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The Experience of Adobe-Mud Bricks Strengthening in Bam Citadel after the

2003 Bam Earthquake

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 3rd International Conference on Applied Researches in
Science & Engineering
19th December 2018 - Istanbul Turkey
Marmara University

The Experience of Adobe-Mud Bricks Strengthening

in Bam Citadel after the 2003 Bam Earthquake

Jafar Rouhi*, Farnaz Hejazirad

1. Post-Doctoral Researcher, Department of Engineering and Geology, University of "G. d'Annunzio"

Chieti-Pescara, Italy, Jafar.rouhi@unina.it
2. PhD Candidate, Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Arak, Iran,
farnaz.hejazirad@yahoo.com

Abstract
In the last years, several universal studies have been devoted to achieve optimal
stabilization strategy for adobe-mud brick materials. In these researches, different
aspect of adobe materials ranging from physical-mechanical and mineralogical
characterizations to possible reinforcement with natural fibres (e.g. jute, palm, straw,
hump etc.) and chemical stabilizers (e.g. portland cement, hydrated lime and
pozzolanas etc.) have been studied. The aims of these studies were to enhance the
strength and durability of adobe materials as these additives or stabilizers not only are
able to increase the stability of adobe bricks against of loads applied, but also they are
able to protect them from deterioration agents. Generally, the following study describes
the background and characteristic of adobe-mud brick briefly, where as a ubiquitous
form of construction material, they are still built up in many regions of the world with
hot/arid climate conditions. Then, after an overview on the effects of major additives
and stabilizers existed, it deals with the experience of the production of reinforced
adobe-mud bricks during reconstruction project of Bam Citadel after the 2003 Bam
earthquake.

Key words: Adobe-Mud Bricks, Strengthening, Additives, Bam Citadel, 2003 Bam
Earthquake
 3rd International Conference on Applied Researches in
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1. Introduction
Adobe is the name for a style of building construction that uses bricks made from mud [1].
Mud is one of man’s oldest building materials and most ancient civilizations used it in
different forms. Adobe-mud bricks (often called adobe bricks) is a Spanish word that
originally derives from the Arabic word “al-tob” meaning “sundried or unbaked brick”; the
term has its roots in Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, today the term of adobe is used in
English as an “earthen construction” to describe all types of construction techniques using
mud or soil raw materials. This versatile building material is widely available and in some
parts of the world, especially in remote areas, it is the only material available over there [2].
The use of sun-dried blocks dates back to approximately 8000 BC., and until the end of the
last century it was estimated that around 30 % of the World’s population lived in earth-made
constructions [3]. In the first world, cities like Jericho, Catal Huyuk and Babylon were
constructed out of adobe bricks. Materials obtained from soil served for erecting common
houses, but also for great monuments such as Arch of Ctesiphon in Iran, or pharaoh’s tombs
in Egypt.
As a ubiquitous form of construction material, adobe-mud brick structures are still built up
in many regions of the world with hot/arid climate conditions, this is because of their low
costs of manufacturing, transportation and on-site workmanship, simple and unsophisticated
construction technique, and excellent thermal properties. It is significant that the oldest
surviving examples of this building form are in the treeless landscapes and in the most arid
areas of the world [4]. Buildings made up of adobe-mud brick are common in the Latin
America, Australia, North Africa, Middle East, South Asia, China and Interior Asia, East
Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. In Egyptian hieroglyphics document, Biblical accounts
refer to early use of adobes and the use of mud-bricks for construction of buildings in the
ancient world. However, approximately 50% of the population in developing countries,
including the majority of the rural population and at least 20% of the urban and sub-urban
population, live in earthen dwellings [3].
The scientific study of traditional structures, which have been used for millennia, reveals
the specific construction methods that were used by traditional builders, who mastered the
most advanced structural skills [5]. Traditionally in Iran, availability of materials in living
environment has a main role in local architecture of a particular area. As Pirnia (2005) noted,
“clay is an available building material in Iran that dictated major form in traditional Iranian
architecture. Heavy clays have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all
building techniques. Bricklayers compressed solidly molded mud and allowed it to dry.
Tenacious lime mortar also eased the development and use of brick.” [6]. Adobe
constructions techniques, “Khesht” in Persian, constitute a large part of Iranian history and
civilization, consisting of ancient cities and archaeological sites. Recent excavations in Iran
have shown that this traditional construction technique can be dated back to the 6th
millennium BC. By far a large part of the country’s heritage had been made using adobe-
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mud brick construction technique. In Iran, this technique architecturally, artistically and
technically developed during the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanid periods and gradually
reached the present outstanding level (e.g. Bam Citadel, Iran). in this study, after an overview
on the advantages and disadvantages of adobe-mud brick materials, and expression of
available ways to improve the strength of the adobe-mud bricks, based on Author’s
observations from Bam site (August 2015), all steps followed for the production of adobe-
mud brick during the reconstruction project of Bam Citadel after the 2003 Bam earthquake
are expressed in details.

2. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Adobe-Mud Brick Materials

The advantages and possibilities of mud construction are endless [4]. Generally, adobe-mud
brick structures have several advantages and relatively few disadvantages over other
conventional construction techniques. Adobe materials are recognized as one of the
sustainable building materials, meaning that they are environmentally friendly and have little
impact on the environment. It takes more than 300 times as much energy to produce a
commercial concrete block than a sundried adobe block of the same volume [7].
Furthermore, as Sruthi (2013) pointed out, “building with mud has become an important
factor in planning new development. Following the recent energy crisis, technological
progress has been made in certain countries, and the enthusiasm of architects and land
developers has added in the spread of these new techniques. Today we are able to choose
between the conventional ‘international architecture’ and a more ‘down to earth’ approach
that combines reasonable cost with traditional cultural motifs in a modern way.” [4].
On the other hand, the “embodied costs” for these type of buildings, which means the cost
to individuals and society overall in its creation, storage, distribution, use, and maintenance,
are very low [8]. Adobe buildings are very effective in different climatic conditions; they are
an excellent insulator, which provide good thermal insulation and acoustic properties in
climates typified by extreme temperature fluctuations during both day and night. Meanwhile,
the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the living space temperature. Furthermore, this
construction technique is relatively simple and uncomplicated, and in simplicity, they can
be combined by complex structural components such as arches, vaults and domes. Moreover,
adobes are fireproof, biodegradable and non-toxic, detoxifier, durable and afford great
flexibility in the design/color/surface of the construction.
Beside the aforementioned advantages, this construction technique has also some
disadvantages that can be summarized as follows: they have extremely low resistance against
deterioration factors; and because of their moderately low compressive strength and low
tensile strength, they have poor seismic resistance.
 3rd International Conference on Applied Researches in
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3. Improvement the Strength of the Adobe-Mud Bricks

In the last years, several universal studies have been devoted to achieve optimal stabilization
strategy for adobe-mud brick materials. In these researches, different aspect of adobe
materials ranging from physical-mechanical and mineralogical characterizations to possible
reinforcement with natural fibres (e.g. jute, palm, straw, hump etc.) and chemical stabilizers
(e.g. portland cement, hydrated lime and pozzolanas etc.) have been studied. The aims of
these studies were to enhance the strength and durability of adobe materials as these additives
or stabilizers not only can increase the stability of adobe bricks against of loads applied, but
also can protect them from deterioration agents. The durability is relatively conditioned by
environmental deterioration factors, while strength is particularly related to resistance
against static and dynamic loads. However, the studies about soil stabilization have shown
that with incorporation of appropriate additive materials, it is possible to obtain much more
durable and stronger adobe bricks.
The additives are ingredients that when mixed with adobe mixture, they improve its
physical/chemical properties. As Silva et al. (2009) stated, “Stabilization aim the
improvement of the mechanical properties, achieving better cohesion, limiting the
shrinkage/swelling effects and achieving better resistance to harmful effects wind and water.
Stabilization can be mechanical, physical or chemical. Mechanical stabilization involves the
compaction of the earth resulting in changes in its density, mechanical strength,
compressibility, permeability and porosity. Physical stabilization involves acting in the
earth’s physical properties, as for example, by changing its texture, or by using elctro-
osmosis for draining water. Chemical stabilization involves the addition of other materials
capable of reacting physically/chemically with the earth grains, modifying then the earthen
material.” [9]. However, these physical properties include of compressive strength, density,
porosity, depth of penetration, abrasion resistance and hardness.
Elsewhere, as Ahmadi (2008) mentioned about adobe’s additives, “they must be durable,
easily applicable, cheap, reversible and they should not be chemically hazardous” [10].
Generally, there are two sources of organic materials: a plant source, e.g., straw, palm leaves,
and rice husks; and an animal source, e.g., animal hair and dung) [11]. Furthermore, in
modern adobe construction technique, some chemical additives such as lime or bitumen and
Portland cement are used, which improve the quality of the adobe mixture. It should be noted
that chemical additives are not common in heritage earth constructions. Meanwhile, in spite
of the advantages of earth’s stabilization, it should only be used if necessary, without any
systematic disproportionate application, since it can significantly increase the production
cost and spoil the original characteristics of the earth [3]. In Table 1, the characterization of
some mineral, synthetic, vegetable and animal additives are shown.
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Marmara University

