SISTEMAS E INFORMÁTICA

Área de Electrónica

TECHNOLOGY STATUS AND TRENDS

IN MOTION CONTROL OF AC
SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS.

Sergio Blanco and Juan M. Hernández

14 September 1999

Abstract - The purpose of this paper is to summarize the number of technologies available
today in the ac squirrel-cage induction motor drive field, either commercially and under
study. The focus of the research is the control philosophies used but an introductory
explanation of qualitative ac squirrel-cage induction motor principles and drives principles
are given as a background. This paper intends to be an updated overview of the progress
and current work on motion control technology for ac squirrel-cage induction motors and a
guide for academic purposes.

INSTITUTO TECNOLÓGICO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES DE OCCIDENTE, A.C.

Campus: Periférico Sur 8585 / Tlaquepaque, Jal. / 45090 México
D.E.S.I.: Tel. (013)669-3598 Fax (013)669-3511 http://www.desi.iteso.mx
 LIST OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 3
ELECTRICAL MACHINE APPLICATIONS........................................................................................................ 3
II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE AC SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR ................................ 4
AC SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR OPERATION PRINCIPLE................................................................. 4
AC SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL ..................................................................................... 16
III. MOTOR CONTROL OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... 17
REGULATION OF ROTATIONAL SPEED OF AN AC MACHINE ........................................................................ 17
IV. MOTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY OF AC MACHINES........................................................ 19
CONTROL TECHNIQUES............................................................................................................................ 20
CONTROL PHILOSOPHIES ......................................................................................................................... 23
PARAMETER ESTIMATION METHODS ........................................................................................................ 36
CONTROL HARDWARE ............................................................................................................................. 37
IV. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................ 38

V. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 39

2
 TECHNOLOGY STATUS AND TRENDS IN MOTION CONTROL OF AC SQUIRREL-CAGE
INDUCTION MOTORS.

Sergio Blanco and Juan M. Hernández

Abstract - The purpose of this paper is to summarize the number of technologies available
today in the ac squirrel-cage induction motor drive field, either commercially and under
study. The focus of the research is the control philosophies used but an introductory
explanation of qualitative ac squirrel-cage induction motor principles and drives principles
are given as a background. This paper intends to be an updated overview of the progress
and current work on motion control technology for ac squirrel-cage induction motors and a
guide for academic purposes.

I. INTRODUCTION

Electric motors are the workhorse of the manufacturing industry and they also play a
key-role in the transportation industry. In the past, direct current (dc) motors were used
extensively in applications where high performance variable speed operation and controlled
torque were required, due to the fact that flux and torque can be easily regulated by the field
and armature currents in a separately excited dc motor. The main disadvantage of the dc
motor is the use of a commutator and brushes. This leads to constant maintenance, limited
use in explosive environments and limited use in high speed and high voltage applications.

Alternating current (ac) motors present several advantages over their dc

counterparts: they are more robust and smaller for the same power rating. This means low
rotating mass that can be translated into higher operating speeds. Among the ac machines,
the asynchronous squirrel-cage induction motor has additional advantages: it is simple and
rugged and is one of the cheapest machines available. The induction motor advantages also
include the lack of electrical connections that can generate sparks or dust, thus making it
suitable for explosive environments, clean-room areas and for low maintenance applications.

In the last three decades, important advances in the power semiconductor and
control technology areas have led to new adjustable speed motor drives for ac motors.
Unfortunately, ac motor mathematical models are much more complex than those of the dc
motor and thus require more complex control schemes and more expensive power
converters to achieve speed and torque control.

Electrical Machine Applications

In order to understand the requirements for an adjustable speed drive, it is necessary

to first understand the fields of application of an electric motor. Of the total number of
electric machine applications, less than 10 % require an adjustable speed drive [1].

3
• Constant torque. The requirement is to maintain torque constant independently of the
speed. This is used in conveyors, mixers, screw feeders, extruders and positive
displacement pumps for example, accounting for the majority of the electrical machine
applications. These applications have high friction loads with little or no inertia, requiring
starting torque much higher than rated torque.
• Variable torque (continuously variable load). Low torque is needed at low speeds and
high torque at high speeds. This is used for centrifugal loads such as fans, pumps and
blowers, being second place in number of applications. Speed can be controlled to
regulate air or liquid flow.
• Constant power. High torque is needed at low speeds and low torque at high speeds.
This is used in the machine tool industry - cutters and lathes, where usually dc motors
are used. Motor applications for electric vehicles could also be classified under this
category.

The factors that affect the choice of an adjustable speed drive include rating, capital
cost, speed range, efficiency, speed regulation, braking requirements, reliability, power
factor, power supply availability, environmental considerations, among others [1].

II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE AC SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

AC Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Operation Principle

As stated earlier, the squirrel-cage induction motor is the most rugged and
mechanically simple electric machine. The construction of this type of motor consists of the
following parts [2]:

• Stator windings: Three phase windings distributed in the stator slots, displaced by 2π/3
radians (120º) in space with respect to one another.
Stator laminations: Provide a magnetic path for the fluxes generated by the stator and
rotor currents.
• Squirrel-cage rotor: The rotor consists of a stack of insulated laminations, that are also
part of the magnetic circuit, with electrically conducting bars inserted through it close to
the periphery in the axial direction. The conducting bars are electrically shorted at each
end of the rotor by end rings, thus producing a cage like structure. The cage like
structure is considered to be equivalent to a three-phase wye connected winding [3].

Figure 1 depicts a simplified diagram of the squirrel-cage motor showing only the
stator windings for each phase displaced 2π/3 radians in space and the conducting bars of
the rotor (notice the squirrel cage appearance). The rotor laminations and the stator
laminations (magnetic cores) are not shown. There is an air gap between the stator and
rotor laminations so that the rotor can move freely inside the stator.

4
 The rotor bars are usually angled and not straight as shown. The stator windings
(shown here as single Nse-equivalent turn windings) are not actually closed, but have
connections for the external three-phase voltage source so that a three-phase current can be
established. Generally, the stator windings have a wye connection.

c'
a
b
Rotor axis
b'
a'
c
Rotor conducting
bars and end rings Stator windings

Figure 1. Simplified diagram of the rotor and stator windings of a squirrel-cage induction
motor.

The alternating voltage supplied to the stator windings directly from a three-phase
source produces an excitation flux. An alternating current is induced in the rotor by
transformer action from the stator. This rotor current then interacts with the excitation flux
and generates the electromagnetic torque that produces the motion of the machine shaft as
will be explained in the following paragraphs.

In a balanced three-phase system, the voltages applied to the windings of the stator
are sinusoidal and have the same amplitude, but have phase angles separated 2π/3 radians:

ua (t ) = Vm sin(ωt ) (1)

2π
ub (t ) = Vm sin(ωt − ) (2)
3

4π
uc (t ) = Vm sin (ωt − ) (3)
3

where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in radians/sec, called synchronous angular

frequency or synchronous speed, and Vm is the voltage amplitude.

5
 If one stator winding (consisting of Nse turns) is connected to a sinusoidal voltage
supply u as in figure 2, a time-varying excitation current iφ will be established. According to
equation (4), Ampere’s law, a current generates a magnetomotive force (mmf) in the space
surrounding it.
r r r r
mmf = ∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ H ⋅dl
S (4)

iφ
+ + Rs, Nse

u e φ
e
_ _

Figure 2. Excitation circuit of one stator winding.

