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The Role of Geosynthetics in Slope Stability

Article  in  Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering · September 2012

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 The Role of Geosynthetics in Slope
Stability

Hamed Niroumand1, Khairul Anuar Kassim1, Amin Ghafooripour2,

Ramli Nazir1
1
Department of geotechnical engineering, Faculty of civil engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, E-mail: niroumandh@gmail.com
2
Department of Structural Engineering & Vibrations, School of the Built
Environment, Heriot – Watt University, Dubai, UAE

ABSTRACT
Geosynthetics are fibrous materials made of elements such as individuals fibers, filaments, yarns,
tapes, etc. that are long, small in cross section and strong in tension. It must be sufficiently durable
to last a reasonable length of time in the hostile environment. Use of geotextile in civil engineering
structures are rapidly expanding in terms of volume, types of products and range of applications.
The largest area of application of these materials in Civil Engineering is Geotechnical Engineering.
Based on a few laboratory work and numerical analysis, few investigators reported geosynthetics in
slope reinforcement, a review of related last works shows that not much research has been done to
define performance of geosynthetics in slopes, a problem that is often encountered in field. The
paper observed the performance of geosynthetics in slope reinforcement.
KEYWORDS: Geosynthetics, Slope, Geotextile, Soil Reinforcement

INTRODUCTION
Geotextile are fibrous materials, which made of elements such as individual fibers, filaments,
yarns, tapes, etc. that are long, small in cross section and strong in tension. One of important
characteristics of geotextile is flexibility. Flexibility is useful both for good contact conditions and for
avoiding stress concentration in the fibers. Besides, hydraulic functions of geotextile due to its fibrous
nature allows geotextile to have a high void ratio (high permeability) and at a same time, a small
filtration diameter. The tensile strength of the geotextile is also important. From scientific research, it
appears that to obtain the highest tensile resistance from a material, the best way is to use it in the form
of fibers, which have a high degree of molecular orientation. Therefore, basically the concept of
geotextile is strongly related to fibers. The importance of the fiber concept is the strong reason for
using the word “geotextile”, because the word “textile” implies the concept of fiber.

History of Geotextile
Development of the geotextile revolution will be discussed in this chapter. Forms of geotextile
have existed for almost thousands of years. The first application of soil reinforcement or ground
improvement techniques was adopted by Babylonians to construct Ziggurats more than three thousand
years ago. One famous Ziggurat, Tower of Babel, collapsed perhaps because it was not reinforced. The
Tower of Babel was constructed by foreign laborers. According to the writer of the Bible, it was all too
easy to blame the failure on them since they could not defend themselves because of language barrier.

- 2739 -
 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2740

Probably, the writer may have vested interest in finding a scapegoat since that monk writer and the
consulting engineer were one and the same trade. (as some modern consulting engineers would agree.)
The Chinese have used wood, bamboo and straw to strengthen soil for thousands of years. The
importance of soil reinforcement in ancient China is demonstrated by the fact that the Chinese symbol
for Civil Engineering simply means “earth and wood”. At that time, portions of the Great Wall of
China was constructed using the soil reinforcement concept. The concept of soil reinforcement method
was brought to Japan and the use of natural materials for stabilization purposes continued to this
decade. The Romans used reed, wood and animal hides for soil reinforcement during the Middle Ages.
The Dutch, below of the low land and in their age old battle with the sea, made extensive use of
willow fascines to reinforce dikes and to protect themselves against wave action. Construction of dams
to shorten the coastline was carried out and this action is still on going till this century, culminating
with Delta Project. In 1926, the South Carolina Department of Highways used special types of vehicles
to lay down the rolls of cotton fabrics in the construction of roads. It was only during last two decades
that these materials made of synthetic polymers have been increasingly adopted ranging widely from
construction of roads over poor subsoil to reinforcement of slope for stabilization.

Classification of Slopes
Hill site development is often related to landslide, and safety of building at the hill site is often a
topic of discussion among government officers in local authorities, engineers and public. This matter
has become increasingly serious. With the recent awareness of risks involved in hill site development,
a more proper and systematic control and precaution is taking shape through the private and public
sectors. According to the Institute Engineering of Malaysia (IEM), slope for hill site development can
be classified into 3 classes and the necessary requirements and characteristics are as follows:

(a) Class 1 (Low Risk)

Application of existing Legislation Procedures can still go on.

