Musicae Scientiae © 2006 by ESCOM European Society

Fall 2006, Vol X, n° 2, 147-172 for the Cognitive Sciences of Music

Perception and performance of a ksak metres

DIRK MOELANTS
IPEM - Department of Musicology, Ghent University, Belgium

• ABSTRACT
In this paper different aspects of the fast odd metres found in the Balkan (aksak)
are studied. Comparing their temporal characteristics with thresholds of rhythm
perception, it is shown that the basic regular unit is too fast to serve as the pulse.
Thus the pulse moves to the (unequal) units of 2, 3 or 4 beats. This gives aksak
metres a special position within an overall typology of asymmetric metre. Two
sets of data will be analysed to give more details on the actual timing in perfor-
mance: a set of traditional Bulgarian tunes and performances of Bartók piano
pieces by four different players. Despite the similarity of global tempo and metre,
differences in the treatment of tempo were found between both sets, which can
be explained by the different performance contexts. In both sets, specific pat-
terns of metric microstructure were found that can give us more information
about the actual metric interpretation and clear effects of the musical structure
on both the tempo and the metric microstructure are shown. All together, it
seems that aksak metres are closer to regular metres than commonly thought.

INTRODUCTION

Aksak is a term borrowed from Turkish music theory (Cler, 1994), to indicate
irregular, “limping” metres, as they frequently occur in the traditional music of
the Balkan. Because of their commonality in Bulgaria and the fact that Bulgarian
musicologists described them first (e.g. Hristov 1913; Stoin, 1927; Djoudjeff,
1931), they are often referred to as Bulgarian metre, or Bulgarian rhythm. Yet
aksak seems a better term since the phenomenon is not restricted to Bulgaria
(Brăïloïu, 1967).
In this paper, the timing of aksak metres is studied using examples from both
traditional and classical music. In addition to a general account of the timing
characteristics, two sets of performances are analysed in detail: 11 Bulgarian folk
melodies and 5 piano pieces by Béla Bartók played by 4 different performers. The
two sets are linked by their metric structure, but have very different backgrounds:
orally transmitted dance music, versus concert music performed from a written
source. Similarities between both sets may lead us to processes involved in the

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reproduction of these patterns that are independent of the training of the
performers, while clear differences between the two sets might be ascribed to the
particular performance context. The main topics in the performance studies will be
the tempo stability (to what extent is the tempo stable and if it changes, in which
direction?) and the ratios between the beats within the measure. The latter can
give us a view on the metric interpretation of the music and allows us to compare
its metric structure with other examples of dance music.
Before studying the details of metric performance in this set of examples, a
broader context will be laid out. Three issues will be addressed: first a typology of
asymmetric metre will be given, pointing at the difference with common symmetric
metres and distinguishing between different subtypes of asymmetric metre. Next,
an overview of important time thresholds in human rhythm perception is given.
The main point here is to fix the fastest possible tempo and our preferences for cer-
tain tempi and certain grouping periods. Thus we build up a perceptual framework
that can help us to interpret the timing found in performance. Finally the global tim-
ing characteristics of a large collection of pieces in typical aksak metres will be sum-
marised and compared to these thresholds. The whole illustrates the unique posi-
tion of aksak metres and its interest for a perceptual study of music performance.

SYMMETRIC VERSUS ASYMMETRIC METRE

Most Western music uses so-called symmetric metres, i.e. metres were the beats
have the same length and the accents are equally spaced. In western music theory
(e.g. Cooper and Meyer, 1960; Lerdahl and Jackendoff, 1983; Kramer, 1988), sev-
eral metric levels, from subbeats to hypermeasures, are distinguished, each of them
based on the repetition of intervals of equal length. Within these structures two or
three levels define the metre. These correspond to the “beat” or “pulse”-level, the
most salient periodicity, the “measure”, the most evident way to group the beats
following their accentual pattern and an additional intermediate level in “com-
pound” metres. All metric levels have a fixed binary (2:1) or ternary (3:1) relation
with neighbouring levels in the metric hierarchy. Thus only four basic metric rela-
tions are possible, as it has already been described by Philippe de Vitry (1320): 2 x
2 (two binary beats in the measure, e.g. 2/4), 2 x 3 (three binary beats in the mea-
sure, e.g. 3/4), 3 x 2 (two ternary beats in the measure, e.g. 6/8) and 3 x 3 (three
ternary beats in the measure, e.g. 9/8). In compound metres two of these basic rela-
tions are superimposed within one measure, introducing an additional level (e.g. 2 x
2 x 2 = 4/4 or 2 x 3 x 2 = 12/8).
Asymmetric metres differ from this system in that they do not obey the law
of equal spacing. They employ both binary and ternary units within one metric
level. Two types of asymmetric metre can be distinguished: isochronous and
anisochronous. In isochronous asymmetric metres a perceivable periodicity is
present that groups the unequal units into measures. In anisochronous asymmetric
metres a metric regularity is only present at the lowest level, while the accentuation