The mmf generated by the excitation current produces a time-varying magnetic field
strength (H) in the machine core according to the right term of equation (4) that in turn is
the origin of a time-varying magnetic flux density (B) according to equation (5). As the
permeability of the laminations and air is different, the magnetic flux density value is
different at each point in space inside the machine.
r r
B = µH (5)

The magnetic flux density presence indicates the production of a time-varying

excitation flux φe in the magnetic core, which value is greatly determined by the air gap
between the rotor and stator laminations. Equation (6), Faraday’s law, indicates that a
magnetic flux that varies in time induces an electromotive force (emf) in a conductor that
encloses the magnetic flux lines.

r r d r r
emf = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ B ⋅ dA
dt A (6)

where the vector dA is perpendicular to the surface which the magnetic flux crosses and the
vector dl indicates the direction around this surface. Thus, the excitation flux will create an
emf in the stator winding that balances the applied external voltage. By Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law (KVL):

u = e + Rsiφ
(7)

6
where Rs is the stator winding resistance and e is the balancing emf generated according to
equation (6). Suppose the copper losses (Rsiφ) are minimal compared with e, which is often
the case. Then from equations (6) and (7):

dφ e
u = e = − N se (8)
dt

If we consider u = ua(t) then from equations (1) and (8) there is an excitation flux
being generated by the voltage applied to stator winding “a”:

−1 V
φ ea (t ) =
N se ∫ u a (t )dt = m cos(ωt )
N seω
(9)

In a similar way:
−1 Vm 2π
N se ∫
φ eb (t ) = ub (t )dt = cos(ωt − ) (10)
N seω 3
−1 Vm 4π
N se ∫
φ ec (t ) = u c (t )dt = cos(ωt − ) (11)
N seω 3

As can be seen, each sinusoidal stator voltage generates a sinusoidal excitation

magnetic flux in the machine core that lags π/2 radians, as shown in figure 3. These fluxes
are generated by excitation currents iφa, iφb and iφc. According to equation (4) the excitation
currents are in phase with the fluxes but are not exactly sinusoidal due to the magnetic
properties of the core, as figure 3 shows. In the core, each one of these excitation fluxes is
directed along the corresponding stator winding axis as shown in figure 4.

When the fluxes produced by the three stator windings are superimposed, the
resultant flux is the sum of the individual fluxes with a spatial angle dependence (due to the
different stator windings orientation) as follows:

2π 4π
φes (θ , t ) = φea ( t ) cosθ + φeb ( t ) cos(θ − ) + φec ( t ) cos(θ − )
3 3 (12)

where θ is the spatial angle around the periphery referenced to the axis of stator winding “a”
(see figure 4). Notice how we have indicated this flux as “es” or total stator-produced
excitation flux.

7
 φ es
-e, u
iφ

Figure 3. Waveforms of one of the stator voltages with the corresponding excitation current
and magnetic flux.

axis of winding b
a

c' b' θ

axis of winding a
b c

a'
axis of winding c

Figure 4. Axis of the excitation fluxes generated by the stator voltages as seen from a point
in the rotor axis.

Substituting equations (9), (10), (11) into (12):

Vm V 2π 2π V 4π 4π
φes (θ , t ) = cos(ωt )cosθ + m cos(ωt − ) cos(θ − ) + m cos(ωt − ) cos(θ − )
Nseω Nseω 3 3 N seω 3 3
(13)

8
 After some manipulation of equation (13):

3 Vm
φes (θ , t ) = cos(θ − ωt )
2 N seω (14)

The resultant excitation flux Φes has a constant amplitude and if it is thought of as a
vector or space phasor, revolves at the synchronous speed ω around the rotor axis. This
excitation flux has a magnetic path that includes the stator and rotor core as figure 5
suggests.
__
Φ es
ω
Stator laminations a

c' b'

0
Air gap
b c

Rotor laminations a' Excitation flux lines

Figure 5. Excitation flux lines generated by the stator excitation current in the magnetic
circuit of the induction motor as seen from a point in the rotor axis.

Recall from figure 1 that the rotor has conducting bars short-circuited in the ends.
Each pair of bars located on diametrically opposite sides can be considered as part of a
conductor loop which is closed by the end rings, even though the end rings are not straight.

Taking one such loop as in figure 6 and assuming the rotor is stationary (locked in
place), equation (6) can be interpreted as follows. The excitation flux vector Φ es is rotating
at synchronous speed ω, requiring that there be a flux change vector dΦ Φ es in quadrature (π/2
radians or 90º) with vector Φ es. The vector dΦ
Φ es can be resolved into two components. One
is parallel to the surface vector dA indicated as dΦ Φ esa and is the one that, according to
equation (6), will induce an emf in the conducting loop.

9
 The integration of the scalar product of vectors E and dl around the surface in the
direction shown (integration in the direction of the right hand, with thumb indicating
direction of surface vector dA) results in the magnitude of the electric field being negative
because of the negative sign in equation (6), so the actual direction is the opposite of the one
shown. The electric field variation is sinusoidal as the changes in the magnetic flux that
induce it are also sinusoidal. As the loop is short-circuited, this electric field will generate a
current iri to flow in the direction shown in phase with the induced voltage. This induced
current would in turn generate a sinusoidal mmf resulting in a magnetic flux Φ ri.
__ __
d Φ esa d Φ es
__
__ Φ
dA ω es

End ring
__
Conducting bar __
Φ ri Conducting bar
End ring
__
iri E
__
Rotor axis dl

Figure 6. Conducting bar circuit in the rotor.

Now that the basic notion of induction in the rotor circuit is known, let us assume
the complete rotor circuit is composed of 4 pairs of conducting bars displaced from each
other by 3π/4 radians as shown in figure 7. Let us also assume that the rotor is stationary
(locked).

The excitation flux change will induce the currents in the loops 2, 3 and 4 as
indicated by the dots and crosses in the conducting bars cross-section of figure 7. At this
point of time, the current in loop 1 is zero as the flux change is perpendicular to the loop
surface vector dA1. The induced emf and currents in loops 2, 3 and 4 would generate fluxes
Φ ri1, dΦ
dΦ Φ ri2 and dΦ
Φ ri3. The vector sum of these fluxes is the rotor flux space phasor Φ ri.
This flux would be generated by the mmf caused by the currents that have been induced in
the rotor electrical circuit.

10
 1
4
2'
i2
__ __
ω
d Φ es Φ es
3 __
3' Φes
i3
__
d Φ ri1 __
2 4' __ Φ ri
i4 __
d Φ ri4 d Φ ri2
1' __
d Φ ri3

Figure 7. Effect of excitation flux changes on rotor currents, seen from a point in the rotor
axis.

If the rotor flux Φ ri actually existed in the core, the total flux in the stator-rotor
magnetic circuit would change as Φ ri + Φ es and the balance between the impressed stator
voltages and the counter-emf as given by equation (8) would also be disturbed. As a result,
there must be a mmf that counteracts the mmf generated by the rotor currents.

This counter-mmf is generated by stator currents as a result of the electric load that
the short-circuited rotor represents. That is, the stator current would then be composed of
an excitation current component lagging π/2 radians behind the stator voltage and which
generates the excitation flux Φ es in the machine core and an electric load current component
in phase with the stator voltage and which counteracts the mmf created by the currents that
are induced in the rotor by generating a counter-flux Φ si.

The flux vectors that are generated in the core by the stator and rotor currents are
shown in figure 8. As explained before, the magnitudes of Φ ri and Φ si must be equal but in
opposite direction, cancelling each other.

According to equations (4) and (5), each flux space phasor must be produced by a
current. This current can be represented by a current space phasor. Thus there is a current
phasor ir that is related to the flux phasor Φ ri. There is also a current phasor is that is related
to flux phasors Φ si + Φ es. The relationship is given by:
r r r
ψ = Nφ = L ⋅ i (15)

11
where ψ is called the concatenated flux and represents the summed effects of the windings
of an N-turn winding. The inductance L relates the current in a winding with the
concatenated flux that it produces in that winding. Thus, the space phasor currents that
create the fluxes could be portrayed as in figure 9. Note how the stator current space phasor
has a different orientation with respect to the rotor current space phasor as it produces the
excitation flux.

