLOLO RULE (RULE OF SEBETWANE) 1835 – 1864.

- The Kololo rule is divided into two parts: Firstly, the rule of Sebitwane which
began in 1835 to 1851 and secondly that of Sekeletu who ruled from 1852 to
1863.
- The rule of Sebitwane was a fair one. He made minor changes like changing the
name Luyi to Lozi, Siluyana Language was changed to Sesuto.Conquered
people were called “Makalaka”. He scattered many Kololo Indunas to various
districts as governors taking over the Rotse. But he also confirmed many Rotse
in their own power and took them into his royal council.
- Kololo rulers were told not to look down on the conquered people.Sebitwane
gained confidence of both the Kololo and Makalaka.
- Another method he used to have a grip on the conquered was through inter
marriages. He married even from the so called Makalaka women. Furthermore
he adopted a successful policy of fusing the Kololo and the Makalaka that in the
end the Lozi adopted the name Kololo on their own and even gave themselves
as soldiers when the kingdom was attacked by the Ndebele of Mzilikazi and by
Nxaba.
- Sebitwane also mixed freely with his people and took them as his children. As if
this was not enough he took care of the poor and those starving at his palace
using excess food he stored in time of plenty. Unlike the previous Luyi kings
Sebitwane appeared frequently in public. Defence wise in 1851 he decided to
move his capital to Linyanti due to constant Ndebele attacks. Linyanti was a

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 swampy area so it offered protection for his people but later it proved
unfavourable due to malaria.
- As a way of pleasing the Lozi he encouraged his Kololo to adopt a matriarchal
system and customs in an effort to please the Lozi though this was
misunderstood so the Kololo put up an heiress to the throne. This was unheard
of in the old Luyi setting so it was something that made the Luyi to look for an
opportune time to rebel.
- It was the same Sebitwane who met and welcomed Livingstone in 1851 and he
agreed to make his country the base for missionary work in Central Africa.
- Unfortunately he died in the same year, leaving behind a strong and well
organized kingdom. He appointed his daughter “Mamochisane” as his successor
but she abdicated the throne after ruling for not more than ten (10) months in
favour of her brother Sekeletu.

RULE OF SEKELETU 1852 – 1863

- Sekeletu was the opposite of his father in character and rule. He was childish,
wasteful, cruel and distrustful of people. Some historians have connected all this
to the fact that he was a leper this made him very short – tempered.
- He removed all the Rotse and old Kololo governors and replaced them with his
own childish age mates. In the same vain he encouraged the Kololo to mistreat
the Makalaka.
- The idea of consolidating his hold through inter marriages was not there, neither
did he fetch for the poor and the starving people at his palace nor did he mix
freely with his people.
- He encouraged separate tribal development. He did nothing for the Kololo who
were dying with malaria at Linyanti.Those who tried to leave Linyanti for other
places were ruthlessly returned.
- Unlike his father who used to keep food for the poor, Sekeletu wasted all the
food for the needy days on useless parties; this was because he did not have a
child.
- In the last mile of his rule he lost the trust and confidence of both the Kololo
and the Makalaka who were all waiting for a chance to get rid of him. Many
Lozis fled with their leaders to Nyengo and Lukulu to reinforce opposition
against Kololo rule. Sekeletu died in early 1863.

AFTER THE DEATH OF SEKELETU,

Two civil wars rocked the kingdom in 1863.
- One civil war was among the Kololo to choose the successor to Sekeletu. They ended
up choosing Mporolo. And another one among the Lozi to choose a challenger and they
chose Sipopa, son of the late tenth Litunga. By 1864 Mporolo and Sipopa fell into civil

85
 war until Sipopa helped by Prime minister Ngambela Njekwa and those opposing from
Nyengo and Lukulu won.
- Sipopa therefore, became the first Litunga after Kololo defeat. Kololo men were killed
while women were given as wives to the Lozi men.

RESTORATION OF THE LOZI KINGDOM.

- Sipopa was over thrown by Mwanawina a son of Mulambwa in 1876.Mwanawina ruled
up to 1878 when he was overthrown by Lubosi who became Lewanika.

LEWANIKA’S RULE.

- Externally, the Lozi kingdom faced many attacks from the Ndebele of Mzilikazi and the
Ngoni of Nxaba.
- Internally Lewanika faced a lot of problems, hence the fear of being overthrown thus he
did the following:
- Firstly, he gave the post of the co- ruler to a woman so that he could have a firm hand
on her. Secondly, he ordered the killing of all male children in case a rival could arise
from them. This action created more enemies for him. Thirdly, he frequently visited the
conquered so that his presence would be felt. Fourthly, he had the fear that
Mulongwanji could over throw him as to what Tatila Akufuna did in 1884 85 so he had
to please members of the Mulongwanji by giving them freedom and privileges to
control over the land and over the Indunas in their Lilalo.
- To be sure of his safety he made friends who could help him in case of a rebellion. For
example he had Traders like George West beech at Pandamatenga, Chief Khama of the
Ngwato people, Francis Coillard and the Paris Evangelical Missionaries. And last but
not the Least the BSA Company which in the end took over control of Barotse land.

MARAVI KINGDOMS/KALONGA KINGDOM.