Table 1: Mud additives (Source: [12]).

and swelling
Reduces the

Sets quickly
Compressiv
shrinkage

resistance

resistance
hardener
Strength

strength

strength

Erosion
Type of Materials

Tensile
Water
and
additives introduced

e
Mineral Sand ̶ ̶
Additives Pozzolana ̶ ̶ ̶
Ashes ̶ ̶
Synthetic Portland ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶
Additives cement
Hydraulic ̶
lime
Hydrated ̶
lime
Gypsum ̶ ̶
Magnesium ̶
oxide
Soap ̶
Bitumen ̶
Vegetable Fibers ̶ ̶
Additives Vegetable ̶
Oils and
Fats
Tannins ̶
Gum Arabic ̶
Palmo copal ̶
Sap and ̶ ̶
latexes
Molasses ̶
Animal Fibers ̶
Additives Blood ̶ ̶
Casein ̶
Animal ̶ ̶ ̶
glues
Oils and fats ̶
Urine ̶ ̶
Excrements ̶ ̶

4. Production of Adobe-Mud Brick in Bam Citadel after the 2003 Bam

Earthquake
Given that life in cities that are located in the Central Iranian Plateau involves its own
difficulties, these conurbations are formed in a unique vernacular style. The most frequent
building material in this area has always been mud, which is available everywhere. When
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wet, it can simply be plastered on walls without shaping. Alternatively, it can be tampered
and formed into large blocks with more or less rectangular sides.
The medieval city of Bam, as one of Iran’s desert communities, is not only celebrated for
its diversity of styles and influences, but also for the continuity of its traditions in new
building practices. These buildings are manually built by those who live in them, with the
assistance of persons skilled in adobe production. The material used to realize the
compressed adobe-mud block is made of three different constituents with the following
proportions: 1) 1 volume of soil; 2) 1/2 volume of chopped straw; and 3) 1/3 or more volume
of water to guarantee normal consistency.
To product adobe-mud bricks, all of the materials are mixed manually, and if the adobe
mixture has a high enough percentage of clay, the straw is not always necessary. As the
Author’s visitation from Bam’s workshop revealed (2015), no chopped straw was added to
the soil, although straw has several advantages in adobe making: first, it adds tensile strength;
second, it causes lighter weight of adobe bricks; and third, by retaining of the moisture, it
reduces excessive shrinkage cracks as the material dries. However, as research conducted by
Yetgin et al. (2008) shows, the addition of straw fibers decreases the compressive strength
[13]. On the other hand, straw has beneficial effects in terms of tensile strength, but at long-
term and if adverse conditions are observed, it will decompose, leaving undesired voids that
have negative impact on the mechanical properties [14]. In following, different steps to
product adobe-mud brick in Bam citadel after the 2003 Bam earthquake are briefly
explained.