Φ si

__
ω Φ es

__
Φ ri

Figure 8. Fluxes in the induction machine core.

If thought of as a single inductance, the three stator windings have a total three-
phase stator self-inductance Ls. Likewise, the rotor has a total three-phase rotor self-
inductance Lr. These total inductances are composed of stator and rotor leakage inductances
Lsl and Lrl and stator and rotor magnetizing inductances Lsm and Lrm [4]:

3
Ls = Lsl + L
2 sm (16)
3
Lr = Lrl + Lrm
2 (17)

There is a coupling between the stator and rotor windings. Thus, there must be a
mutual inductance between them. If Msr is the maximal value of the stator-rotor mutual
inductance, then the three-phase magnetizing inductance Lm is expressed as [4]:

3
Lm = M
2 sr (18)

12
 __
is

__
ir
Figure 9. Stator and rotor current space phasors rotating at synchronous speed.

If the number of effective turns of the stator and rotor windings are equal, then the flux-
linkage in stator and rotor can then be expressed as [4]:
r r r r r
ψ s = ψ sl + ψ m = Lsl is + Lm im (19)

r r r r r
ψ r = ψ rl + ψ m = Lrl ir + Lm im (20)

Where ψ s is the stator flux-linkage space phasor and is composed of a stator leakage flux-
linkage space phasor ψ sL and a magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor ψ m. ψ r is the rotor
flux-linkage space phasor composed of a rotor leakage flux-linkage space phasor ψ rL and a
magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor ψ m. im is the so-called magnetizing current [4]:
r r r
im = i s + ir (21)

Under linear magnetic conditions it is possible to express the instantaneous value of

electromagnetic torque (τe) as a vector (cross) product of the stator flux-linkage and the
rotor current space phasors [4]:
r r r
τ es = cψ s × i ' r = cψ s i ' r sin(γ )
(22)

with "c" a constant and both space phasors in a stationary reference frame fixed to the

13
stator. The angle γ (the angle of the rotor current space phasor ir with respect to the stator
flux-linkage space phasor ψ s ) is called the torque angle.

The vector product of equation (22) produces a torque vector actuating on the stator
that is pointing away from the reader in figure 10 (a). If allowed to rotate, the stator would
accelerate in the clockwise direction. As the stator is fixed, there is a reaction in the rotor,
which would accelerate in the counterclockwise direction (following the rotation of the
current and flux-linkage space phasors at synchronous speed) by the effect of a torque
vector that is pointing to the reader in figure 10 (b) and which has the same magnitude but
opposite sign as the torque actuating on the stator.
__ __ __ __
τ es Ψs τ er Ψs
ω ω

γ γ

__ __
ir ir
(a) (b)

Figure 10. Torque actuating on stator (a) and rotor (b).

Let us now assume that the rotor starts moving due to this torque and accelerates to
rotor mechanical angular frequency or rotor mechanical speed ωr. The excitation flux
generated by the stator is still given by equation (14) in a reference frame fixed to the stator.
In a reference frame fixed to the rotor (that is, rotating at mechanical speed ωr) the
excitation flux now appears to be changing more slowly due to the relative speed between
the synchronous speed and the rotor mechanical speed:

3 Vm
φes ' (θ , t ) = cos[θr − (ω − ω r ) t ]
2 N seω (23)

where Φes’ is the excitation flux as seen from a reference frame rotating at the same
mechanical speed as the rotor and θr is the angle measured from the reference axis of the
rotor.

The quantity:
ω sl = ω − ωr (24)

is called the slip angular frequency or slip speed.

14
 The currents that are induced by Φes’ in the rotor now vary according to the slip
speed (slower than the synchronous speed ω) and have a smaller amplitude. As the rotor
mechanical speed approaches the synchronous speed (ω = ωr), the stator-generated
excitation flux as seen from the rotor becomes:

3 Vm
φes ' (θ , t ) = cos(θr )
2 N seω (25)

and it would be stationary as seen from the rotor. According to equation (6), this would
cause a condition in which no emf would be induced in the rotor conducting bars and no
rotor currents would appear. Then, no torque would be generated. In reality, the rotor
mechanical speed ωr can never be equal to the synchronous speed ω, and there will always be
a non-zero slip speed ωsl. The slip is a necessary condition to torque production in the
induction motor.

This fact is reflected in the so-called induction-motor torque-speed curve depicted in

figure 11. The operating point is the speed-torque point where the load torque requirements
(usually a non analytic function of speed) are met by the motor torque. The open-loop
operating point shown in figure 11 is stable. When selecting a motor for an specific
application, the intersection of the load torque and motor torque curves must be as
orthogonal as possible to prevent excessive speed variation arising from small changes in
load torque and the intersection point must be stable [1]. The slip frequency is a function of
the load demands.

Motor torque
250
Percent of rated torque

200

150

100
Operating point
50
Load torque

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent of synchronous speed
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
Slip as a fraction of sync. speed

Figure 11. Typical induction-motor torque-speed curve [5]. The load torque curve is typical
of a variable load such as a fan or pump.

15
AC Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Model

The induction motor can be described in two-axis representation [6] in a reference

frame fixed to the stator by a set of five non-linear differential equations with four electrical
variables (stator currents isD, isQ; rotor fluxes ψsD, ψsQ), one mechanical variable (rotor speed
ω) and two control variables (stator voltages vsD, vsQ):

di sD K 1
= − γisD + ψ sD + PK ωψ sQ + u
dt Tr σ Ls sD (26)
di sQ K 1
= −γi sQ + ψ sQ − PKωψ sD + u
dt Tr σLs sQ (27)
dψ sD M 1
= isD − ψ sD − Pψ sQω
dt Tr Tr (28)
dψ sQ M 1
= i sQ − ψ sQ + Pψ sD ω
dt Tr Tr (29)
dω PM TL
= (i sQψ sD − i sDψ sQ ) −
dt JLr J (30)

where:
P = number of pole pairs
Ls, Rs = Stator inductance and resistance
Lr, Rr = Rotor inductance and resistance
M = rotor/stator mutual inductance
Tr = Lr/Rr = rotor time constant
σ = 1 - (M /LsLr)
2

γ = Rs/(σLs)+RrM /(σLsLr )
2 2

K = M/(σLsLr)

These equations describe a multi-input multi-output non-linear plant. Equations (26)

and (27) are the stator voltage equations. Equations (28) and (29) are derived from the rotor
voltage equation assuming ur = 0. Equation (30) is the torque equation.

16
 III. MOTOR CONTROL OBJECTIVES

The basic applications of the electrical motor show that motion control of an ac
machine can be focused to one or more of the following objectives: Speed regulation, torque
regulation and position regulation. Only the first two will be discussed here.

Regulation of Rotational Speed of an AC Machine

The ac machine is essentially a constant-speed energy converter. Under normal

conditions, the speed changes only slightly between no-load and full-load. It is said that the
speed is “tied” to the line frequency and to the number of poles for which the machine is
wound. A squirrel-cage induction motor connected to a constant frequency source (of
frequency f ) has a speed N in r.p.m. given by [7]:

120 f (1 − S )
N=
P (31)

where P is the number of poles and S is the percentage of slip (ω-ωr)/ω.

According to equation (31), the speed of an ac induction motor can be varied in

three ways: (a) Regulating source frequency, (b) Regulating slip and (c) Modifying the
number of poles of the rotor and stator. Of these, only the later does not allow for on-line
speed regulation, except in discrete values (different number of poles can be achieved by
different stator winding configurations, switched by means of contactors or switches [5]).

The first two methods have one thing in common: They modify the torque-speed
curve of the induction motor. For clarifying this, consider the two graphs in figure 12 where
maximum synchronous speed is 2π(60 Hz) = 120π radians/sec.

Regulation of Source Frequency. The ability to construct a solid state alternating-

voltage source of controllable frequency presents the possibility of variable-speed drives for
ac motors. This type of circuit must be capable of regulating not only the frequency of the
output voltage waveform, but also its amplitude for it is known that if the excitation
frequency of an ac motor is reduced without a reduction of applied voltage, the magnetic
circuit of the machine will saturate (magnetizing flux increases as source frequency is
lowered) thus affecting performance, power factor, overload capacity and torque. This can
be easily identified in equations (9), (10) and (11). In order to regulate the torque capability
of the motor, the reduction of voltage amplitude can be linear with frequency if constant
torque is desired or by the square of the frequency if constant horsepower is desired [8], [9].

The source frequency can also be varied mechanically by mounting the stator on
bearings and driving it with an auxiliary motor (revolving stator) [10].

17
 Regulation of Rotor Slip. To develop torque in an ac machine, rotor speed “slips”
relative to stator speed. The amount of slip is proportional to the motor load. While this
increased slip provides the necessary torque from the motor to be able to drive the load, load
speed is sacrificed.

The torque-speed curve of the ac machine, and hence slip, can be regulated in several
ways:

• Modifying the source voltage: The torque of the motor is proportional to the square of
the amplitude. This method has low efficiency [7].
• Resistive control of the rotor current. This method can only be applied to wound-rotor
induction machines and slip rings are needed to provide external connections to the rotor
windings [10].
• By applying an excitation voltage of the desired frequency to the rotor (thus requiring
slip rings, available only for wound-rotor induction motors) [10].
• Vector control. Torque production in a cage induction motor is a function of the
position or vector relationship in space of the air-gap magnetizing flux-linkage vector to
the stator current vector. By regulating this relationship, the torque can be regulated.
• Other control strategies can be used that allow for controlling the torque produced by
the induction machine such as the Direct Field and Torque Control. Control of flux and
speed is possible with Sliding Mode Control and Feedback Linearization Control.

250 250 New motor torque

Percent of rated torque

Percent of rated torque

New motor torque

200 200

150 150

100 100
New operating point New operating point
50 50
Load torque Load torque

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent of synchronous speed Percent of synchronous speed
(a) (b)

Figure 12. Effects of two speed regulation methods on the torque-speed curve and operating
point: (a) Source frequency regulation. (b) Slip regulation. Dotted line and square dot
represent the motor speed-torque curve when used at line frequency and its corresponding
operating point for comparison purposes.

18
 IV. MOTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY OF AC MACHINES

Before the development of solid state controllable ac sources, ac motor power had
been supplied from a fixed-frequency voltage source that did not allow for speed or torque
regulation. The present date ac drives can be represented in a general way by the block
diagram in figure 13.

Diode rectifier or
controlled rectifier Inverter

dc bus link current or

ac voltage supply voltage ac motor
(voltage or current
constant frequency
source) waveforms

State feedback
Control signals (if any) Control signals State Feedback
(if any)
(if any)

Set-point (Torque,
speed or position) Control strategy

Figure 13. General ac drive construction.

The rectifier can either be a diode bridge rectifier or a controlled bridge rectifier to
regulate power factor and/or dc bus voltage or current magnitudes. The inverter block can
be one of the following:

• Voltage-Source Inverter (VSI). This type of inverter controls the output voltage
waveform, usually in a six-step fashion. No high-speed static switches are required. The
dc bus link employs a filter capacitor to provide a dc constant voltage.
• Current-Source Inverter (CSI). The output current waveform to the motor is controlled.
This drive is rugged but more complex than a VSI due to the fact that motor and drive
must be matched. The dc bus link employs a filter inductor to provide a dc constant
current.
• Pulse-Width Modulated Inverter (PWM). This is the drive of choice for applications of
100 HP or less. It requires a complex control and high frequency static switches. The
output waveform generates undesirable motor heating. The dc bus link employs a filter
capacitor to provide a dc constant voltage.

The PWM can be one of several types: a sine-coded PWM (SCPWM), a current-
regulated PWM (CRPWM) or a Space Vector PWM (SVPWM). SCPWM uses a ramp-
comparison modulator which compares a sine signal with a ramp or triangular waveform to
produce a PWM waveform suitable for driving the power devices of the inverter. CRPWM
regulates the stator current by comparing the output of a compensator (PI for example) with
a ramp or triangular waveform. The compensator acts upon the current error. This type of
inverter is also termed Current-Controlled Inverter (CCI). The SVPWM regulates the stator
voltage space vector orientation.
19
 The control objectives of speed regulation, torque regulation and position regulation
can be accomplished by means of a number of different control philosophies. The actual
implementation has one or more of the following features:

• There is an inner loop that handles the dynamics of the motor electrical system and might
control torque production. This loop generates appropriate gating signals to regulate
current, voltage and/or frequency of the power converter.
• There is one or more outer loops that handle the mechanical load employing suitable
feedback techniques to achieve the control objective of speed, torque or position
control.
• The necessary motor parameters and system state feedback required by the control loops
are measured directly with appropriate transducers or estimated from other motor
parameters that are measurable (see “parameter estimation”).

These control philosophies, which will be discussed in a following section, are

implemented using different control techniques.

Control Techniques

Classical control regulators such as the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) have

been used to implement some of the control strategies.

The poles and zeros of the ac machine model are not constant but can vary with core
saturation, temperature, skin effect and load. New adaptive control techniques have also
been used to adapt to the plant variations and thus enhance performance or provide robust
control systems. In this respect, the Self-Tuning Control (STC), Model Reference Adaptive
Control (MRAC), Sliding Mode Control (SMC) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) have been used
for adaptive control schemes. They provide robust performance with penalty in response
time in some cases [11]. Optimal control techniques can also be employed for optimizing a
performance parameter such as energy efficiency or response time.

Not all of these techniques are self-standing, and combinations can be made to
improve the performance such as Neural Network applied to a MRAC [12]. The uses of some
of the adaptation techniques are not constrained to parameter adaptation but can also be
used for the actual motor flux, torque or speed control or machine state estimation as will be
shown later, as some of them allow for simplification of the complex control problem the ac
machine model presents. Other control techniques such as the Differential-Geometric
Techniques have been used.

Self-Tuning Control (STC). STC is a explicit or direct type of adaptive control. In

STC, a plant parameter estimation algorithm solves the plant model on-line by observer
method. A tuning algorithm then adjusts the control parameters based on the estimation of
plant parameters.

20
 Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC). MRAC is an example of implicit or
indirect adaptive control. It relies on the ability to measure the difference (error) between the
actual process output and a reference model of the process and use it to force a plant
response to track the response of the reference model independently of plant parameter
variation or load disturbance. This, however has a cost in response speed.

An MRAC can be implemented is a number of ways using PID regulators or Artificial

Neural Network for example.

Sliding-Mode Control. The SMC is part of the theory of variable structure control
systems (VSCS) widely used in linear and non-linear systems and is another example of
implicit or indirect adaptive control. Its foundations date back to the fifties in studies carried
out in the Soviet Union [13]. VSC has developed into a general design method applicable to
many systems (non-linear, multi-input, multi-output, etc) and with various control objectives
(system stabilizing, motion tracking, model following, model reaching, adaptive and optimal
control, state observation). VSC creates very robust control systems, usually completely
insensitive to parameter uncertainty and external disturbances (invariant control systems).
Another advantage is its ability to decouple high dimensional problems into lower dimension
tasks as the performance of the system is directly specified.