ORIGIN
- The following points outline the origin of Kalonga Kingdom. The Phiri clan which
grew powerful in southern Malawi in the early 1400s, claimed to inherit its authority
from Luba kingdom under Kongolo. Some of the earliest people to settle around Lake
Malawi were the Tumbuka people. They settled together with the Saan in the 13th
century. They were joined by Luba immigrants under the leadership of Kalonga.
- Mazizi Kalonga led them out of Luba Kingdom but he died on the way so his maternal
nephew by the name of Kabunduli Phiri took over leadership up to Malawi.
- The Phiris married into the local Banda clan and developed their own concept of
kingship, based upon the authority of local religious rituals. Over the course of the 16th
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 century they founded the Kalonga, Lundu, and Undi kingdoms—known collectively as
the Maravi Confederacy—in the rich elephant-hunting lands between Lake Malawi and
the Zambezi River. These people who migrated came to be known as the Njanja
speakers. This is also known as the “Language of the Lake”.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
- The people who belonged to Kalonga Kingdom formed several closely related groups
each under a chief. Examples of these chiefs were Kalonga Mansula, Mkanda, Mwase,
Cimwala, Kaphwiti and Lundu. They were located south and south – west of Lake
Malawi.
- The Kalonga family were believed to have power to make rain, they had two types of
rain making cults. The Masinga under Mbona and the Makewana rain cult under Undi.
In 1580 problems started in Kalonga's Kingdom. Lundu broke away from Kalonga and
migrated southwards and set up an empire known as the Bororo Empire.They became
rivals or enemies.
- Between 1600 and 1650 Kalonga Masura made an alliance or a friendship with
the Portuguese. The Portuguese were in Sena and Tete. These Portuguese
wanted someone to help them defeat MweneMutapa Gatsi Rusere.
- In 1605 Kalonga Masura gave the Portuguese 4000 soldiers. In return the
Portuguese gave him military help to conquer his rival, Lundu. By 1625
Kalonga Masura had declared himself ruler of the Kalonga kingdom.
- With time Kalonga Masura who was ruling in the Shire Valley area started
subduing the other states and replacing their rulers with his own relatives. The
last two Kaphwiti and Lundu came under his control in 1608 with the help of
the Portuguese.
- For a brief period between 1600 and 1650 the Maravi were united under the
Kalonga dynasty as a single empire from the Shire and Zambezi river valleys to
the coast of Mozambique. He formed the Malawi conferederacy not a
centralized kingdom.
- They had Masura as the king who was assisted by sub chiefs who were close
members of the Kalonga himself. Below the sub chiefs were the village
headmen and below them were the subjects.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION

- After declaring himself overall ruler of the Kalonga Empire, he started expanding his
kingdom in order to increase his power. He did this by controlling the gold and ivory
trade in Mwenemutapa's kingdom and He failed. He then went on and built an army of
10,000 soldiers.
- It was for conquering weaker people such as Chipeta, Mbo, Zimba and Chewa. He
made them pay tribute. Tribute is a gift that is given to a king by his people or subject.
Kalonga also controlled the long distance trade to the North of the kingdom. This is
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 called slave trade. Kalonga Masura also participated in this trade. He sold ivory and
slaves and obtained guns, gun powder, beads, cloth and European goods. He used the
wealth he got to reward his sub chiefs and lesser chiefs. It was to make them obey him.
This is called loyalty. As a result of this, by 1635 his kingdom reached its greatest
extent, it lasted for fifty years. It started from Lundazi up to Mozambique. Later on, this
big kingdom declined.

DECLINE OF THE KINGDOM

- Kalonga's Empire declined after 1650 because of three main factors. In 1650 Kalonga
had a brother called Undi who was defeated in this succession dispute, he therefore
broke away taking along all the important women of the Phiri clan. He wanted the
remaining king to have no royal successors.
- The other factor that caused the decline of this kingdom was the breakup of religious
powers. The rain makers depended on the unity of Kalonga's people, when there was a
break away, the Mbona rain cult failed to make rain.
- The third factor was in 1660. This was the final blow to the decline of this kingdom.
The Yao traders entered the kingdom and further weakened the already weak kingdom.
They started controlling the long distance trade. In the same year the Yao killed the last
Kalonga and the kingdom collapsed. This was the end of Kalonga's Empire.

UNDI’S CHEWA KINGDOM

ORIGIN

- Undi kingdom originated from Kalonga’s kingdom in present day Malawi. In about
1640 there was a succession dispute between Undi and his brother Kalonga.
- Undi lost the dispute and he broke away from Kalonga. Undi migrated westwards
together with important female members of the royal Phiri clan, leaving Kalonga
without anyone to succeed.
- He later settled in Katete and Chadiza district of modern Zambia and established
his capital at Mano, an area in Mozambique, south of Katete after he conquered the
Chewa.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION

- Undi established levels of the hierarchy of rulers. These were: Undi at the top of the
hierarchy, followed by subordinate kings, mainly from the Phiri and Banda clans,
tributary kings and chiefs and chiefs of the conquered people. At the bottom were
headmen of villages.
- Undi followed a certain degree of centralization of power like gaining trade monopoly
and collecting tribute but his central authority was never complete.
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 - He formed a confederacy which he managed to control because he was semi – divine.
Undi performed both religious and ritual services and this strengthened his political
structure.
- Undi had overall control of the rain shrines and spiritual centres which were looked
after by Makewane of the Phiri family.
- Loyalty from conquered kings and their people was encouraged by: Re-distributing
goods gained from trade and establishing kinship ties with Undi, especially with the
Phiri family through intermarriages. But not all the conquered people were assimilated.

FACTORS FOR EXPANSION

- The expansion of the kingdom started from 1700 when Undi gained more control of the
flourishing ivory trade with the Portuguese. To this effect, he sent junior members of
the Phiri clan to become chiefs in new areas in both Zambia and Mozambique. These
were remitting tribute in form of ivory to Undi who rewarded them with trade items
from the Portuguese.
- Undi’s kingdom was also rich in gold. This became one of the main items of trade.
Undi took this chance to expand his kingdom so as to include the entire gold belt.
- By mid 1700, slave trade started as the Portuguese had opened up huge plantations
called Prazoers in the Zambezi valley so they needed human labour. Undi took this
opportunity to attack and defeat other tribes so as to get slaves. The end result of this
was the expansion of his kingdom.
- In summary the kingdom was able to expand due to Conquest, Religious influence,
Tribute system and trade monopoly, political power in the hands of the Phiri clan, gold
mining and slave trade.
- The kingdom grew larger, at its greatest extent; it covered the eastern province of
Zambia, and Mozambique’s Tete district.

DECLINE OF UNDI’S KINDOM

- The decline of this kingdom in the 19th century was due to both internal weakness and
external threats

Internal weaknesses were as follows:

- Lack of a strong centralized system of government. This gave chance to the conquered
people to revolt; due to the vastness of the kingdom communication problems became
worse during the times of the revolts.
- Disloyalty of the subordinate chiefs, this led to Undi losing trade monopoly to the Yao
who now traded directly with subordinate kings, conquered kings and chiefs. These turn
raised powerful regular armies which challenged Undi’s authority successfully.
- Undi lost power of control over the religious shrines and spiritual centres to Makewana
who later declared her independence through a revolt.

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 - Lack of a well organised army, Undi had no permanent police or army to maintain law
and order in the kingdom
External threats,

- By 1780 activities of the Portuguese Prazoer owners who started making secret land
agreements with the Chikunda without the knowledge of Undi weakened the kingdom,
as the Portuguese were now able to do illegal mining of gold without paying tribute to
Undi.
- The Chikunda began illegal hunting of ivory tusks without paying tribute to Undi,
hence Undi lost control over tribute system on which he depended for trade and this
undermined his authority.
- The effect of slave trade, by 1830, there was a great demand for slaves, the Portuguese
and Arab Swahili traders began to capture many slaves from Undi’ s kingdom. This
created war – fare and instability which in turn disrupted stability and peace in the
kingdom.
- This was worsened by the political power of the Portuguese
- The Ngoni invasion of 1835 – 1840 and 1870 – 1880 caused the collapse of the
kingdom and left it divided into two parts; one part in Mozambique and Malawi and
another part in Zambia. With the weakening of the kingdom the people of Undi decided
to place themselves under Mpezeni protection and were assimilated into the Ngoni
society. Hence, the Ngoni were the people who wiped out Undi’s kingdom by 1870.

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MISSIONARY INFLUENCE IN CENTRAL AFRICA:
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
- David Livingstone was born on 19 March 1813 in Blantyre, Scotland. At the age of
10 yrs, he worked in a cloth factory while attending evening classes/night school. At the
age of twenty three (1836) he entered the University of Glasgow to study medicine and
theology.
- After getting his doctorate in medicine in London, in 1840 he came to Africa as an
ordinary missionary under the London Missionary Society (LMS).He met Robert
Moffat who encouraged him to join the London Missionary Society for Africa. In
1846, he married Mary Moffat and thereafter went to set his own mission at Koloberg
(Botswana) He did some exploration while at Kolobeng.
- In 1851 he met Sebitwane at his capital - Linyanti and decided to make Kololo
kingdom the base for his missionary work in Central Africa. He became an explorer and
Missionary.
- David Livingstone’s aims can be summed up by the 3Cs
- These are Commerce, Christianity and Civilization. Aimed at social change and
civilization in Central Africa. He however, later concerned himself with the evils of
slave trade, which he saw as a hindrance to his work.
- His work can be measured by looking at the three Great journeys he made into
Central Africa between 1851 to 1873 before he died.
- In his first journey he travelled from Cape Town in June via Kuruman to
Kolobeng and then to Lake Ngami in 1851, he reached Linyati were he met
Sebetwani before his death. For six months, Livingstone tried to preach among
the Kololo. He later left for Luanda which he reached on May 31st 1853 in his
effort to try and find a route from the West coast to Kololo country. He came
back to Linyati but did not stay long, by November he tried to find a route to
the East Coast.
- He saw the Victoria Falls in 1855 and travelled through Tonga land were he
met chief Moonze the Tonga rain maker. He reached Kafue river which he
followed up to the place were it joins the Zambezi river, he followed the
Zambezi untill he reached Quelimane at the East coast in 1856 and then went
back to Scotland.
- The aim of this journey was to open a route for missionaries and trade. This
journey was a failure because Linyati was unsuitable for a Mission Station. Both
routes to the East and to the West were untraceable.
- The effects of the journey were that, back home Livingstone gave speeches,
made reports and published a book called “Missionary Travels.“ All these
aroused a lot of interest in England. The area was explored and used by slave
traders to capture more slaves.

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- The Second Great Journey (1858 – 1864) was sanctioned by the queen of England,
financed by the government and the chember of commerce, Livingstone was
helped by Thomas Baines and John Kirk. The aim of this Second journey was to
find the navigable ways into the interior e.g Zambezi river in May 1858 but it
was a failure due to the Kaborabasa rapids. He used a steam ship called Ma -
Robert in memory of his mother in law. It proved useles before the rapids.
- Next expendition was on the shire river which failed due to the Murchison
rapids. Livingstone was happy with the view of the Shire Highland ahead of him
and togetherr with Kirk thet went further on foot up to lake Chirwa and came back to
the foot of rapids. The whole team then tried this difficult route until they reached Lake
Nyasa in 1859.
- A lot of people died due to malaria including his wife the rest persuded
Livingstone to abandon his expedion because they had lost confidence in his
leadership. He continued with the expeditions on the Rovuma river which
alsofailled due to rapids.
- In 1861 a team of missionaries arrived and set up a mission station . They were led
by Bishop Mackenzierenzi with his freinds who decided to set up a mission at
Magomero. These missionaries belonged to the Universities Mission to Central
Africa. (U.M.C.A) and where the first to respond to Livingstone `s call. These mission
did not take off because the place was infested with mosquitoes and attacted
mostly by Yao slave traders . In 1864 Livingstone was recalled by the British
Government.
- The result of the journey,it was a vernment upon recipt of report of hostile slave
raiders and malaria cases..
- This was a failure because the river was not navigable due to rapids. Magomere
was unsuitable for a mission station and was full of Yao slave raiders.
- The effects were as follows: On the bright side Bishop Mackenzie arrived at the head
of the U.M.C.A to set up a mission in 1861.Slave trade increased. On the dark side
many people died like Mackenzie and Livingstones wife. Further more slave trade
did not stop but instead increased
- The aim of the third journey (1866 – 1873) was to find the sourse of the Nile river
within the vicinily of Lake Bangeulu and Mweru.
- Livingstone was alone in this expedition. He stated off by exploring lake
Bangweulu, Mweru, Tanganyika and Luapula rivers. In 1871 he fell sick and
was taken to Ujiji to recover. All his medicines were stolen. While at Ujiji he
met Henry Morton Stanley - a reporter for the New York Herald in 1871. He
was sent to look for Livingstone and report on him since he had been away for
many years without any news.