1-4- Finding a suitable soil, and rummaging it vigorously to get rid from all impure pieces
To produce adobe brick and specially adobe mortar with good quality, finding an appropriate
soil quarry is highly important. However, to make high quality adobe brick, a certain amount
of ingredients (gravel, sand, silt and clay) is necessary. The soil particle of an adobe-mud
brick is typically made from local soil in the owner’s yard or nearby with a high enough clay
content of 20% and through adding other ingredients. However, it is just possible to use
earth, if there is good cohesion, which is achievable by the balance between the different
components and their grain fraction [15]. If the soil has low clay content and presents
excessive content of stones and gravel, it may result in an earthen material with low
compressive strength and water resistance [14]. On the other hand, if the clay content of the
soil is excessive, it may result in excessive cracking due to shrinkage [16].
In the Citadel of Bam, according to the data from CRATerre, the adobe bricks for using in
the reconstruction process are made from a quarry from “Nezam Abad”, a village near the
city of Bam. Table 2 shows the chemical composition of Nezam Abad quarry. The grain size
distribution graph of Nezam Abad soil is shown in Figure 3, as the graph shows, the
percentage of ingredients in Bam soil are as follows: coarse sand (< 2 mm) 17.5%; fine sand
(< 0.2 mm) 32.5%; silt (< 0.02 mm) 30%; and clay (< 0.002 mm) 20%.
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Table 2: The chemical composition of Nezam Abad soil (Source: archive of RPBCH).
SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O
46.48% 6.21% 11.34% 12.69% 5.14% 2.09% 2.13%

Figure 3: Particle size distribution analysis of Nezam Abad’s soil (Source: archive of
RPBCH).

All particles fractions have their role in the behavior of earthen materials. However, clay has
a major importance. It acts as a binder by surrounding and attaching the silt, sand and gravel
particles, giving cohesion to the material, while the other particles behave as the filler of that
matrix [9]. Depending on the site where the soil is dug out, it will be composed of different
percentage of clay, silt, sand and other materials. Its characteristics, therefore, may differ
from site to site, and the preparation of the correct mixture for a specific application may
also differ (Minke, 2006). The fine-grained raw material for adobe-mud brick construction
is generally from recent stream or river sediments or residual soils. A wide range of soils
with wind-blown origin is not commonly suitable for this type of mixture. To determine the
suitability of soil needed for adobe composition, there are some sample field tests and
standardized laboratory test. In these methods, the purpose is to know whether the soil is
proper for adobe composition or not, and by these tests, it is possible to know the four
fundamental properties of the soil (Granularity, Compressibility, Plasticity and Cohesion).
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Table 3: Different methods used in simple field tests on adobe mixture (Source: [17]).
Granularity Looking and Look at a dry or humid soil and touch it to define the
touching percentage and the size of the grain sizes.
Compressibility Pressing Add a little water. If the soil is dry, try to get wet soil and
compress it by hand to make a ball. Evaluate how much
pressure you need.
Plasticity Shaping the Add more water and make a cohesive ball. Evaluate how
ball easy it is to shape it and how cohesive it is.
Stretching the Pull the ball like rubber elastic and try to break it. Evaluate
ball the strength of the ball.
Sticking a Stick a knife into the cohesive ball and pull it out. Evaluate
knife how the soil sticks on it.
Cutting the The ball is cut into 2 pieces. Examine the aspect of the cut.
ball
Water Print with the thumb a small depression on the ball. Fill it
absorption with water and evaluate the time of absorption.
Cohesion Diluting the Add much more water to the ball and try to loosen the
ball cohesion of the soil. Evaluate how much the soil sticks to
the hand.
Washing the Add much more water to the soil and wash away silt and
soil clay. Evaluate the amount of fine sand which remains in
the palm.
Humus content Smelling the Take some wet soil and smell it.
soil

Table 4: The standardized laboratory tests on adobe mixture ([17]).