(b) Class 2 (Medium risk)

It is mandatory for professional engineer to submit geotechnical report to the relevant
local authority. The professional engineer must posses relevant expertise and experience in
analysis, design and supervision of construction of slopes, retaining structures and
foundation on hill site.

(c) Class 3 (High Risk)

Besides submission of geotechnical report, the developer shall engage an “Accredited
Checker” (AC) in the consulting team. With reference to the original proposal by the
workforce, AC shall have at least 10 years working experience at hill site and have
published at least five technical papers on geotechnical works in local or international
conferences, seminars or journals.

The general risk of classification is actually based on the geometry of the slopes, for instance the
height and angle. There are other factors that contribute to the stability of slopes, for instance
geological features, engineering properties of soil/rock, groundwater level, etc. However, for the
simplicity of implementation by non-technical personnel in our local authorities, simple geometry has
been selected as the basis of risk classification.
Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2741

Figure 1: Geometry of Slope (after IEM, 2000)

Table 1: Classification of Risk of Landslide on Hill-Site

Development (after IEM, 2000)
=
L k
H
gp

Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2742

Comparisons between Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable

Geotextile
For the past few years, geotextile has played a major and significant role in geo-environmental
engineering applications. Woven and non-woven geotextile are widely used in applications such as soil
stabilization, turf reinforcement, erosion control, separation, filtration and drainage. Geotextile can be
classified into two types, biodegradable and non-biodegradable geotextile. Biodegradable geotextile
are made of natural fibers, for example penduculata fiber, or Raffia Vinifera, was obtained by drying
raffia palm fronds in the sun and then beating the raffia fronds with a piece of wood to create the fibre.
Non-biodegradable geotextile are made of synthetic materials, for example polyesters and
polypropylene. Because of the advances in technology, non-biodegradable geotextile are preferred
compared to biodegradable geotextile. The use of naturally occurring fibre products for similar
applications has not received significant consideration despite their potential. Only limited amount of
scientific literature research has been published with regard to the use of biodegradable geotextile as a
practical solution to geo-environmental engineering problems. Experiment was conducted to compare
the effectiveness of biodegradable (penduculata) and non-biodegradable (polypropylene) geotextile in
geo-environmental engineering problems. The experiment consists of a rainfall simulation apparatus,
used on slopes (protected or unprotected) that were inclined at different angles to the horizontal. From
the experiment, penduculata geotextile shows high water absorbency characteristics which can
influence the initial run-off velocity values at the beginning of a rainfall event. On the other hand, the
polypropylene geotextile shows zero water absorbency characteristic. Because of this, lower run-off
velocities were measured for natural fiber geotextile which is likely due to the higher water absorbency
values. However, in terms of better slope protection, the polypropylene geotextile was more effective
(lower cover factor values) compared to penduculata geotextile although the run-off velocity measured
for polyprolene geotextile at slope was high. The performance difference may be attributed to
differences in Percentage Open Area (POA) values between polyprolene and penduculata geotextile.
Despite of this, natural fiber geotextile has potential and has a role in geotechnical engineering. The
potential use was shown in the Manchester, United Kingdom, airport rail link construction project
(Ellis 1993) where a naturally occurring biodegradable erosion and soil stabilization mat was
successfully installed.
Basic Concept and Function of Geotextile

A geotextile can perform several functions. The need for identifying and describing geotextile
functions appeared when geotextile began to be used in a variety of applications. Before design can
take its place, it is very important to identify the functions required of the geotextile in the considered
application. A geotextile function is a specialized action of the geotextile which is required to achieve a
design purpose and results from a unique combination of geotextile properties.
Generally, geotextiles has six main functions:
a) The Drainage Function or Fluid Transmission. The geotextile is placed in contact with a material
of low permeability through which water is seeping slowly, its fuction is to gather water and
conveys it, within its own plane towards an outlet. In order to function as a drain, a geotextile
must exhibit transmissivity. The flow of water into the plane of a geotextile is governed by
Darcy’s formula:

where Q = rate of flow (m3/s)