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- Since he found him very sick he persuaded him to go back to Europe but he
refused and after recovering a bit he continued with his expedition until 1873
when he died at Chitambo`s village south of lake Bangweulu. However his
journey was a failure.The area he had explored only helped traders to capture
slaves easily especialy the Bemba, Lunda, Arabs and Swahili.
- Coming to the importance of David Livingstone’s work in Cental Africa, one of the
important contribution was that through his journeys, books, speeches and appeals he
encouraged many people to explore, for example, Stanley Morton , resigned as a
reporter annd became one of the greatest explorers of Central Africa while Fredrick
Selous came to explore Mashonaland and Cecil Rhodes used him as a guide when he
emabarked on his occupation of Mashonaland in 1890.
- Secondly, Europeans changed their mind from slave trading to legimate trade in
goods immediately after the death of Livingstone.
- Thirdly as an explorer he was successful because he mapped out most of Central Africa
and provided a lot of information.
- Fourthly, due to the north ward route from Cape Town to Kuruman famously known as
the Missionary road Boers were unable to expand Westwards into Bechunaland during
thhe scramble for Africa. Instead the British governmennt in an effort to try and
protect the Missionary road declared a British protectorate over Bechuanalnd in
January 1855.
- Fifthly, as a missionary he achieved nothing but following his death many Missionaries
took up his aims and accomplished them for him.
- Furthermore, because of his penetration of Central Africa, later Missionaries activities
in Central and East Africa led to the colonisation of the areas under their influence like,
Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Congo, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
- Lastly, the fact that he died in Africa was an achievement in the sence that he had a
heart for Africa. His companions buried his heart in chief Chitambo‘s village,
three of them Susi, Chuma and Jacob wraped up the body in a cloth to look
like a bale of goods and carried it to the coast to be handed over to the
British council who sent it to England where he was burried at West Minister
Abbey.
- One of the failures, was that he was too idividualistic considering himself to be
always right, so he led many people into dificulties as he lacked the qualities
of a good leader.
- The other one was that he was poor , restles and impotent missionary he did not
achieve anything as a missionary immediately but it was only after his death that others
achieved them for him.

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THE UNIVERSITIES MISSION TO CENTRAL AFRICA (UMCA).

- This mission began as a result of David Livingstone’s journey. His appeal at Cambridge
in 1857 played a major role in the creation of the mission. He drew support from the
Oxford, Cambridge and Durban Universities. Bishop Mackenzie was taken on as leader
of the First expedition to Malawi. The party set out in 1861. Among the people on the
trip was Livingstone himself. These settled at Magomero. The area proved unhealthy.
Not only was that but slave raiding also was rampant.
- The demise of Mackenzie and others was due to malaria. Bishop Tozer took over
mission work to Zanzibar in the year 1863. Tozer began work among the freed slaves.
When the slave market was closed in 1873, a cathedral was built on the site. The period
after 1875 saw a chain mission stations being established at Likoma Island, for use by
missionaries.
- The above was done due to Charles Maples, who had drowned in 1895. This happened
together with William Johnson. The cathedral was built later in 1905, hence, Likoma
Island becoming the main centre of Bishop of Nyasaland. This was because translations
into vernacular languages became possible. This tool of education won against slavery
and freed slaves.

RESULT OF THE WORK OF UNIVERSITIES MISSION

- The Universities mission spread Christianity, built schools to reduce illiteracy and
clinics and hospitals to eradicate diseases. They translated the bible into local
languages. They campaigned against slave trade and replaced it with trade in goods.
Warlike tribes were pacified while cruel customs were abandoned. They offered shelter
to many refugees. Northern Rhodesia was very much influenced by the work of the
mission as they opened up a number of missions.

EXPANSION OF THE WORK OF UNIVERSITIES MISSION.

They opened the following:

1. Livingstone Mission by Bishop Hine in 1901.

2. Mapanza mission among the Tonga in 1911

3. Msoro mission (1911)among the Kunda of Chipata was started by an African Priest
helped by the teachers

4. In 1915 Chipili mission near Mansa was opened by Bishop May while in 1918 Fiwila
mission near Mukushi was started by Bishop may and in 1947 Katete mission opened.

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COLONISATION OF NORTH WESTERN RHODESIA.

- The territory called North western Rhodesia was defined by lewanika who calaimed
that his territory extended from the Lovale country in the north- west to Katanga in the
north. To east it included all the territory as far as the countries of the Ila and the
zambezi valley Tonga north of the Falls. This ofcourse was an exaggeration of the
extent of the Lozi political authority and effective contol.
- Lobosi or Lewanika was firmly restored to the Lozi throne in 1885.the Litunga ‚s
restoration to throne came at the height of the european ‚scramble ‚ for territorial
possessions in Central Africa and , indeed, in the whole continent.
- Lewanika feared that his land would be taken by the British South African Company
(BSA Co.), Germany traders from present day Namibia and from the Portuguese traders
and settlers.Lewanika was also afraid of a possible Ndebele invasion of Bulozi. Thus he
asked his missionary friend and adviser on European matters, Francois Coillard, to
write to Queen Victoria requesting her to extend her protection to his country.