The basic idea in VSC is that a plant will behave in a certain way depending on an
external excitation. This excitation could be a disturbance or a control action. For a VSC
controller, the control action is termed the control law and it creates a fixed control
structure. The control structure is valid only for a specific region of system behaviour or
system state and a set of different control laws can be defined so that there can be a number
of different control structures. The VSC controller uses a decision rule or switching rule to
select an action law depending on the plant state (hence creating a variable structure
control).

The set of control laws and the switching rule is defined in such a way that the plant will be
forced to restrict its motion to a surface of the state space called the sliding surface or
switching function. This sliding surface has the characteristic of driving the plant state
towards a stable (desired) state. If at any point of time the plant state is not in the desired
setpoint because of initial conditions or external disturbances, the VSC uses the necessary
control law to direct the system trajectory towards the sliding surface (reaching mode).
Once reaching the sliding surface, the plant state will change towards a stable point in
sliding mode along the sliding surface. In other words, the plant state is driven and
constrained to lie within a neighbourhood of the sliding surface.

21
 Due to the switching characteristic of the control, there is a tendency of the system
to present undesirable “chatter” when high control gains are used. Chatter is a natural
behaviour of the sliding mode control. It consists of high frequency oscillations of the plant
state around the sliding surface. This is caused because the only way to maintain the system
on the sliding surface is to continually drive it from both sides of the sliding surface. If the
gain used is too high, the system will overshoot from one side of the sliding surface to the
other causing the undesirable high amplitude chatter. This problem has been observed and
possible solutions have been proposed such as a fuzzy-sliding mode controller for a liquid
level control system [14]. This could be applied to an ac drive controlled using sliding mode.

Differential-Geometric Techniques and Feedback Linearization Control (FLC). Over

the last 20 years, differential geometric techniques of non-linear control have been
developed. These include static and dynamic feedback linearization, input-output
linearization, non-linear state observers and disturbance decoupling [15].

Feedback Linearization is a technique to force a non-linear plant to behave linearly.

To be feedback linearizable, a plant must comply with a series of requirements like
smoothness, existence of a state function with constant and maximum relative degree with
respect to the real input, and others which are seldom met in practice [16].

The plant state is transformed from its natural coordinate system to a different type
of coordinate system by means of a non-linear transformation which makes the behaviour of
the system to appear linear to the regulator. That is, the transformation maps the non-linear
control problem into a linear one. Once the system has been linearized, linear control
techniques can be applied in the design of the control strategy. This control solution is exact
in the sense that simplifying assumptions are not taken into account a priori.

Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI techniques are generally classified as Expert Systems

(ES), Fuzzy Logic (FL), Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm (GA). A
control based on AI emulates the human thinking process and is said to be intelligent,
autonomous, adaptive, self-organizing or self-learning. ES are based on boolean algebra
and use hard (precise) computation whereas FL, ANN and GA use soft (approximate)
computation.

AI systems can be used to identify a plant model (needed for control design but often
unknown, ill-defined, non-linear, complex, multivariable or with parameter variation
problems) and give predicted performance even in a wide range of parameter variation.

22
Control Philosophies

Control philosophies can be broadly classified in terms of their performance. V/f

control is considered to be a low performance ac machine control philosophy. High-
performance philosophies such as vector control and Direct Torque and Flux Control allow
for precise regulation of flux, torque and/or speed.

Constant V/f Control. V/f control (also termed Volts-per-Hertz, constant volts per
cycle or V/Hz control) applies the principle of a variable frequency voltage source applied to
the stator windings of the ac induction motor for regulating speed. This is an open-loop
operation which can be applied to processes where small drifts in speed (slip increased by
load changes) and air-gap flux (caused by supply voltage changes) are not concerns. A
SCPWM inverter can be employed to generate the output waveform.

This control method is simple in implementation, economical and allows driving

multiple motors on a common drive, particularly if the motors are not of equal size and type.
However, the performance of this strategy is low since it regulates flux poorly at low speeds
and does not allow for controlling the motor torque, so the actual rotor speed will not
follow stator speed when torque load increases.

As stated earlier, to secure operation at the maximum air-gap flux density over its
speed range, the air-gap voltage must be adjusted proportional to frequency if constant
torque operation is desired as figure 14 shows.

Base Voltage
Maximum Base Frequency Maximum Voltage
Maximum Frequency
Motor Rated

Voltage

Break Voltage
Start Boost Break Frequency

Frequency Motor Rated Maximum

Figure 14. AC motor excitation curve performed by an A-B 1336 PLUS II drive used in
Volts-per-Hertz mode. Courtesy of Allen-Bradley Company, Inc. [17].

Commercially available drives such as the Allen-Bradley Bulletin 160 and Bulletin
1305 exist [18], [19].

23
 Adjustable Frequency Control. If it is desired to maintain constant speed
independently of load torque, an encoder or estimated speed (see “parameter estimation”)
can be used to feedback speed to the controller. If the rotor mechanical speed is not at the
setpoint value, the frequency of the output voltage waveform of the drive is adjusted so that
the slip is compensated for. This system is basically a V/f control with frequency command
coming from a slip compensator loop.

Vector Control. This philosophy started to be developed around 1970 [3]. Vector
control allows not only for the regulation of speed but also for torque. Usually the speed
regulation loop is outside of the torque regulation loop. Several types of vector control are
possible: rotor-oriented, rotor-flux-oriented, stator-flux-oriented and magnetizing-flux-
oriented [4]. Each can be implemented as Indirect (feedforward) or Direct (feedback)
depending on the method used for unit vector generation for vector transformation. A
CRPWM inverter is the leading converter configuration as the stator current must be carefully
injected into the machine with the proper phase relationship with respect to the selected flux.

Vector control provides fast dynamical response due to the independent torque and
flux control of the ac machine. In order to understand the principle of operation of this
control philosophy in its various forms, first an explanation of torque generation in a dc
motor is presented.

a) Torque Generation in a DC Machine.

A compensated dc machine is composed of a stator and a rotor. In the stator, there

are the field and compensating windings. In the rotor there is the armature winding, as
shown in figure 15.

A field current if creates a magnetizing flux linkage in the rotor ψ mf in the direction
shown. The magnetizing flux crosses the air-gap from stator to rotor. There is also a leakage
flux ψ Lf being created in the stator by if but as it only exists in the stator it does not
contribute to the magnetic excitation of the armature and thus it is not shown. An armature
current ia also generates a magnetizing flux ψ ma in quadrature with that generated by the
field but its final contribution to the total magnetizing flux is zero as a magnetizing flux of
equal magnitude but opposite direction ψ mc is created by a compensating current ic which
has the same current value as ia but opposite direction. If thought of as space phasors, the
directions of currents and magnetizing flux can be represented as in figure 16.

24
 if f '
__
F
ic ia
c' a __ a ' c
__ ψ mf
F

Figure 15. Simplified dc machine construction as seen from a point in the rotor axis. A
smooth air gap is assumed.

As seen in figure 16, the resultant excitation flux-linkage vector is equal to the field-
produced magnetizing flux-linkage as the flux-linkages generated by the armature and
compensating windings cancel each other. The reference frame used for representing the
space phasors as two axis vectors is the so-called complex D-Q plane where the D-axis
(direct-axis) is parallel to the desired space phasor (the total excitation flux in this case). The
Q-axis (quadrature-axis) is the axis that is displaced by π/2 radians from the D-axis. For
mathematical representation of the space phasors, complex notation is used and the D-Q
frame is a complex plane where the Real-axis is the D-axis and the Imaginary-axis is the Q-
axis. The s in sD and sQ indicates that the D-Q frame of reference is fixed to the stator, that
is the magnetic axis of the stator field. This two axis representation method was developed
by Park [4]. Other notations for this complex plane ( α-β and x-y planes ) are also used just
like the sD-sQ plane to differentiate reference frames on the same graph.