L = length of the cross section of geotextile perpendicular to the flow direction (m)
kp = coefficient of permeability of the geotextile in its plane (m/s)
Hg = thickness of the geotextile (m)
 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2743

Δh = hydraulic head loss (m)

L’ = length of geotextile parallel to the flow direction (m)

b.) Filtration. A geotextile acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass normal to its own plane, while
preventing most soil particles from being carried away by the liquid current. There are three cases
to be considered: filter for particles suspended in a liquid, filter for removing water from a
granular soil and filter associated with armor. Filter for particles suspended in a liquid: the
geotextile is placed across a flow of liquid carrying fines particles in suspension; the function of
the geotextile is to stop the fine particles while allowing water to go through it. Filter for
removing water from granular soil: the geotextile is placed between the soil, from which water is
removed (by drainage or pumping), and the open material (aggregate, perforated pipe, porous
plastic mat) the function of which is to collect and convey the water; the function of the geotextile
is to prevent movement of soil particles while allowing the water to go thorugh it. Filter
associated with armor: the geotextile is placed between the soil which has to be protected from the
wave action and the coarse material which constitutes the armor; the function of the geotextile is to
minimize movement and loss of soil particles while allowing the water to go through it. The
difference between the case of water removal and the case of armor is related to the flow: in the
case of water removal, the flow of water is in one direction and partially steady; in the case of
armor exposed to waves, the direction of flow alternates and the flow is unsteady and dynamic.

c.) Separation. A geotextile is placed between two materials which have a tendency to mix when they
are squeezed together under the applied loads; the function of the geotextile is to separate these
materials. A separator must retain the soil particles and must have sufficient strength to withstand
the stresses induced by the applied loads. Consequently, designing a geotextile separator involves
retention analysis and strength analysis.

d.) Protection. A geotextile protects a material when it alleviates or distributes stresses and strains
transmitted to the protected material. There are two cases to be considered: surface protection and
interface protection.
Surface Protection: A geotextile, placed on the soil prevents its surface from being damaged by
such actions as weather, light traffic, etc.
Interface Protection: A geotextile, placed between two materials, prevents one of the materials
from being damaged by concentrated stresses applied by the other materials.

e.) Tension Membrane. A geotextile function as a tensioned membrane when it is placed between two
materials having different pressures, and its tension balances the pressure difference between the
two materials, thus strengthening the structure.

f.) Tensile member. A geotextile acts as a tensile member when it provides tensile modulus and
strength to a soil with which it is interacting through interface shear strength, for instance the
interlocking, friction, cohesion and adhesion.

Geotextile as Slope Protection

Landslides in the residual soils or weathered rocks in Malaysia are generally rain induced. These
slopes when dry or partially saturated, they are normally stable at inclinations exceeding the effective
angle of internal friction, Φ of the soil. When the soil is partially saturated, the negative pore water
pressures impart to the soil as an effective stress which is higher than the corresponding total stress.
The shear strength of the soil is thereby increased, enabling the slopes to remain in stable condition
even though when the inclination exceeds the effective friction angle, Φ of the soil. After heavy
rainfall, the soil will become saturated because of the infiltration of the rainwater into the ground. The
 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2744

original negative pore water pressure existed in the soil are therefore eliminated or drastically reduced,
causing a large reduction in the effective stress and the shear strength. The slope will become unstable
and eventually fail. Geotextile has been used successfully in numerous occasions to stabilized steep
slope in residual soil and weathered rock. Geotextile was used as tensile reinforcement and filter to
stabilized slopes or embankments. The geotextile are usually placed in horizontal layers within the
slope. It is placed along the slope cutting across potential sliding surfaces in the soil. The geotextile
will reduce the pore water pressure within the slopes during the rainy season, thereby increased the
shear strength. The geotextile also acts as a filter which prevents the migration of soil or sometimes
called the internal erosion within the slope. Last but not least, the geotextile reinforces the soil along
potential sliding zones or planes. All these will increase the stability of the slope.