HOW LEWAKANIKA SOLVED HIS PROBLEMS

- First in January 1889 with the help of Francois Coillard, a French missionary in his
kingdom and chief Khama of the Ngwato people of Bechuanaland, Lewanika applied
for British protection through Cape Town,. The British government refused due to lack
of money and man – power.
- Secondly, in June 1889 Lewanika, hard pressed by the Europeans, signed a limited
concession with Ware, a German trader, to mine in Tonga country.
- Thirdly, at this point a worried Rhodes stepped in after forming his B.S.A.C and bought
the Ware concession then sent his own agent called Frank Lochner. He was to persuade
Lewanika to accept B.S.A.C. protection under cover of the British government.
- Fourthly, in 1890 Lochner had managed to persuade Lewanika so they signed the
Lochner concession with the help of Francois Coillard and chief Khama. Lewanika was
under the impression that he was dealing with the British government.

TERMS OF THIS TREAT.

- The B.S.A.C gained exclusive mineral and commercial rights in Tongaland.

- Secondly, the B.S.A.C persuaded Lewanika not to enter into any further agreements
with any other power.
- Thirdly, in return Lewanika gained British protection especially against ndebele attacks;
a pay of 2,000 British pounds per annum,; mineral royalties and to have a British
resident at Lealui. British government ratified the Lochner concession. None of these
terms were kept by the B.S.A.C until 1897 and Britain was slow in sending a resident

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 at Lealui until 1897. Reasons being the for B.S.C.It had many slow activities south
of the Zambezi river between 1890-1897 which kept it busy –occupation of
Mashonaland, Matebele war of 1893.-occupation of Manicaland, jameson raid
of1895-6 and Ndebele and shona rebellion of 1896-97.
- For the British government; she was embarrassed with the company ‚s activities south
of the Z ambezi river which were very disgraceful especially the jameson Raid. She
was discredited by many European nations so out of anger she withdrew the Royal
Charter restored.Rhodes had to work very hard to regain British confidence and to have
the Royal Charter.
- Rhodes had to work very hard to regain british confidence and to have the Royal
Charter restored. He risked his life by going personally to meet the rebelling ndebele in
their Matope Hills and holding meetings with them in 1896 then later he approached
the rebelling Shonas. Due to this bravery the British government was impressed with
his bravery so the royal Charter was restored, but some of its status were removed as
punishment.
- In 1897 Robert Coryndon arrived as the first British Residents at Lealui. His first move
was to negotiate for a further treaty in 1899 with Lewanika through Lawley. This was
because the BSA CO.’s loss of some of its status due to its involvement in the Jameson
raid necessitated the rewording of the Lochner Concession.
- The proposed Lawley treat merely repeated the terms of the Lochner Concession only
that the BSA CO. Lost its administrative monopoly.
- In 1898 the Lawley proposals were tabled before Lewanika to sign. Before Lewanika
could sign, the British government early 1899 issued the ``Barotseland North Western
Rhodesia Order in Council``

TERMS

- It gave the BSA CO the right to rule and govern the area west of the Kafue river which
is under Lewanika.
- Western borders were defined and more land on the Angolan side was taken.(this is
why the shape of Zambia is like that in Mwinilunga).
- Therefore Lawley proposals remained unratified by the British government and
unsigned by Lewanika.
- In 1900 Lewanika signed another treaty at the Victoria Falls so it was called Victorial
Falls treaty. The author of this treaty was Coryndon so it is also known as the Coryndon
Concession.
- Mostly a repeat of the unratified and unsigned Lawley proposal to pin down Lewanika.

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 THE NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN LOBENGULA AND THE CONCESSION
SEEKERS AND THE SUBSEQUENT OCCUPATION OF MASHONALAND
BETWEEN 1870 AND 1891
- The BSA Company was a commercial company under the leadership of a British
imperialist in the name of Cecil Rhodes who had come to South Africa at the age of
seventeen.
- BSA Company and other agencies penetrated Central Africa because of their desire to
exploit Africa of its natural resources particularly its precious stone such as copper,
silver, gold and diamond. They had no intention to develop Africa but simply milk it of
its abundant raw material and minerals. Infact the dreams of the imperialist Rhodes
about Africa were vast. He for instance, wanted to take the whole of Africa for Britain
from the Orange River of South Africa and sweeping right through Cairo in Egypt.
- To achieve these motives of exploitation, the BSA Company and other Agencies signed
treaties or concessions but when ever this failed to work, force of arms was used. What
must be remembered is that all the promises that were made to Lobengula were verbal
ones.
- The Boers through their agent Pieter and Grobbler managed in 1887 to sign an
agreement with Lobengula, the Grobbler treaty as it came to be known was an
agreement of friendship between the Transvaal and Matabeleland in which Transvaal
was allowed to maintain a permanent representation at Bulawayo. This was a move
which was aimed at gaining access to the minerals of the area it was not long after the
signing of this treaty that Rhodes heard of it and to him this threatened his desire to
gain control of the mineral rich area.
- In a move to defer the Grobbler treaty, Rhodes sent to Lobengula to John smith Moffat
to go and negotiate a treaty. Fortunately for Rhodes, Lobengula had known Smith
Moffat as a friend much earlier when he was head of the Linyati mission. Preoccupied
with this notion of friendship, Lobengula offered no trouble in concealing the Grobbler
treaty and infact went into further treaty known as the Moffat treaty in 1888 under
which Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen and promised that he would
not enter into any other concession with anybody without the High commission. All
these agreement had been entered into on the understanding that he was doing it with
old friend of the Ndebele, but little, however did Lobengula realize that Moffat was no
longer a friend of his but someone who was determined to destroy them completely.
- To further secure the aims and objectives of the BSA Company Rhodes sent three of his
representatives to Lobengula to go and negotiate for a mineral concession. These were
Charles Rudd, Francis Thompson and Richard Maguire, due to the influence of sir
Sydney Shippard, the British Commissioner for Bechuanaland, Charles Helen, the Luis
leader in Matabeleland and Lobengula own senior Indunas and his trusted advisors
Lotshe and Sikombo, Lobengula signed a treaty which became known as the Rudd
concession on 30th October,1888.

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 - Lotshe and Sikombo influence Lobengula into signing the treaty because they had
earlier been bribed by Rudd and his party Lobengula was told that Rhodes would
protect his country from European occupation and that if the British were allowed to
enter Mashonaland, only £10 would come and would leave their weapons and be his
people. Lobengula was further promised £10 per month, 1000 rifles and 100 000
rounds of ammunition and in return also granted mining rights to the BSA company.
However, all the promises that were used to him were verbal and were not fulfilled. It
was the BSA Company that benefited from all these treaties.

THE CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE NDEBELE AND SHONA UPRISING OF 1896

REASONS FOR THE NDEBELE UPRISING

- Ndebele loss of their state and traditional land

- Loss of the Ndebele cattle
- The outbreak of rinderpest
- The aspect of forced labour
- Ndebele military towns were broken up and the age- regiment system abolished
REASONS FOR THE SHONA UPRISING

- the Shona were stopped to trade with the Portuguese

- loss of land
- introduction of Hut tax
- the law of justice
REULTS

- Rhodesia became a conquered country as the Ndebele were conquered in 1893 and the
Shona during the 1897 rebellion
- Reserves were created in Mashonaland and Shonas were moved into them by force
- Shonas were refused to build their houses in the kopjes just as the Ndebeles were
refused to live in the Matopo Hills for defence purposes.
- Power of local chiefs was restricted and local government arranged on more direct
patterns with native commissioners in charge.
- Local police administration was established
- Africans lost hope in their religion and god; they became disillusioned and even lost
hope of ever becoming independent so they remained inactive until in the late 1950’s
which was a bit too late. Europeans were given a lot of time to consolidate their hold on
the country
- Railway lines reached Mafeking 1897, Bulawayo 1898; Umtali and Beira. This gave
new confidence, prosperity and determination to white settlers in Southern Rhodesia.
- Colonization paved the way for Zimbabwe’s present prosperity.

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 ARGUMENT FOR AND AGAINST THE FORMATION OF THEFEDERATION
OF RHODESIA AND NYASALAND.
- Federation meant that Northern Rhodesia , Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland would be
united under one government, in which they would be called the Federal government,
however, each state would have its own government to decide its own affairs.
- Settlers in Southern Rhodesia hoped to benefit economically from copper in the
copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia
- Settlers in Northern Rhodesia hoped to benefit in the gold profit of Southern Rhodesia
- Northern Rhodesia hoped by joining with Southern Rhodesia would change the policy
of Africa paramouncy and create self government
- The White settlers for federation argued that it was going to be in the best interest of all
the three territories if they came together as it would make them economically strong.
- Each country/territory was dependant on one export product for example Zambia
depended on copper, Malawi on tea and Rhodesia on tobacco
- Argued that although the Africa in Northern Rhodesia were opposed to federation
federal constitution gave them security by provision of an Africa Affairs Board which
would block any bill which tended to discriminate against the Africans
- British strongly argued that a British state in Central Africa was important because it
was going to balance off the influence of South Africa which was slowly extending
ideas of apartheid to Central Africa
- Formation of the federation was supported by Africans in Southern Africa- because it
emphasized the idea of partnership which they thought was much better than racial
discrimination which they had been subjected in Northern Rhodesia
- Africans particularly in Northern Rhodesia were bitterly opposed to federation because
they didn’t want to have any link with Southern Rhodesia where they were pass law,
land and labour segregation
- Africans were aware of the motives of the white settlers to introduce a permanent white
controlled dominion of Central Africa and feared that if federation was allowed it
would be their first step towards a settler controlled Africa on similar lines to that of
apartheid South Africa thus they opposed the federation
- Settlers like Roy Welensky in Northern Rhodesia argued because he knew that a
Whiteman was just lying and that they were already used to the idea of African
paramouncy
- Robinson Nabulyato conceived the idea of partner as a mere ladder for Europeans to
trample on the Africans.

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SECTION B: SOUTHERN AFRICAN HISTORY

THE WAY OF LIFE OF THE SAN AND KHOI KHOI BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF THE
DUTCH IN SOUTH AFRICA. IN YOUR ANSWER MENTION THEIR TRIBAL
ORGANIZATION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

- San and Khoikhoi are believed to have come from an area south of the equator. They
were forced downwards by a more powerful Bantu tribe.
- Both are yellow or brown skinned people with a characteristic click sound in language.
Khoi khoi were taller than the San. The San were pastoralists and also gathered roots,
berries, leaves and insects like grasshopper
- The San were nomads. They only kept dogs which helped them hunt. They were not
farmers but kept cattle, sheep and goats. They killed their animals only on special
occasions such as marriages but mainly depended on milk. They also moved from place
to place in search of pasture.
- They were also hunters and gather who hunted wild games and collected honey. Like
the san, the khoi khoi did not grow any food.
- Politically the san did not have any chief instead they had ritual leaders and lived in
groups. On the other hand the Khoikhoi lived in large which were made by several
clans. Chiefs were expected to settle disputes while succession to the throne was
hereditary.
- Socially, boys and girls got married at the age of 14 to 15 years and polygamy was
widely practiced. Like the khoi khoi, dancing was important among the San, they
imitated wild animals. The San painted drawings.
- Both the San and the Khoikhoi believed in ancestral worship. The san believed in a god
called Keegan and a playing insect called Mantis. The Khoi khoi on the other hand
believed in a god called Tsuigoal.
- The arrival of the Dutch at cape affected the San and the Khoikhoi differently. The
Boers held the San contempt and called them Bushmen and thought of them as animals
and hunted them down.