According to equation (22), the torque that would be produced on the rotor would
be [4]:
r r r
τ e = cψ mf × ia
(32)

As the armature current ia is in quadrature with respect to the excitation flux-linkage

ψmf, the vector product reduces to [4]:

r r r π
τ e = c ψ mf ia sin( ) = cψ mf ia
2 (33)

25
 Im (sQ)

__
ic

__ __ Re (sD)
if ψmf
__
ia

Figure 16. Vector sum of armature, field and compensating current space phasors and
resultant excitation flux in a dc machine. A D-Q reference frame is used. As ia and ic are
opposed in space, the vector sum is zero and the only contribution to the excitation flux
comes from the field current.

As the rotor turns, the commutator changes the armature connections and creates a
stationary armature current vector, so that equation (33) is valid for any angle of the rotor.
Thus, the armature current and excitation flux-linkage are always in a optimum angle for
producing torque (π/2 radians). In such way, the torque of the machine can be varied by
regulating the armature current and maintaining the excitation flux constant. If weakened-
field operation is required, the excitation flux-linkage can be reduced independently of the
armature current by regulating the field current. Thus, the compensated dc machine allows
for a decoupled (independent) control of the excitation flux-linkage and the torque-
producing (armature) current. This makes regulating torque and speed and easy control
problem and it is the reason why dc machines had been the preferred choice for high-
performance variable-speed and controlled-torque applications before vector control and
other philosophies were developed.

The final objective of the vector control philosophy is to be able to regulate the ac
machine torque in a way equivalent to that of a separately excited dc machine. That is, to
have control over both the excitation flux-linkage and the torque-producing current in a
decoupled way.

b) Development of a Special Reference Frame Fixed to the Magnetizing

Flux-Linkage Space Phasor.

In section II, a brief introduction to torque generation in the ac induction motor was
presented. It was stated that the stator and rotor currents create three flux-linkage space
phasors: ψ sL, ψ rL, ψ m, described by equations (19) and (20). Only the magnetizing flux-
linkage ψ m exists in both the stator and rotor at the same time, crossing the air gap.

26
 Consider the magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor in a D-Q frame fixed to the
stator phase-a axis as shown in figure 17. The stator current space phasor is expressed in the
stationary reference frame fixed to the stator as:
r
iS = isD + ji sQ
(34)
y

sQ __ __
i s , i sm
i sQ

i sy ωm
x
__
i sx ψ mm = ψ mx
µm
sD
i sD

Figure 17. A sD-sQ frame of reference fixed to the stator phase-a axis and a rotating x-y
frame of reference fixed to the magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor.

If a special second frame of reference (x-y) could be made stationary with respect to
the magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor ψ mm (that is, if it could be made to rotate at the
same speed ωm = dµm/dt where µm is the angle between the sD and x axes) and if ψ mm could
lay exactly over the x axis (That is ψmy = 0 and ψ mm=ψmx+ jψmy = ψmx ), then the stator
current is phasor could be resolved into two components: A flux-producing component isx
and a torque-producing component isy. The torque in the ac machine could then be
expressed as [4]:
r
τ E = cψ mx i sy
(35)

and this torque equation would be the basis of the magnetizing-flux-oriented vector control.

27
 The goal would be to maintain the magnetizing flux-linkage space phasor constant,
except for field weakening operation, and only modify the torque-producing current
component in order to control the torque of the ac machine. This is equivalent to the torque
control of a separately excited dc machine.

c) Rotor-Flux-Oriented Control (RFOC)

Special Reference Frame Fixed to the Rotor Flux-Linkage Space

Phasor

If the special frame of reference was now fixed to the rotor flux-linkage space phasor
ψ r = ψ rL+ψ
(ψ ψ m), then the system would be termed a rotor-flux-oriented vector control and
the torque equation would be [4]:
r
τ E = cψ rx i sy
(36)

y
β

sQ __ __
is , i sψ r ω
i sQ r
α

i sy ω mr
x
__
ψ r ψ r = ψ rx
θr i sx
ρr
sD
i sD

Figure 18. A sD-sQ frame of reference fixed to the stator phase-a axis, a rotating x-y frame
of reference fixed to the rotor flux-linkage space phasor, and a rotating α-β frame of
reference fixed to the rotor.

The rotor flux-linkage space phasor rotates at speed ωmr = dρr/dt. The rotor flux
space phasor in the rotor flux reference frame ψ rψr only has one component of value ψrx .

28
 The term “Field-Orientation Control” (FOC) has been used for the rotor-flux-oriented
type of vector control. Two types of Field-Orientation control are available to regulate the
rotor flux: Direct and Indirect.

Direct Field-Orientation Control (Flux-feedback, DFOC)

The DFOC determines the orientation of the interlinkage (air-gap) flux vector by use
of a hall effect sensor, search coil or other measurement techniques such as a reconstruction
(estimation) approach based on terminal quantities such as voltage and currents [20]. The
proper phase for the stator current vector is obtained by measuring the actual position of the
rotor flux and by adding the required torque angle.

Using sensors is expensive because special modifications on the motor are required
for placing the flux sensors. In the case of the reconstruction method, there are inaccuracies
at low speeds due to the dominance of stator resistance voltage drop in the stator voltage
equation and inaccuracies due to variations on flux level and temperature [20].

Figure 19 depicts an example of a DFOC scheme.

current reference
Reference vector based
amplitude of on the
torque component stator coordinate
of current vector Coordinate Current-Controlled
Transformer Frequency changer
Reference +
Magnetizing
amplitude of
current
interlinkage (rotor) _ Angle of
reference
flux vector interlinkage flux
Compensator

Amplitude of Flux detector

or ac motor
interlinkage flux
Flux calculator

Figure 19. A flux-feedback vector control scheme [21].

Indirect Field-Orientation Control (Flux-feedforward, IFOC)

In contrast to DFOC, IFOC regulates the flux indirectly. IFOC can be considered as a
special means for controlling the stator currents and slip frequency of an induction machine.
By properly selecting the stator currents (isQ, isD) and slip angular frequency, the rotor flux
can be placed in the direct axis.

29
 The rotor flux position is not detected and the stator current vector is forced into the
required position by imposing a proper value to its slip speed. This value is computed
through the relationship that exists between the stator current slip speed and the torque
angle. The motor slip speed is calculated from the commanded stator current and an estimate
of the rotor time constant. The desired slip frequency is then added to the measured
mechanical rotor speed to establish the stator current frequency and then integrated to get
the stator current phase. This frequency command is then fed to the inverter.

current reference current reference

Flux coordinate
Reference vector based vector based
amplitude of on the on the
torque component rotor coordinate stator coordinate
of current vector Indirect Vector Coordinate Current-Controlled
Control Transformer Frequency changer
Reference
amplitude of
interlinkage (rotor)
flux vector Rotor position

Machine Position ac motor

parameters sensor

Figure 20. A flux-feedforward vector control scheme [21].

The indirect scheme is the preferred FOC scheme due to the simpler sensing
technique, but it is strongly dependent on the motor parameters, specially the rotor time
constant. The rotor time constant is the ratio Rr/Lr, where Rr and Lr are the rotor resistance
and inductance respectively. The rotor resistance increases with increasing temperature. The
change in resistance with temperature seriously detunes the IFOC operation and can cause
the actual torque output to vary as much as 20% if the parameter variation is not
compensated [22]. This compensation is a difficult problem.

IFOC is the most popular vector control technique for industrial applications.
Commercially available drives exist such as the Allen-Bradley 1336 IMPACT ac drive (IFOC)
[22], the REFU REFUdrive 500 [23] or the Pacific Parts SV9000 [24]. Fuzzy concepts have
been applied to implement this type of control with a fuzzy-PID regulator [25].