Factors Attributing Towards Selection of Geotextile

There are many factors attributing towards the selection of geotextile in geotechnical engineering.
The first fundamental reason is that there is need for membrane-like materials because geotechnical
structures are built with granular materials; the integrity of layers of granular soils can be disrupted by
erosion, settlements and earthquakes while a geotextile layer remains continuous. Besides, geotextile
are bi-dimensional and flexible materials and is well-suited to geotechnical structures subjected to
different movements. Geotextile are also useful, either as interface between layers or as a liner or a
protection at the surface of the mass geotechnical structures. In addition to the factors mentioned
above, geotextile have been successful because manufacturers have aggressively developed and
marketed them and because contractors, designers and owners have elected to use them. Reasons
attributing to the selection of geotextile application in geotechnical engineering by contractors,
designers and owners are discussed below.

a) Contractors: Contractors have adopted geotextile very rapidly because it brings instant benefits to
them. For example, easier installation of geotextile compared to granular fill will reduced
construction time. Using geotextile in road construction is recommended because geotextile are
less weather dependent and truck are less likely to get bogged down when a geotextile is used.
Geotextile can reduce the amount of earthwork as geotextile drains and filters are less bulky than
their granular counterparts. The cost of earthwork is reduced if geotextile reinforcement permits
the usage of lower quality fill materials, which are less expensive. Besides earthwork,
transportation costs can be reduced by replacing granular fills with geotextile. It will do the
environment better than harm since the noise and dust associated with transportation of
construction materials are reduced.

b) Designers: With the emphasis now placed on “value engineering”, designers are required to
produce less expensive design to remain competitive. Designer find that geotextile may increase
the reliability of a structure because the quality control of their placement is relatively easy, their
installation is not weather dependant, their properties are more uniform than soil particles and
they mitigate soil defects by bridging weak spots and separate layers which tends to mix.
Geotextile open new possibilities for innovative design instead of using the same, old and dull
design. Especially in coastal protection application, geotextile present solutions to problems
which designers have long been struggling, for instance, sand filters wash away and difficult to
construct under water while geotextile are secure and easy to place.

c) Owners: Owners also plays a major role to the success of geotextile because they dare to use them
in the early days. Motivations of owners are a combination of contractors and designers
motivations. Owners and contractors are most interested in low cost and designers are interested
in stability, reliability and sometimes experimentation. For owners, by adopting geotextile,
maintenance work can be reduced which in turn save cost.
 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. R 2745

Long Term Resistance of Geotextile

Geotextile have been widely used in geotechnical engineering for several decades. Along with
polymers such as polyester (PET) or polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) is the polymer most
commonly used for these applications. When engineers began to use these materials, the first
investigations on the long term performance for instance, UV resistance, chemical resistance,
biological resistance and etc under practical environmental conditions started.

UV Resistance
Any polymer used for the manufacture of geotextile will degrade when exposed to the ultraviolet
radiation of natural sunlight overtime. Therefore, it is essential to consider resistance of geotextile to
the effects of sunlight when designing geotextile. Particular care is necessary when geotextile is to be
installed in regions of the world whereby the UV radiation levels are high or when geotextile will
remained exposed over period of weeks or even months on large scale projects. It is wiser to protect
the geotextile from degradation. This can be done by using stabilizers, in order to match the aging
process with the long term requirements of the application. High quality geotextile comes equipped
with high performance stabilizers, therefore the required life time of the geotextile is guaranteed.
However, prediction based on laboratory testing is not possible to determine the degradation of
geotextile caused by UV sunlight due to the large number of parameters influencing the product life
time. For instance:
a) The degradation process within the polymer of the geotextile takes place extremely slow under
ambient temperatures.

b) There is no proven correlation between laboratory tests and practical application, as these
products have only been in use for 30 years. However, a design lifetime of 120 years is required.

c) Products installed 30 years ago cannot be compared to today’s product, as structure and chemical
composition have changed because of constant ongoing product development.

d) The chemical reaction of oxidative process is very well known, but in practical applications other
stress factors, such as installation damage, chemical attack and many others, may be
superimposed on it.