Granularity Grain size distribution by sieving and sedimentation
Compressibility Proctor for getting the optimum moisture content
(OMC)
Plasticity Atterberg’s limits to get these limits:
▪ LL = Liquid Limit (%)
▪ PL = Plastic Limit (%)
▪ PI = Plasticity Index (%)
Note: PI = LL - PL
Cohesion 8 test (sample prepared with a mortar < 2 mm)

2-4- Mixing of the soil with water and chopped straw or other additives
Once soil is lying in a pool of water for two days, the materials should be mixed thoroughly
and uniformly (In some parts of the world, the production of adobe bricks is even
industrialized, so they are performed with special machines). In the time of the composition
of material, it must be taken into account that the water content should be high enough to
make a stiff mud. At the time of mixing, depending on the quality of soil some other additives
or stabilizers may be added to the mixture. If a locally available soil is not adequate for earth
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construction, there are two possible solutions: transporting a suitable soil from another
location or improving the properties of the available soil by stabilization. The second option
is generally the most popular, since the first can result in logistic problems, such as long
transportation distances, that can make the construction more expensive. On the other hand,
the stabilization of the soil is not always feasible or economical [18]. In the case of Bam
Citadel, because of the availability of straw in the region, this additive often was added to
the mixture to decrease the micro cracking effect caused by drying shrinkage, enhance the
tensile strength, decrease density and speed up drying of adobe-mud brick. Apart from straw,
during reconstruction process of Bam Citadel after the 2003 earthquake, palm fibers,
suggested by the University of Dresden, were used as adobe’s additive in ‘Sistani House’
and ‘Tower No.1’.

Figure 4: (a) lying of soil in a pool of water; and (b) mixing of the soil with chopped
straw or other additives; and (c) for better penetration of water within clay particles,
the adobe mixture is laid under nylon plastic (Photo by Rouhi, 2015).

Any new approach to product reinforced adobe bricks in Bam Citadel have to start from
enhancing the capability of adobe building to react flexibly to seismic motion without the
immediate loss of coherence. The team of the Technical University of Dresden conducted a
wide range of practical tests for improvement of mechanical property of adobe bricks in the
laboratories of the Dresden University and Bam’s site to find the best additive material.
After running a test row on different materials, it was decided to propose “palm fibers” as
suitable material for reinforcing of adobe bricks. Tests have proved a considerable increase
in compression and tensile strength of reinforced adobe bricks. The palm fibers have the
additional advantage of abundant local availability; palm fibers are a side product of the
extended date growing gardens as the material is normally simply burned. In this way to
prepare palm fibers as additive material to adobe mortar, the thick edge of palm leaves were
separated and then the remained softer leaves were cleaned. In the next step, they were cut
out to smaller parts for putting inside of machine designed for chopping of palm leaves.
Afterwards, the palm fibers were mixed with other ingredients. As mentioned by Jäger &
Fuchs (2008) about the rate of materials’ combination, “The results enabled us to name the
exact quota of the ingredients clay and sand (70: 30) and fibers (0.6% of the weight of the
sand-soil compound) [19].”
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Here, sleeping of the mixture means that after preparing the mixture, having the mixture
rest for almost 48 hours under nylon plastic to get better moisture. In this case, according to
the statistics presented by the RPBCH, over 35000 reinforced adobe bricks with palm fibers
for being used during reconstruction operations of Sistani House and Tower No.1, which
were produced in Bam Citadel’s workshop.

Figure 5: (a, b and c) the process of the producing of reinforced adobe brick with palm
fibres in Bam Citadel’s workshop; and (d) test specimens for grouting material in the
laboratory of the Dresden Technical University (shrinkage of the grouting material in
the borehole) (Source: [19]).