30
 d) Stator-Flux-Oriented Control (SFOC)

Special Reference Frame Fixed to the Stator Flux-Linkage Space

Phasor

In a similar way, if the frame of reference was fixed to the stator flux-linkage space
phasor (ψψ s = ψ sL+ψ
ψ m), then the system would be termed a stator-flux-oriented vector
control and the torque equation would be [4]:
r
τ E = cψ sx i sy
(37)
y

sQ __ __
is , i sψ s
i sQ

i sy ω ms
x
__
i sx ψ s ψ s = ψ sx
ρs
sD
i sD

Figure 21. A sD-sQ frame of reference fixed to the stator phase-a axis and a rotating x-y
frame of reference fixed to the stator flux-linkage space phasor.

The stator flux-linkage space phasor rotates at speed ωms = dρs/dt. The stator flux
space phasor in the stator flux reference frame ψ sψs only has one component of value ψsx.

31
 The direct stator-flux-oriented type of vector control estimates the flux-producing
and torque-producing current components from the stator currents, voltages and resistance
without knowledge of the rotor speed, position or flux. SFOC drives typically derive a stator
current command in the stationary sD-sQ frame of reference based on the calculated torque
and flux error. A current regulator is then used to generate the appropriate gating signals to
the inverter. This scheme however requires a decoupling of the torque-producing and flux-
producing components of stator current which slows down its transient response. The
control has the advantage of being sensitive to stator resistance only and can be
compensated easily [12].

e) Vector Control Implementation

As can be derived from figure 8, the space phasor for each type of vector control
(magnetizing-, rotor- or stator-flux-oriented) differs from the others in orientation due to the
presence of the leakage flux-linkages. The three flux-linkages rotate at synchronous speed ω
in a squirrel-cage induction motor as can be intuitively derived from the operation principle
discussed in section II (that is ωm, ωmr, ωms = ω ). Nevertheless, equations (35), (36) and (37)
must yield the same result as the cross product of the stator current space phasor with either
flux-linkage phasor will always leave the same orthogonal (π/2 radians) components. The
main difference is the set of equations for implementing the control loop that result from the
motor model and the simplifying considerations that arise from the reference frame selected.

In order to successfully implement the vector control in any of its variants, the
following control problems must be solved:

(1) The selected flux-linkage space phasor must be perfectly aligned with the direct axis of
the rotating x-y frame. The selected flux-linkage magnitude and orientation is obtained by
direct measurement or from a flux model which is usually derived from the rotor voltage
equation in the selected reference frame [4]. Two flux model types can be derived: current
model and voltage model.

The flux current model uses the actual stator current values (isa, isb, isc) and the rotor
speed (ωr) to obtain the flux-linkage orientation (angle µm, ρr or ρs), the actual magnitude of
the flux- and torque- producing stator currents in the rotating reference frame (isx, isy) and
the magnetizing current in the selected reference frame (|img|). The flux voltage model uses
actual stator currents and voltages to obtain the state of the variables.

(2) The stator voltage equation can be used for implementing the flux and torque controllers
[4]. The actual values of the flux- and torque-producing stator currents in the rotating
reference frame (isx, isy) are compared with the desired stator currents (isxref, isyref) to produce
the desired flux and torque. If speed control is required, the torque current reference (isyref)
usually comes from the speed controller. The goal is to keep the flux-producing current (isx)
at the constant rated value and modify the torque-producing current (isy) according to torque
demands.

32
(3) Control problem 1 requires transforming the stator currents from the reference frame
fixed to the stator (sD-sQ) to the rotating reference frame fixed to the selected flux-linkage
(x-y) for the calculations in a two-axis plane. Control problem 2 does the opposite in order
to command the CRPWM inverter. This space phasor transformation can be done using the
following transformation matrix [4] which is called the Park transformation:

isx   cosα sinα  isD 

i  = − sinα
 sy   cosα  isQ 
(38)

where α is the angle between the sD-sQ (fixed to the stator) and the x-y (rotating) frames of
the selected vector control (angles µm, ρr or ρs).

isD and isQ form a quadrature-phase (two-phase) representation of symmetrical three-

phase currents. In order to command the inverter, it is necessary to resolve the three-phase
currents by using the following transformation (sD-sQ fixed to the stator phase a-axis) in the
classical, non-power invariant form [4] called the Clark transformation.

2 1 1
isD = (isa − isb − isc )
3 2 2 (39)
1
isQ = (i − i )
3 sb sc (40)

(4) The calculations for control problems 1 and 2 are not readily decoupled (that is, there is
dependency between the direct-axis current component isx and the quadrature-axis current
component isy), thus decoupling control networks are needed to be able to decouple and
control both current components independently.

(5) Some of the motor parameters needed for the calculations are not measurable such as the
rotor resistance, so that estimation or compensation must be performed.

It can be shown [4] that rotor-flux-oriented control gives true decoupled control of
the torque- and flux- producing currents in the flux and torque control loops, while in the
stator-flux-oriented control, there is a coupling between both currents that call for a more
complex regulator.

Direct Torque and Flux Control (DTFC). Also termed Direct Torque Control (DTC),
the DTFC is a control philosophy that exploits the torque and flux producing capabilities of a
induction machine when fed by a simple inverter (VSI or SVPWM) that does not require
current regulation loops, still attaining similar performance to that obtained from a vector
control drive [26].

33
 The DTFC principle is that the stator flux is an integral of the stator emf as shown in
equation (8), thus the flux magnitude strongly depends on the stator voltage. The developed
torque is proportional to the sine of the torque angle. As the stator voltage changes, the
stator flux follows rapidly whereas the rotor flux (rotor current) changes are slower and less
pronounced than that of the stator flux vector. This effect modifies the angle between stator
and rotor fluxes and consequently the torque increases or decreases. Thus, stator flux and
developed torque can be directly controlled by proper selection of stator voltage vectors,
that is selection of consecutive inverter states without coordinate transformations like the
ones performed by vector control strategies.

Three control techniques have been employed for implementing DTFC drives: The
Switching Table (ST), the Direct Self Control (DSC) and the Direct Vector Modulation
Control (DVMC) [26]. ST and DSC regulators are of the hysteresis (discrete) type, whereas
the DVMC use analog regulators such as the PI regulators.

For implementing the control loop, the actual stator flux (amplitude and orientation)
and electromagnetic torque are calculated by an estimator from the stator voltages and
currents in a similar fashion to the reconstruction approach of the direct vector control
philosophies (DFOC and SFOC). A flux regulator and a torque regulator then determine if the
variables need to be increased or decreased according to the demands. With this information
a voltage selector calculates the stator voltage vector that is required. The stator voltage
vector can be active (that is a non-zero voltage vector is applied to the stator so that torque
angle increases) or zero (this causes the stator flux vector to stop so that torque angle
decreases). By cyclic switching of active and zero states, torque control is obtained. In field-
weakening operation, a zero vector cannot be used and to be able to reduce the torque angle
a proper active (backward) voltage vector must be used.

The DTFC scheme is known to produce a quick and robust response in ac drives due
to the low motor parameter sensitivity of the stator voltage equation in estimating stator
flux. However during steady state, pulsations of torque, flux and current could occur. Some
techniques such as Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SV-PWM), which realises a given
voltage vector in a PWM inverter, have been suggested to reduce the acoustical noise,
torque, flux and current pulsations during steady state [27], [28]. Another problem of this
approach is the operation at low speeds. The integration for determining the flux (voltage
model) is difficult when the back electromotive force (emf) voltage approaches the stator
resistance voltage drop and it is sensitive to the stator resistance. For solving this problem in
high performance DTFC drives, continuos estimation of stator resistance is required [29].
Other approaches to achieve DTFC have been proposed an tested such as neuro-fuzzy
structures [30].