Chemical Resistance
Polypropylene is characterized by an excellent resistance to chemicals. It is proven in the course of
CE certification programme as a number of investigations were carried out in accordance to ISO
14030. For polypropylene geotextile, no strength loss was observed, even in acidic or alkaline
conditions, in contrast to polyester products. The fiber surface of polyester yarns is particularly
susceptible to degradation when exposed to alkaline condition (pH >10), external hydrolysis will take
place. But even when it is exposed to acidic condition, the material is gradually degraded by internal
hydrolysis. In this case, the polymer chains are split by the presence of water, thereby reducing the
molecular weight. Last but not least, it will lead to a drastic reduction of mechanical properties.
Therefore, it is essential to protect polyesters material by providing extra coating.

Biological Resistance
Investigations according to EN ISO 12225 have shown that polypropylene geotextile are 100%
resistant to micro-organisms. At the moment, no organisms are known to be harmful to polypropylene.
It is important to know the biological resistance of the material in long term applications, as the
influence of the organisms cannot be estimated.
 Vol.. 17 [2012
2], Bund. R 2
2746

General In
nstallatio
on Guide
elines off Geotex
xtile
It is very imporrtant to adoppt the right approach
a forr geotextile installation to prevent geotextile
g
from furrther damagee. It requires pre-tensioniing of the geeotextile layeers before coovering them m with fill
material.. After that, compaction of fill materrials needs too be carried out appropriiately, especiially near
the slopee and the faccing. Compacction increasses the shearr strength of the material and thus thee stability
of the strructure with respect to settlement an nd possible failures
fa in shear. It also contributes
c too the pre-
tensioninng of the reinforcement, as a precondition of goood mechaniccal interlock between soiil and the
geotextille. It is also essential to use special constructionn arrangemen nts to ensure that the geoometry of
the slopees is as specified by the working draawings and too protect vissible parts off the geotexttile layers
on slopees, by any appropriate means, for instance cooncrete or wooden w facing systems.. For the
construction of slopees (inclinatioon 45o to 700o), we can use u either saacrificial formwork or reemovable
rigid formmwork. Typees of sacrificcial formworrk are sand oor gravel filleed gabions, concrete
c elem
ments and
welded w wire mesh folded
f to thee desired anggle. The advvantages for using concrrete elementts are the
placemennt of geotexxtile is relatiively simple and no parrts of geotex xtile (reinforrced sheetingg) can be
visible. TThe negativee aspects are it requires accurate
a leveeling for eachh layer of geeotextile laidd and it is
not com mpatible with h large deforrmations. Onn the other hand,
h for weelded wire mesh,
m the bennefits are
solely due
d to easy of placemeent (light weight), unneecessary to protect the visible partts of the
reinforciing sheets, itts facing is very
v flexiblee and a planaar slope can be producedd. In removaable rigid
formworrk, the formw work consistss of panels assembled
a he horizontall part rests on the end
intto a chair. Th
of the laayer just placced. The chaair is held inn position duuring the placement of thhe layer by a suitable
system. The investm ment for usinng removablee rigid formw work is relattively low. The
T disadvanntages for
adoptingg this approacch are protecction of the exposed
e partts of the reinfforcing sheetts should be provided
and it iss difficult to control the geometry off each layer,, due to the deformabilitty of the undderlaying
layer.

Figure 2: Possible
P Co
onstruction Methods fo
or Slopes (In 4 o to 70o)
nclination 45

t constructtion of slopees (inclinationn 70o to 90o),

For the ) for low structures (< 2m m), a fixed formwork
f
may be utilized.
u Thee advantages are the easee of construcction and thee exact geom metry of the slope
s can
be obtainned. The disaadvantages are
a the high costs
c and are space constrraint as largee space is reqquired for
the base of the formmwork. For high
h structurres, the methhod described for low sttructures is no n longer
appropriiate, becausee the amplituude of the thrusts on thhe formwork requires strong s and expensive
e
systems of props.
Vol.. 17 [2012
2], Bund. R 2
2747

Figu
ure 3: Fixed
d Formworkk for Low Figuree 4: Possiblee Constructiion Methodds
Strructures forr High Wallls and Steep
p Slopes

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