3-4- Moulding of adobe-mud brick:

Since the characteristic of adobe structure is crucial to cater the local needs in different
courses of the history, Iranian architectures have applied some changes in adobe’s form,
dimension and material to achieve an optimum state. For adobe moulding, it requires a large
open space for laying and drying of the adobe bricks; this area must be cleaned and flatted.
Adobe-mud bricks can be manufactured in any size; it all depends on the size of the wooden
moulds where adobe’s mixture is formed. About the properties of the mould, it should be
noted that to prevent the impairing of mould during the forming of mixture, the mould is
usually created with hardwood such as walnut and sycamore and its sides are fastened in the
form of male and female. In the Bam Citadel, the most common size were about 25×25×5cm
or 23×23×5cm, but other required sizes were applied.
At the beginning, once again all particles are well blended and kneaded thoroughly and
uniformly. Before moulding, the mould is wet to prevent sticking of clay to the mould; by
doing this work, the mould will be easily lifted away from the brick when it is lifted up).
Afterwards, the following steps are performed repeatedly until the requested portion of
adobe-mud bricks are produced:
a) The mould is laid on the prepared ground;
b) The adobe-mud mixture is firmly pushed into all corners and tamped down firmly;
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c) The surface of adobe-mud brick is leveled either by hand or by a timber piece, a trowel
or a wire. Mostly, the surface of adobe-mud bricks are scratched by hand (“Panjeh Keshi”
in Persian) in order to increase mortar’s adhesiveness with adobe bricks;
d) The mould is carefully unmolded, and brick is left to dry in a shaded place.

Figure 6: The process of adobe moulding under a shaded space in Bam Citadel’s workshop
(Photos by Rouhi, 2015).

Figure 7: Chaining of adobe bricks to better aeration, and their pilling up after drying (Photos
by Rouhi, 2015).

4-4- Drying of adobe-mud brick:

This is the critical step in the production of adobe-mud bricks when the shrinkages begin to
occur. In order to minimize the shrinkage effects (mainly cracking), special precautions
should be taken, such as avoiding drying in direct exposure to the sun (slow drying in shade
reduces the rate of evaporation and cracking), and severe wind (cracks are also extreme on
windy days when the shrinking of clay occurs more rapidly). After at least two days of drying
horizontally, the adobe-mud bricks must be stacked vertically, i.e. “chain making”. In this
way, air circulation between adobe-mud bricks causes better drying up. After two more days,
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adobe bricks are finally dried, and then they are piled up and ready to use in construction
process.
Todays, the deployment context of the adobe bricks production for using during
conservation and restoration process is being manually performed, so that the use of new
mechanical technique can effectively reduce the possible errors during the material
composition and adobe molding. There are some mechanically innovative techniques
through which by the use of motorized hydraulic brick press produces 5,000 to 20,000 bricks
per day by machines that may reduce the fallacy of their materials composition and their
molding under an appropriate uniform pressure.

Conclusion
According to regional availability, additives are different from region to region. Traditional
architectures, as a consequence of experience-based knowledge, which they have acquired
through trial and error over time, have been able to realize the positive effects of each
additive in the structural performance. Generally, there are some basic principles for
application of efficient additives that are related to chemical, physical, mechanical, thermal
and rheological compatibility of materials added, so any fault in selection of an appropriate
additive can result in more damage of the adobe structures. As an example of this case, “once
the adobe bricks are modeled in cement, its ability to breathe - its natural capacity to rid itself
of the moisture that wicks up into its walls as a result of capillary action - is eliminated” [20].
In addition, the stabilization of adobe bricks should also be inexpensive, locally available,
and easy to construct. In the meantime, studies about the past conservation techniques make
it possible to understand how many historic adobe structures have been preserved during
several centuries, resisting harsh weather conditions. Although in most of these stable
historic structures, the adobe bricks have been produced with high quality of composition,
they also benefited from natural additives.

References
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Index). Retrieved from http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/maps/v.php?id=14169
[2] Adam, E.A., & Agip, A.R.A. Compressed stabilised earth blocks manufactured in Sudan, United
Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2001. Retrieved from
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Publishing; 1994.
[4] Sruthi, G.S. MUD ARCHITECTURE. Proceedings of International Conference on Energy and
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[5] Hejazi, M., & Mehdizadeh Saradj, F. Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and
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[7] Wright, D. Natural solar architecture. New York (N.Y): Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1978.
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[9] Silva, R.A., Schueremans, L., & Oliveira, D.V. Grouting as a repair/strengthening solution for
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of the adobes. Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier Ltd.; 22(3): 222–227, 2008.
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