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01 Material Testing
01 Material Testing
• Tension Test
– Strength
– Ductility
– Toughness
– Elastic Modulus
– Strain-hardening
capability
• Test Specimen
– Usually solid and round
– Original Gauge length lo
– Cross-sectional area Ao
Tension
• Stress-strain curves
– Linear elastic: elongation in the specimen that
is proportional to the applied load.
– Engineering stress: the ratio of the applied
load P, to the original cross-sectional area, Ao,
of the specimen.
• Engineering stress equation: σ = P/Ao
• Engineering strain equation: e = (l-lo)/lo
Tension
• If the specimen is
loaded beyond its
UTS it begins to
“neck.”
• Fracture stress: the
engineering stress at
fracture.
Tension
• True-strain at necking
is equal numerically to
the strain-hardening
exponent, n, of the
material.
Temperature Effects
• As temperature
increases:
– Ductility and toughness
increase.
– Yield stress and the
modulus of elasticity
decrease.
• Temperature also affects
the strain-hardening
exponent of most metals,
in that n decreases as
temperature increases.
Section 2.2.7 – 2.7
• Rate of Deformation
• Superplasticity
• Effects of Compression, Torsion, and
Bending
• Hardness, Toughness, and Strength
Rate of Deformation
Effects
A specimen is subjected
to a compressive load.
Carried out by
compressing a solid
cylindrical specimen
between two well-
lubricated flat dies.
The cylindrical
specimen’s surface
begins to bulge, known as
barreling.
Disk Test
• Rectangular specimen
supported at its ends.
• Load is applied vertically
at 1 or 2 pts.
• The stress at fracture in
bending is known as the
modulus of rupture,
flexural strength, or
transverse rupture
strength.
Hardness
• J. A. Brinell 1900
• Involves pressing a steel
or carbide ball of 10mm
against a surface with
various loads.
– 500, 1500, or 3000 kg
• Measures diameter of
indentation.
• Harder surfaces have
small indentation while
softer surfaces have
larger indentation.
Rockwell Test
• S. P. Rockwell 1922
• Test measures depth
rather than diameter of
indentation.
• Diamond indenter
presses against surface
with minor load and then
major load.
– The difference in depths of
penetration is a measure of
the hardness of material.
Vickers Test
• Developed in 1922.
• Comparable to Brinell
Test except using a
pyramid shaped
diamond to make
indentation.
• Lighter loads than
Brinell Test
– From 1 to 120 kg
Knoop Test
• Developed in 1939.
• Comparable to Brinell and Vickers test.
• Uses an elongated pyramid shaped diamond to make
indentations.
• Uses very light loads.
– From 25 g to 5 kg.
• Known as a micro-hardness test because of the lights
loads.
– Suitable for very small or very thin specimens.
• Test also used for measuring the hardness of individual
grains and components in a metal alloy.
Mohs Hardness Test
• Developed by F. Mohs in
1822.
• Test based on capability
of one material to scratch
another.
• Each material can scratch
all materials below it with
a lesser hardness.
• Based on a scale of 1 to
10.
Scleroscope
• Instrument with
diamond-tipped
hammer.
• Hammer is dropped
from a certain height.
• Hardness is related to
the rebound of the
indenter.
• Small and portable.
Durometer
• S-N Curves
– Stress Amplitude (S) --
Maximum stress
specimen is subjected
– Number of Cycles (N)
• Level of stress a
material tolerates
decreases with an
increase in cycles.
Fatigue
• Creep Testing --
Subjecting a specimen to
a constant tensile load
(engineering stress) at a
certain temperature,
measuring the length
changes at various time
increments.
– Primary, secondary, and
tertiary stages
Creep
• Testing consists of
placing a notched
specimen in an impact
tester and breaking it with
a swinging pendulum.
– Impact or Dynamic
Loading
• CharpyTest -- Specimen
supported at both ends.
• Izod Test -- Specimen
supported at one end.
Impact
• Notch Sensitivity --
Sensitivities to surface
defects, lowers impact
toughness.
– Heat-treated metals,
Ceramics, and
Glasses
Failure and Fracture of
Material
– Tensile stresses
normal to the
cleavage plane,
initiate and control
the propagation of
fracture.
• Strength-to-Weight
ratio
– Specific Strength
– Tensile strength /
density
• Stiffness-to-Weight
ratio
– Specific Stiffness
– Elastic modulus /
density
• Units of length
Melting Point
• Units of J/kg ˚K
• Important consideration in the forming or
machining operations
Thermal Conductivity
• Electrical Properties
– Conductivity
• The ratio of the
current density to
the electric field
strength
– Dielectric Strength
• A materials
resistivity to direct
electrical current
Electrical, Magnetic
and Optical Properties
• Electrical Properties
– Conductors
– Superconductors
– Semiconductors
– Piezoelectric effect
• A reversible interaction
between an elastic strain
and an electric field
• Typical applications
include pressure
transducers, sensors, and
strain gauges
Electrical, Magnetic
and Optical Properties
• Magnetic Properties
– Ferromagnetism
– Ferrimagnetism
– Magnetostriction
• The expansion or contraction of a material when
subjected to a magnetic field
• The principle behind ultrasonic machining
equipment
Electrical, Magnetic
and Optical Properties
• Optical Properties
– Color
– Opacity
Corrosion Resistance
• Corrosion
– Typically used to
describe metal or
ceramic deterioration
– Similar phenomena
occur in plastics
– Often referred to as
degradation
Corrosion Resistance
• Types of corrosion
– Pitting
– Intergranular
– Crevice
– Galvanic cell
– Stress-corrosion cracking
– Selective Leaching
– Oxidation
– Passivation
Corrosion Resistance
• Pitting
– Can occur over the
entire surface or be
localized
• Intergranular
– Occurs along grain
boundaries
Corrosion Resistance
• Crevice
– Occurs at the interface of
bolted or riveted joints
• Galvanic cell
– Occurs between dissimilar
metals when an electrolyte
is present
– Not as common in pure
metals or single-phase
alloys
Corrosion Resistance
• Stress-corrosion
cracking
– Cold worked metals
are most susceptible
• Selective leaching
– Occurs when
metalworking fluid
attacks specific
elements in tool and
die materials
Corrosion Resistance
• Oxidation
– A chemical reaction which leaves a small layer
of oxidized material on the surface
– Resists further corrosion
• Aluminum & Titanium
• Passivation
– The development of a protective film by
chemical reaction
• Stainless Steel
Physical Properties
of Materials
• Review
– Density
– Melting point
– Specific heat
– Thermal conductivity
– Thermal expansion
– Electrical, magnetic and optical properties
– Corrosion resistance
• http://www.hardwaresquare.com/category/hardware/nails/
• http://www.boeing.com/companyoffices/gallery/images/space/delta_i
v/d4_1st_heavy_24.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density
• http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/textbook/density.html
• TEXTBOOK
• http://www.american-carbide.com/EndMills/DHEM.aspx
• http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Rivets.html
• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/conins.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation
http://www.materialsengineer.com/G-Pitting-Corrosion.htm
• http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms/intergranular.htm
• http://www.textronfasteningsystems.com/appsol/galv_corr.html