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COOLING PROCESS
CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS
Being widely used in the construction of houses and buildings, clay was
also used to consolidate the first wells.
However pozzolana cements were already known back in ancient Roman
times; indeed, the Romans used materials of volcanic origin mixed with lime
which had good compressive strength.
Portland cements were first developed in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin.
This material was obtained by baking a clay and limestone mixture together.
Aspdin called it Portland simply because the quarry where he extracted this
material was on the island of Portland, off the English coast.
Portland is a base cement mixture; over the years cement used for oil
applications has greatly evolved and can now be used even in the most
severe conditions.
Cements for the oil industry are classified in an API (American Petroleum
Institute) scale and can be adapted to suit needs by adding additives and
inert material.
The first known cementing of wells took place in 1903 in California, when
the Union Oil Co. mixed and pumped some fifty sacks of cement into a well
to isolate a water zone.
The slurry was left to harden for 28 days and then drilling began again.
A.A. Perkings introduced the plugging casing cementing system in 1910; this
system was very similar to the system still used nowadays.
The cement was mixed on the surface by hand and pumped into the casing,
placing a wooden plug with rubber inserts between the slurry and the
displacement, for which steam was often used.
The first real step forward in cementing was made by E.P Halliburton, in
Oklahoma, when he introduced the funnel mixing system in 1920. At that time
only one type of cement and no additives existed.
In 1949, with the appearance of Dowell, Chemical Process, Halliburton began
to offer two types of cements and three additives. Technologies, types of
cements and additives have gradually developed over the years.
Service companies that use cement in the oil industry must check that the
batches of cement received from suppliers possess the requirements
established in the specifications by means of base laboratory tests and
specific tests when a cementing job is being prepared.
All these products are finely ground and mixed together in the
required proportions using either a dry or wet process.
This preliminary mixture is passed through a pipe heated to between
1430°C and 1540°C (2600°F – 2800°F) at a set rate and speed. The
temperature and time of exposure result in a chemical reaction and the
material obtained is called CLINKER.
The clinker is ground and gypsum is added; the end product is
Portland Cement.
The following reactions take place during the product baking stage:
CLINKER
GYPSUM
GYPSUM CRYSTALS
{C3A
{C2S
{C3S
SLOW COOLING
This allows the components to crystallize, better grinding and better long-
term compressive strength.
FAST COOLING
Causes the formation of glass and grinding is therefore more problematic.
The final result has an excellent initial strength but may deteriorate in the
long-term.
In the oil industry, the cement, its constituent materials, the lab equipment
needed to carry out tests and the procedures used to carry out these tests
must all comply with set specifications.
API stands for America Petroleum Institute; this institute issues the
specifications or standards which cover all the issues mentioned above and
are those referred to for cementing jobs.
In the API standards, the cements currently used in wells are catalogued
in CLASSES:
-API classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H
Classes A and B are the common Portland cements, which are used only
in cementing jobs where no specific properties are required, normally at
depths of less than 1900 m and temperatures of not more than 80º C.
Classes G and H are the most widely used cements in the oil sector,
above all G. They are prepared with stricter criteria than the others which
means that they are more uniform and valid. They are used at any depth
and temperature and with the addition of additives they can cover almost
every need.
From this point of view, all 8 classes of API cements can be divided into
three groups:
Filling the annular space between the wall of an uncased hole and the
casing is the first operation after the bit has been run out of the hole and the
casing has been run in for the following reasons:
a) Surface casing
b) Intermediate casing
c) Production casing
d) Liner
Surface casing
This is the first casing to be positioned and cemented. It is normally run in
to a depth of a few hundred metres and is naturally the one with the
largest diameter.
However, it is not the first casing to be run in hole because the conductor
pipe was run in previously with the aim of supporting the first sand and
gravel layers susceptible to slippage.
Intermediate casing
The intermediate casing is the casing which is run in hole after the
surface casing and before the production casing.
Intermediate casing can be run in hole for several thousand metres and is
the casing whose cementing is most critical for the entire well because it
can cross zones of circulation loss, overpressure, gas presence, cross
flow, swelling shales and unstable brines as well as high temperature
and pressure.