DTFC started to be developed in the mid eighties [31]. An example of ST technique

applied to a DTFC is shown in figure 22, which calculates the instantaneous value of the flux
and torque from primary variables and then regulates them independently by using an
optimum switching table.

34
 Reference +
A/D
torque
_ Switch table Inverter
(ROM)
Reference +
amplitude of A/D
stator flux _

Stator voltages
Torque and flux ac motor
estimators Stator currents

Figure 22. A DTFC scheme [32].

Assea-Brown-Bovery recently introduced the ACS600 ac drive which employs the

concepts of DTFC [33].

Differential-Geometric Techniques and Feedback Linearization Control. The control

of an ac induction motor is a challenging control problem as the dynamic system is non-
linear. The vector control strategies perform a partial feedback linearization (approximately
linearizes and decouples the relation between the input and output variables) by means of the
proper coordinate transformation of the motor equations with the simplifying assumption
that the actual machine flux is kept constant and equal to some desired value. This
philosophy cleverly decouples the flux and torque similarly to a separately excited dc
machine, but it is strongly dependent in motor parameters that can vary over time. However,
this philosophy is not the only mathematical approach to decoupling and linearization of the
ac machine equations.

The technique of state feedback linearization requires the measurement of the ac

induction machine state variables (projection of stator current and stator flux on a x-y frame
rotating at the same speed of the desired stator flux vector for example). Using a non-linear
coordinate transformation (requiring complicated and non-linear calculations in the control
algorithm), the state variables of the motor system are transformed to a different type of
coordinates where speed and rotor flux are decoupled and linearized. That is, speed and
rotor flux are directly decoupled by feedback. Synthesis of exact linearizing and decoupling
state-feedback controllers for induction machines based on differential geometric theory
have been already described [34], [35].

Sliding Mode Control. For the application of this control technique to an ac drive,
the inverter and motor system are not considered as separate models, but as a single control
plant, in contrast to the other control methods. The control strategy then accounts for
switching converter and motor nonlinearities. The appropriate SMC can be developed to
achieve the control objective of speed, position or torque control.

35
 In a SMC scheme, the appropriate values from the motor performance are measured.
The control then acts on the measured values and selects the appropriate gating sequence.
For example, the SMC strategy in figure 23 employs a look-up table which defines the
switching law [36].

Reference of rotor position St Uq

Rotor position u1
Loop-up table
Reference value of the d Sd Ud (Switching law
component of stator current for power con
verter switch u2
d component of stator current position)

fa
Rotor flux vector position in fb u3
the stationary (stator) frame
of reference. fc

Figure 23. A SMC control scheme [36].

Parameter Estimation Methods

Some of the necessary parameters of the motor performance and characteristics for
performing the vector control of the ac machine are not measurable or it is very expensive to
do it with transducers. In order to overcome these constrains, estimators or observers for
estimating these variables have been devised.

Encoderless Speed Estimation. The ac motor drives require speed feedback in order to be
able to regulate the speed of the motor to the desired set-point. In control schemes such as
the IFOC, the rotor speed measurement is required for flux vector estimation.

By adding the necessary current and voltage sensors, the speed of the motor can be
estimated rather than directly measured with an encoder, thus allowing for sensorless
operation. As can be expected, the accuracy of this method will not be equal to the direct
encoder measurement, but it is accurate enough for some applications. These motor terminal
values do not only allow for indirect speed measurement, but also can be used to estimate
flux, torque, power, power factor and displacement factor [11]. Some methods have
employed Model Reference Adaptive Controllers (MRAC) for speed estimation [37], [38],
[39]. Speed estimation at low speeds with such method is dependent on the stator resistance
so a second estimation might also be needed for the stator resistance [37].

36
 Flux-Linkage Unit Vector Generation. The direct vector control (DFOC and Direct
SFOC) and DTFC philosophies require the knowledge of the selected flux-linkage space
phasor in order to make the control computations. As the phase angle of this vector is not
easily measured by direct means, an observer is generally needed. The observer can be
implemented based on a flux model using several techniques. For example, SMC has been
used to develop and observer for rotor flux from stator currents and rotor speed [6].
Simulations of rotor flux estimation for an IFOC drive using ANN observers have been
performed [40].

Rotor Time Constant Estimation. One of the parameters that affect the performance
of the IFOC vector control is the rotor time constant. Several methods for estimating the
rotor time constant off-line and on-line have been studied [41]. One of such methods
employs a Kalman filter, which is an statistical method to estimate the parameters [42].
Other methods employ adaptive techniques for correcting detuning in FOC drives [43].
Another example is the application of MRAC concepts for on-line retuning of an IFOC drive
to compensate for variation in machine parameters [44].

Control Hardware

In the past, general purpose microcontrollers had been the preferred devices for
replacing analog controllers with digital ones, thus offering higher flexibility and capabilities
for control systems. They were the core of practical drives for dc and ac machines until high
performance ac machine control strategies were developed, such as vector control.

Simple control philosophies such as the V/f control are possible with
microcontrollers but high performance drives require intensive numeric processing to which
microcontrollers are not well suited. The computing power of modern Digital Signal
Processor Controllers (DSPC) is employed in order to be able to solve the before mentioned
control problems of vector control. These calculations usually involve several multiplications
and divisions, integration, square root, sine and cosine computations used in the control
loops or for parameter estimation. The increasing use of machine intelligence also can take
advantage of the DSPC capabilities. Although the structure of this techniques is simple, AI
techniques such as fuzzy logic or neural network are characterized by high number of
variables and their practical realization requires extended computing power.

Typical of the DSP used for these applications are the Texas Instruments DSP
families. The ‘C2000 family last development, the ‘C24x DSP controller, offers peripherals
designed for high performance digital motor control applications [45].

37
 The TMS320x24y DSP controller architecture features [29]:

• DSP core: 20 MIPS fixed-point processor that includes a hardware 16-bit multiplier. The
high speed of the processor allows for extensive use of look-up tables, useful for sine
and cosine functions implementation.
• RAM: 544-word.
• ROM or flash EEPROM: 16-Kword.
• Event manager: Consists of nine comparators, three timers, four input capture circuitry,
twelve PWM channels that allow direct control of semiconductor switches of an inverter
employing three types of PWM including Space Vector PWM.
• A/D Converter: two 10-bit ADCs and a total of 16 multiplexed channels with
simultaneous conversion capability.
• Watchdog timer.
• Serial peripheral and serial communications interfaces.

Other manufacturers have released single chip motor controllers such as Analog
Devices ADMC331 which consist of a DSP core with peripheral hardware optimized for motor
control [46]. This device performs stator-flux-oriented control.

IV. CONCLUSIONS

AC drive technology has improved extraordinarily during the last decades. This trend
owes its advancement to the new control techniques and philosophies developed by several
people and organizations around the world. The implementation of those concepts was made
possible by technology advancements such as the DSP controllers and the new power
semiconductors.

In manufacturing and transportation applications which requiere adjustable speed

drives with torque regulation, using ac motors and high performance ac drives that are
capable of regulating torque and flux of the ac machine offer several advantages over dc
motors and drives such as lower maintenance of equipment, smaller size and higher
rotational speeds. The higher cost of ac drives is in part compensated by a lower ac machine
cost, compared with a dc drive system. It might be expected that in the medium term future,
as ac drives reach a mature product state, cost will no longer be an issue.

FOC techniques are very popular in the U.S.A. whereas DTFC is being favoured by
european drive manufacturers. As DTFC drives provide simmilar performance to the FOC
drives with a simpler inverter, it might be expected that the developments in this area will be
the most competitive in terms of price/performance. Work to optimize the performance of
DTFC drives in the low speed range and to make its operation more robust (reduce torque,
flux and current pulsations during the steady state) are still opportunity areas for new
research.

38
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