SHORTS NOTES ON THREE OF THE FOLLOWING

THE BLACK CIRCUIT

- The name give to the Boers mobile courts through which non whites could use their
masters for ill-treatment
- these were introduced by the British government in1811 at the cape
- changes by the Hottentots were encouraged by the local British missionaries
- the Boers hated the courts more when the magistrate was shot dead by a farmer when
he was trying to arrest
- a rebellion broke out and 7 Boers who were ring leaders were hanged

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 - In 1813 court proceedings were held which were hated by the Boers and called it black
circuit because it favoured the blacks.

THE 1820 SETTLERS

- British settlers who settled at cape colony in 1820

- It was one of the solution to the eastern frontier wars
- They were settled on Zulu small 100 acre mixed farms
- It was hoped to strengthen British elements on the frontier, increase military potential
of whites and led to more economic use of the land
- This was a failure because the British abandoned them for pastoral farming others
moved to towns like Grahams and Port Elizabeth to start a new life.
-
THE 50TH ORDINANCE

- A law was introduced at the cape colony by the British

- It was introduced by the missionaries who had but pressure on the improvement
- It was aimed at the change to better lives on non whites e.g.
- Repeated all former restrictions on the freedom of non whites
- Provide the ownership of land to non whites
- Provide for payments of wages to servants
- Abolish apprenticeships contract between master and servant. Boers hated it because it
was a blow to their economy which was based on slave labour. It striked at the whole
base of white attitudes, hence he need to move
THE 1833 EMANCIATION OF SLAVE ACT

- It was introduced in1833 by the British, by this act slavery was compulsory abolished at
the cape with a total compensation of $1.25 million Boers lost their cheap labour and
the process of getting compensation was long
- It involved lawyers who chased exorbitant fees
- Many Boers ended up getting nothing as they had to travel to Britain.

THE CAUSES AND IMMEDIATE RESULTS OF THE MFECANE SOUTH OF THE

LIMPOPO RIVER BEFORE 1800.

CAUSES

- favourable environment

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 - geographical barriers
- great desire to have more land by the whites
- search of new land
RESULTS

These can be argued on both constructive and destructive

CONSTRUCTIVE

- brought the emergence of strong centralized state by amalgamating the small

fragmented states
- for instance the Bantu were able to emerge into a favourable group and later founded
the Gaza empire in Southern Mozambique. Sobuza found the Swazi empire in
Swaziland and Mzilikazi of the Ndebele founded the Ndebele kingdom in the present
country Zimbabwe
- Defensive kingdom- Moshesh kingdom at Theba busiu and bapeda who established
themselves in the Zonpansberg range in present eastern Transvaal of south Africa
- Mfecane brought about the new type of leadership in Eastern and Southern Africa. The
new leaders such as Moshesh, Shaka and Sobhuza and Mzilikazi
- And Mirambo a Tuta captive who was a chief in Tanzania changed the old traditional
rule which relaxed rules and brought instead law and order which was effectively
maintained

DESTRUCTIVE

- loss of thousands of human lives and property. Whole huts and crops were destroyed
resulting in the land becoming full of human skeletons
- severe starvation
- Xhosa stands out as a good example of a tribe that suffered the worst effects of Mfecan,
they were caught up in the middle of two powerful groups
- BOERS BENEFITTED; Boers as they were leaving cape and encouraging deep in the
interior found un occupied fertile land which facilitated their farming and pastoral
activities
- Boer encroachment however, caused future clashes with the Bantu.

THE JAMESON RAID 1895

The Uitlanders appealed to Rhodesia and Jameson for help in their struggle for political
and civil rights in the Transvaal. There were differences between the Uitlanders and Cecil
Rhodes.

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 Uitlanders wanted self government for Transvaal Rhodes wanted an association with the
rest of South Africa. The Boers knew about his invasion.

The major result of the unsuccessful raid was that a peaceful solution to the difference
between the Transvaal and British became almost impossible.

The Bambata rebellion

The development of the white economy in South Africa was based on the extraction of
valuable minerals. This caused the growth of large urban areas and had a profound effect on the
system which is still followed today by most of the South Africa non- white population. The
reserves became the areas where the women, children and old people lived while the young men
took up temporal residence in the white urban areas where they worked in unskilled jobs.

Lack of land poverty, disease and taxation drove thousands of Africans into the towns. The
basic fact to grasp is that life in these towns meant poverty, insecurity and fear for the Africas
while in contrast many of the Whites enjoyed lives of wealth and privilege. A resentment, hatred
and a defiance of their white employees, and administration, grow up in place of the traditional
life.

Ethipirism, a separatist religious movements, which used the slogan ‘Africa for the African’
gained a consideration following among Zulu in the cities. It prevented rebellion and the
message found its way back to Natal and Zululand In 1906 a resistance message became
widespread in Natal. “All pigs must be destroyed as also all white fowls.” The interpretation of
the order was clear enough. The white man was to be swept into the sea. The Zulu in Natal
followed the instructions with regard to the slaughter, both of pigs and fowl, against the wishes
of Dinzulu, Cetswayo’s successor, who did not identity himself with the resistance movement.

The imposition of a poll tax of one pound per head whether European, Africa, Asian or
Coloured- resulted in outbursts all over Natal. The tax, involving the payment of the same
amount of money by everyone, was resented by Africans, when Europeans were earning at least
twenty-times as much money as they were. Some of the men had not brought their tax money so
Bambara failed to comply with magistrate’s order. But he stayed with his men trying to persuade
them comply with the new regulations. On 10th June 1906, Bambata and his followers were
trapped in the Mome Gorge and slaughtered.

MOSHESH AND THE BASUTO NATION

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 Moshesh the founder of the Basuto Nation was born in 1786. He was the son of
Mokachana the chief of Mokoteli. He first settled at Butha Botha where he established a well
protected fortress. He recognized the usefulness of the flat topped mountain.

By 1821 he was attacked by Tlokwa led by Mantatisi who was ruling for her son
Sekonyela. In 1824, Tlokwa made a second attack on Moshesh threatening to starve him and his
people but made an alliance with another local tribe for food supplies which made his people
survive. After proving that Butha Butha was not safe, he moved his people to a more protected
fortress called Theba busiu. He gained support of the phuth, the first people to live in Basutoland.
After a short fight Moshesh treated Morossi, the phuth, chief with generosity that he got
his support. He placed other ethnic groups to keep their own leaders provided they were royal to
him.

He brought different groups together at council and public assemblies of which important
matters were discussed. He followed a system which saw a value of peaceful agreements. When
he was attacked by Matiwane of the Ngwane, he defeated him. Moshesh defeated the Griquas
and Korenna from Orange Free State with mounted soldiers which resulted into greater mobility
in the Basuto regiments.

The Basuto faced both defeat and starvation when Sir Philip Wode Louse announced a
protectorate over Basutoland in 1868. The coming of the white farmers brought problems to
Moshesh. He hoped to prevent more Boers coming into his country.

The quarrel between the Orange Free State and Moshesh forced Basutoland to seek
British protection. Boers threatened Moshesh to accept the Warden line. The treaty of Thaba
Bosiu left government agreed that the protection should be given to Moshesh provided the
Basutoland was annexed to Natal with the consent of Orange Free State. Moshesh died in 1870
but not before the survival of Basutoland was assumed.

THE LIFE AND CAREER OF MZILIKAZI AND HIS NDEBELE UP TO THEIR

ARRIVAL IN ZIMBABWE.

The Ndebele of Mzilikazi were originally called the Khumalo and were under the authority
of Zwide of the Ndwandwe it was after Zwide killed Mashobane Mzilikazi’s father that
Mzilikazi assumed leadership of the Khumalo.

Mzilikazi left Zwide and transferred his royalty to Shaka. Shaka was impressed by
Mzilikazi’s military ability and appointed him as an Induna over a regiment which largely
comprised his own people.

In 1821 Mzilikazi disobeyed Shaka by refusing to dispatch cattle to him he had obtained
after defeating a Sotho tribe to the north west of Zululand, fearing punishment Mzilikazi escaped
into the interior plateau. About 1824, he reached the upper olifants river where he built a

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settlement which they called Eko-pume-leni the resting place here he raided the Bapech, the
Tswana and Kololo.

In 1825, he abandoned this area and moved westwards into central Transvaal because the
area was to close to Zululand.Between 1825 and 1834, Ndebele warriors devasted the central and
northern area of Transvaal bringing an era of peaceful development among the northern Sotho to
a sudden and violent end. The Kwena were badly broken up later Ndebele established there
capital at Mosage.

In 1836 a party Boers led Erasmus and Liebenberg families passing through Ndebele
territory was mistaken for Griqua warriors. The Ndebele attacked them and the party was largely
destroyed.

However, in January 1837, a combined attacked by the Boers, Tlokwa Griqua and Korana
forced Ndebele out of Mosega to another military town of E.Gabeni.

In 1837 when the Ndebele were attacked by the Boers, they began their northward journey.
They were divided into two groups. E.g. the royal family of kuluman and Lobengula, the two
sons of Mzilikazi women, children and what was left to their cattle left to their called was led by
the chief.

Induna Gundwane Ndiwena and built their first settlement near Matopo hills, they called it
Gibixhegu (kill the old men) in memory of shake’s military towns.

The second group led by another Induna Magsekeni Sithole and containing Mzilikazi got
lost and wandered as far as north as Zambezi when they had the undeceive battle with the Kololo
of Sebitwane at about 1838. Meanwhile the first group waited in vain for their leader where split
occurred between those that wanted a new king install.

However, a search party found them and then moved to Zimbabwe Mzilikazi built his new
royal capital at Nyati near Bulawayo. Those that wanted to over throw him were killed. They
were five Indunas including chief Gundwane were handled at a hill which still is called the “hill
of Indunas” Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by his son Lobengula who ruled the
Ndebele up to January, 1894.

THE AIMS AND FEATURES OF SOUTH AFRICAN POLICY OF APARTHEID FROM

1948 TO 1994.

Apartheid is a dispute word for separateness between white and non whites. It was the
exploitation of the non-whites (majority) by the whites (minority) in South Africa.

The aims of the apartheid policy were to:

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 Firstly, promote racial inequality between whites and non-whites, secondly preserve the
supremacy of whites over non-whites and finally to protect and preserve Afrikaners power in
South Africa.

The features of apartheid policy were:

The 1948 elections won by the Afrikaner Nationalist Party preserved the racial purity of the
whites in order to ensure continued purity white supremacy.

In 1949 marriages between the white and non-whites were made illegal. In 1950, the group areas
Act gave the government power to divide South Africa into separate districts for each race.

In 1950 Act classified the people of South Africa into separate districts into three groups:

Whites, Coloureds and Bantu/blacks issued with a pass. The Bantu Self Government Act of 1959
divided the African population into eight tribal units called ‘Bantustans’ or ‘reserves’ each
governed by a puppet ‘government’. Some of the Bantustans were: Transkei (largest), Ciskei,
Kwazulu, Venda, Bophuthatswana

Voters Act of 1951 repeated in 1956 aimed at removing the Cape Coloured from common
roll of voters. The Major Carrier Transport Amendment Act of 1955 imposed segregation on
transport services. The 1956 Industrial Conciliation Act banned mixed trade unions. The group
Areas Amendment act of 1957 segregated the public cinemas and restraints. Lastly was the 1962
Sabotage Act (General Law Amendment).

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