Well Area Operations
Agip KCO Drilling Supervisor Training Course
Drilling Cements RPW2021A 28
CASING CEMENTING
Production casing
The casing which reaches the pay from the surface is called production
casing and through which production takes place is called production
casing, even if in practice there will be a production string inside the casing
to bring the fluids to the surface.
Liner
It is not always necessary to position the entire casing from the surface
down; sometimes only a section is needed which covers or lies just above
the pay zone and which ends, anchoring a few hundred metres inside the
upper casing.
At a later stage it will be possible to cement a casing above the liner and
this will be called Liner Tieback.
The normal dimensions of the casing or liner and in which open hole they are run
in are shown below; the dimensions are given in inches:
20” 26”
18 5/8” 24”
13 3/8” 17.5”
9 5/8” 12.25”
7” 8.5”
5” 6.5”
z Conductor pipe
z Surfaces
z Intermediate
z Production
z Liner
* Density
* Mixing water
* Composition of the slurry, with the list and
concentration of the additives
* Thickening time
* Fluid loss
* Free water
* Rheology
* Compressive strength
The formula of a slurry is directly linked to the lab tests, the results of which are
indicated in the cement lab report and which, as far as possible, should be carried
out on samples of cement, water and additives sent directly from the rig-site.
DENSITY
Density is linked to the cement’s API class and to the additives used in the
formulation of the slurry.
Additives are often in powder form and have a set wetting water requirement.
The density; i.e. the Specific Weight of the slurry is expressed in kg/l, or in lbs/gal
(pounds per gallon).
Its value can vary from around 0.5 kg/l, when mixed with Nitrogen (N2), to around
2.5 kg/l, when mixed with weighted additives.
Increases in the density of a slurry cause it to become thicker and its viscosity
therefore increases; this in turn results in the need for a friction reducer to improve
its rheology.
Densified cement 16 - 17
Cement + Salt 15 - 17
API Class G or H 15 - 16
API Class C 14 - 15
Cement + Bentonite 12 - 15
8 - 13 Cement + Spherelite
4 - 16 Cement + Nitrogen
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
MIXING WATER
YIELD
THICKENING TIME
This is perhaps the most significant and closely examined value in a lab
report.
For a very good reason, because the Thickening Time (T.T.) is the value
which allows us to carry out the job in safe conditions.
Underestimating the time can result in disastrous cementing which can even
lead to the well having to be abandoned in the most serious cases.
In a lab test the thickening time is found by carrying out the test on a sample of slurry at a
temperature defined as the circulating temperature (BHCT, bottom hole circulating
temperature) at the lowest point of the casing and that is, at the depth of the casing shoe,
which is always lower than the static temperature (BHST, bottomhole static temperature)
at the same point.
In the API standards there are tables which indicate the BHCT on the basis of the
temperature gradient and the type of job to be carried out.
For example, BHST being equal, the BHCT will be lower for a casing job than for a liner
cementing job or a plug or a squeeze.
a) Temperature, for a casing job this is the circulating temperature at the casing shoe while
for plugs and shoes it is close to static temperature. If the temperature increases the
thickening time shortens and vice versa.
b) Depth; the greater the depth, the higher the quantity of slurry needed and the longer the
pumping times.
c) Casing and open hole dimension (O.H = open hole). Again, the
larger the dimensions, the higher the volumes and pumping times.
Test start
70B
c
30 minutes
where the red and green curves are the temperature of the oil of the
machine carrying out the test and the temperature of the slurry sample in
the machine respectively and the blue curve is a consistency curve and is
the one which defines the Thickening Time value.
The horizontal numbers (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100), are the slurry’s
consistency reference. Generally, when the slurry consistency curve
crosses the 70 Bc line, that is the moment which defines the slurry’s
pumping limit. However, for reasons of safety, some consider the moment in
which the consistency curve crosses line 50 Bc as the pumping limit.
FLUID LOSS
FREE WATER
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH