Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

General solution

X=0 and X=L

T(0)=Ts,1 and T(L)= TS,2
Ts,1 = C2

Similarly, at X=L
Ts,2 = C1L + C2 = C1L + TS,1

Heat transfer through a plane wall. (a)

Temperature distribution. (b) Equivalent
thermal circuit.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Thermal Resistance
The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is:

Ohm’s law:

Newton’s law of cooling

The thermal resistance for convection is then:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The equivalent thermal circuit

The total thermal resistance, Rtot :

A thermal resistance for radiation may be

defined as:
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The Composite Wall

Overall heat transfer coefficient,U:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Equivalent thermal circuits for a series–parallel composite wall

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Contact Resistance

Thermal contact resistance

Temperature drop due

to thermal contact resistance

Thermal contact resistance for (a) metallic interfaces under vacuum conditions and (b)
aluminum interface (10-μm surface roughness, 105 Nm2) with different interfacial fluids.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Flow of the heat through a composite wall. The wall of an oven consists of three layers of brick.
The inside in built of 8 in of firebrick, ka= 0.68 Btu/h ft oF, surrounded by 4 in of insulating
brick kb=0.15, and an outside layer of 6 in of building brick, kc= 0.40. The oven operates at 1600
oF and it is anticipated that outer side of the wall can be maintained a 125 oF by the circulation

of air. How much heat will be lost if the walls have a area (1 ft2) and what are the temperatures
at the Interface of the layers.

Ka = 0.68 Btu/h ft oF
Kb = 0.15 Btu/ h ft oF
Kc = 0.40 Btu/ h ft oF
La = 8 in
Lb = 4 in
Lc = 6 in
To =1600oF
T3 = 125oF
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A house has a composite wall of wood, fiberglass insulation, and plaster board, as indicated in
the sketch. On a cold winter day the convection heat transfer coefficients are ho = 60 W/m2 K
and hi = 30 W/m2 K. The total wall surface area is 350 m2.
(a) Determine a symbolic expression for the total thermal resistance of the wall, including
inside and outside convection effects for the prescribed conditions.
(b) Determine the total heat loss through the wall.
(c) If the wind were blowing violently, raising ho to 300 W/m2 K, determine the percentage
increase in the heat loss.
(d) What is the controlling resistance that determines the amount of heat flow through the
wall?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A thin silicon chip and an 8-mm-thick aluminum substrate are separated by a 0.02-mm-thick
epoxy joint. The chip and substrate are each 10 mm on a side, and their exposed surfaces are
cooled by air, which is at a temperature of 25°C and provides a convection coefficient of 100
W/m2K. If the chip dissipates 104 W/m2 under normal conditions, will it operate below a
maximum allowable temperature of 85°C ?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Radial Systems The Cylinder

General solution

T(r1)=TS,1 and T(r2)=TS,2

TS,1 = C1ln r1 + C2 and
TS,2 =C1 ln r2 + C2

Heat transfer rate Resistance

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms

of an overall heat transfer coefficient. That is,

If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A1=2πr1L

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The Sphere

A =4πr2

Assuming constant k, we then obtain

Conduction in a spherical shell

Resistance
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77K. The
container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation
composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is exposed to
ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 W/m2 K. The latent heat of
vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2x105 J/kg and 804 kg/m3, respectively.
1.What is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen?
2.What is the rate of liquid boil-off?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE 3.1
In Example 1.6, we calculated the heat loss rate from a human body in air and water environments.
Now we consider the same conditions except that the surroundings (air or water) are at 10oC. To
reduce the heat loss rate, the person wears special sporting gear (snow suit and wet suit) made from
a nanostructured silica aerogel insulation with an extremely low thermal conductivity of 0.014 W/m
K. The emissivity of the outer surface of the snow and wet suits is 0.95. What thickness of aero- gel
insulation is needed to reduce the heat loss rate to 100 W (a typical metabolic heat generation rate) in
air and water? What are the resulting skin temperatures?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE 3.3
The thermal conductivity of a D= 14-nm-diameter carbon nanotube is measured with an
instrument that is fabricated of a wafer of silicon nitride at a temperature of T∞ = 300 K.
The 20-μm-long nanotube rests on two 0.5-μm-thick, 10 μm x 10 μm square islands that
are separated by a distance s= 5 μm. A thin layer of platinum is used as an electrical
resistor on the heated island (at temperature Th) to dissipate q = 11.3 μW of electrical
power. On the sensing island, a similar layer of platinum is used to determine its
temperature, Ts. The platinum’s electrical resistance, R(Ts) = E/I, is found by measuring the
voltage drop and electrical current across the plat- in um layer. The temperature of the
sensing island, Ts, is then determined from the relationship of the platinum electrical
resistance to its temperature. Each island is suspended by two Lsn = 250-μm-long silicon
nitride beams that are wsn = 3 μm wide and tsn = 0.5 μm thick. A platinum line of width
wpt = 1 μm and thickness tpt = 0.2 μm is deposited within each silicon nitride beam to
power the heated island or detect the voltage drop associated with the determination of
Ts. The entire experi- ment is performed in a vacuum with Tsur = 300 K and at steady state,
Ts = 308.4 K. Estimate the thermal conductivity of the carbon nanotube.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE 3.4
The diagram shows a conical section fabricated from pyroceram. It is of circular cross section
with the diameter D = ax, where a = 0.25. The small end is at x1 =50 mm and the large end at
x2 = 250 mm. The end temperatures are T1 = 400 K and T2 = 600 K, while the lateral surface is
well insulated.
1-Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in symbolic form, assuming one-
dimensional conditions. Sketch the temperature distribution.
2-Calculate the heat rate qx through the cone.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE 3.5
The possible existence of an optimum insulation thickness for radial systems is suggested by
the presence of competing effects associated with an increase in this thickness. In particular,
although the conduction resistance increases with the addition of insulation, the convection
resistance decreases due to increasing outer surface area. Hence there may exist an insulation
thickness that minimizes heat loss by maximizing the total resistance to heat transfer. Resolve
this issue by considering the following system.
1-A thin-walled copper tube of radius ri is used to transport a low-temperature refrigerant and
is at a temperature Ti that is less than that of the ambient air at T∞ around the tube. Is there
an optimum thickness associated with application of insulation to the tube?
2-Confirm the above result by computing the total thermal resistance per unit length of tube
for a 10 mm diameter tube having the following insulation thick- nesses: 0, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 40
mm. The insulation is composed of cellular glass, and the outer surface convection coefficient
is 5 W/m2 K.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed insulation thicknesses may be
calculated and are plotted as follows
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Problem. 3.52.
Steam flowing through a long, thin-walled pipe maintains the pipe wall at a uniform
temperature of 500 K. The pipe is covered with an insulation blanket comprised of two
different materials, A and B.
The interface between the two materials may be assumed to have an infinite contact
resistance, and the entire outer surface is exposed to air for which T∞ = 300 K and h = 25
W/m2 K.
(a) Sketch the thermal circuit of the system. Label (using the above symbols) all pertinent
nodes and resistances.
(b) For the prescribed conditions, what is the total heat loss from the pipe? What are the
outer surface temperatures Ts,2(A) and Ts,2(B)?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
One-dimensional, steady-state solutions to the heat equation with
no generation
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation
The rate at which energy is generated by passing a The volumetric generation rate (W/m3) is then:
current I through a medium of electrical resistance
R is:

The Plane Wall

The general solution is:

T(-L)=Ts,1 and T(L)= TS,2

The constants may be evaluated
and are of the form:

Temperature distribution is:

Conduction in a plane wall with uniform heat

generation. (a) Asymmetrical boundary conditions.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are
maintained at a common temperature, Ts1 = Ts2 = Ts , The
temperature distribution is given by:

The maximum temperature exists at the midplane:

or

X=L

Conduction in a plane wall with uniform heat generation.

(b) Symmetrical boundary conditions. (c) Adiabatic
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of material A has uniform heat
generation q ̇ = 1.5 X106 W/m3, kA = 75 W/m K, and thickness LA = 50 mm. The wall material B
has no generation with kB = 150 W/m K and thickness LB = 20 mm. The inner surface of
material A is well insulated, while the outer surface of material B is cooled by a water stream
with T∞ = 30°C and h =1000 W/m2 K.
1-Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the composite under steady-state
conditions.
2-Determine the temperature T0 of the insulated surface and the temperature T2 of the cooled
surface.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Radial Systems

Separating variables and assuming uniform generation,

this expression may be integrated to obtain

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we

apply the boundary conditions

C1= 0
The temperature distribution is therefore
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Consider a long solid tube, insulated at the outer radius r2 and cooled at the inner radius r1, with
uniform heat generation q ̇ (W/m3) within the solid.
1- Obtain the general solution for the temperature distribution in the tube.
2- In a practical application a limit would be placed on the maximum temperature that is
permissible at the insulated surface (r = r2). Specifying this limit as Ts,2, identify appropriate
boundary conditions that could be used to deter- mine the arbitrary constants appearing in the
general solution. Determine these constants and the corresponding form of the temperature
distribution.
3- Determine the heat removal rate per unit length of tube.
4- If the coolant is available at a temperature T∞, obtain an expression for the con- vection
coefficient that would have to be maintained at the inner surface to allow for operation at
prescribed values of Ts,2 and q ̇.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

Combined conduction and convection

in a structural element.

Use of fins to enhance heat transfer from

a plane wall. (a) Bare surface. (b) Finned
surface
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Schematic of typical finned-tube

heat exchangers.

Fin configurations. (a) Straight fin of uniform cross section. (b) Straight fin of nonuniform cross section.
(c) Annular fin. (d) Pin fin
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A General Conduction Analysis
From Fourier’s law we know that

where Ac is the cross-sectional area

The convection heat transfer rate may be expressed as

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
For the prescribed fins, A is a constant and A = Px,
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area where A is the surface area c measured from the
base to xs and P is the fin perimeter. Accordingly,
with dAc /dx = 0 and dAs /dx = P.

Excess temperature θ

where, since T is a constant, dθ/dx = dT/dx.

∞

Equation is a linear, homogeneous, second order

differential equation with constant coefficients.
Its general solution is of the form:
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
X= 0

X= L
The first condition, Case A,

Substituting Equation

Solving for C1 and C2, it may be shown, after some manipulation, that
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
applying Fourier’s law

In the same manner, we can obtain the fin

Hence, knowing the temperature distribution, θ(x), temperature distribution and heat transfer
q may be evaluated, giving: rate for Case C.
ƒ

The second tip condition, Case B, corresponds to

the assumption that the convective heat loss from
the fin tip is negligible, in which case the tip may be
treated as adiabatic and

The very long fin, Case D,

solve for C1 and C2 and substituting

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Temperature distribution and heat loss for fins of uniform cross section
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Fin efficiency η
Fin effectiveness ε ƒ
ƒ

Εf ≥ 2
For a straight fin of uniform cross
for the infinite fin approximation (Case D),
section and an adiabatic tip
the result is

fin resistance may be defined as:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Efficiency of straight fins (rectangular, triangular, and parabolic profiles).

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Overall Surface Efficiency
Effective resistance:
overall efficiency is defined as

the total surface area is

The total rate of heat transfer

by convection
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
The engine cylinder of a motorcycle is constructed of 2024-T6 aluminum alloy and is of
height H =0.15 m and outside diameter D =50 mm. Under typical operating conditions the
outer surface of the cylinder is at a temperature of 500 K and is ex- posed to ambient air at
300 K, with a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2 K. Anunlar fins are integrally cast with the
cylinder to increase heat transfer to the surroundings. Consider five such fins, which are of
thickness t =6 mm, length L = 20 mm, and equally spaced. What is the increase in heat
transfer due to use of the fins?
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
A very long rod 5 mm in diameter has one end maintained at 100°C. The surface of the
rod is exposed to ambient air at 25°C with a convection heat transfer coefficient of 100
W/m2 K.
1. Determine the temperature distributions along rods constructed from pure copper,
2024 aluminum alloy, and type AISI 316 stainless steel. What are the corresponding heat
losses from the rods?
2. Estimate how long the rods must be for the assumption of infinite length to yield an
accurate estimate of the heat loss.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
In Example 1.4, we saw that to generate an electrical power of P = 9 W, the temperature of
the PEM fuel cell had to be maintained at Tc = 56.4C, which required removal of 11.25 W
from the fuel cell and a cooling air velocity of V = 9.4 m/s for T∞ = 25C. To provide these
convective conditions, the fuel cell is centered in a 50 mm x 26 mm rectangular duct, with
10-mm gaps between the exterior of the 50 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm fuel cell and the top and
bottom of the well insulated duct wall. A small fan, powered by the fuel cell, is used to
circulate the cooling air. Inspection of a particular fan vendor’s data sheets suggests that the
ratio of the fan power consumption to the fan’ s volumetric flow rate is Pf / ∨f = C =1000
W/(m3/s) for the range 10-4 ≤ ∨f ≤ 10-2 m3/s.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
1-Determine the net electric power produced by the fuel cell–fan system, Pnet =P - Pf .
2-Consider the effect of attaching an aluminum (k = 200 W/m K) finned heat sink, of
identical top and bottom sections, onto the fuel cell body. The contact joint has a thermal
resistance of Rtc = 10-3 m2 K/W, and the base of the heat sink is of thickness tb = 2 mm.
Each of the N rectangular fins is of length Lf = 8 mm and thickness tf = 1 mm, and spans the
entire length of the fuel cell, Lc = 50 mm. With the heat sink in place, radiation losses are
negligible and the convective heat transfer coefficient may be related to the size and
geometry of a typical air channel by an expression of the form h =1.78 kair (Lf + a)/(Lf . a),
where a is the distance between fins. Draw an equivalent thermal circuit for part 2 and
determine the total number of fins needed to reduce the fan power consumption to half of
the value found in part 1.
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 2
2.40, 2.45, 2.47, 2.51, 2.54.

Chapter 3
Wall plane : 3.2 , 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, 3.12, 3.15, 3.19.

Contact Resistance : 3.22, 3.15, 3.19.

Cylindrical Wall : 3.36, 3.39, 3.41, 3.46, 4.47, 3.48.

Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation: 3.72, 3.76, 3.70, 3.86, 3.91, 3.95.

Extended Surfaces : 3.105, 3.106, 3.111, 3.113, 3.115, 3.120, 3.122, 3.123.

Fin Systems and Arrays : 3.130, 3.134, 3.138, 3.140, 3.145, 3.147.