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has no perceivable regularity. This type of organization, often found in music that
sticks closely to speech or in 20th century classical works like Stravinsky’s “Le Sacre
du Printemps”, will not be considered in this paper. Still, within the category of
isochronous asymmetric metres, different subcategories can be distinguished.
A first group has a fixed metric pattern with an irregular beat. A certain degree
of such irregularity is present in many western dance styles, well known examples
are the elongated second beats of the Viennese waltz or the sarabande (Clynes and
Walker, 1982). However, these deviations are usually not perceived as asymmetric.
The listener is still able to fit the pattern in his triple (or duple) metre scheme, thus
creating a symmetric metre with a specific character of movement. In some musical
styles the spacing of the beats is shaped in such a way that most listeners no longer
perceive them as isochronous. In these cases there is apparently no isochrony below
the level of the measure. An example is the Norwegian springar dance, in which the
ratio between the three beats of the measure is typically 18:15:10 (Hopkins, 1982).
A second group of asymmetric metres has an irregular spacing of accents at the
level above the beat. Within this category, three types of asymmetry can be found:
(1) “odd” metres with e.g. 5, 7 or 11 beats in a measure, (2) “additive” patterns in
“normal” metres (e.g. 3+3+2 in a 4/4 metre), and (3) “hemiola”: changing divisions
within entities of the same length (e.g. 2x3- 3x2). While the latter two categories can
still be explained as “local” irregularities within the traditional western theoretical
framework, the “odd” metres seem more problematic due to their fundamental
asymmetry. Yet, odd metres are far from exceptional; they are for example very
common in music from the Middle-East. In western classical music, jazz and
popular music however, they are merely used in pieces that refer to non-western
music or to obtain a peculiar effect (for an overview see Moelants, 1999). Despite
growing importance during the 20th century, they are still generally considered as
somewhat “unnatural” for western performers and listeners.
Formally, aksak metres can be classified as odd metres with irregularly spaced
accents on an isochronous beat. However, in a typical aksak, the beat is too fast
to function as counting unit, so the perceived pulse moves one-level up, to the
irregular accentual pattern. As such they should be classified as asymmetric metres
with an irregularly spaced beat. From a purely descriptive (e.g. score-based) point of
view, the tempo might not be such an important factor. Actually, slow versions
of similar asymmetric metres are used in the same area. This supports the view of
scholars as Brăïloïu (1967) and Rice (2000), to consider tempo as “unimportant”
and focus on the different possible structures. However, from a perceptual point
of view, the tempo is indeed a decisive element since it leads to a fundamentally
different percept. Therefore Bartók (1940) limited “Bulgarian rhythm” to pieces
with exactly this high tempo, found only in Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Turkey,
and in the music of Turkmens and other Turkish people from Central-Asia. If the
basic pulse cannot be perceived as the pulse, the result is that of an anisochronous
beat with short and long metric units, as already proposed by the Bulgarian

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researcher Vasil Stoïn in the beginning of the century (Cler, 1994). The latter
view gives aksak a unique position in the world of (asymmetric) metre. In order to
support this, we will first give an overview of some important thresholds in tempo
perception and then compare these with the timing characteristics of typical aksak
metres.

PERCEPTUAL THRESHOLDS FOR RHYTHM AND TEMPO

To quantify the tempo element and illustrate its importance in creating a specific
aksak-effect we will review the limits and preferences of human tempo perception
(Moelants, 2002a) and compare these data with timing characteristics found in
aksak metres. The main perceptual threshold we are looking for is the fastest
possible tempo, or the speed at which we can no longer perceive a periodicity as
the main pulse of a piece of music. Additionally we will also give an overview of
the preferred areas for tempo and grouping. Please note that all thresholds given are
approximations, indicating a certain zone.
Laboratory experiments show an ability to perceive successive sounds without
confusion about their order at a distance of about 15-30 ms (Hirsh, 1959;
Broadbent and Ladefoged, 1959). However, in the more complex situation of
everyday listening to music, 50 ms seems more realistic (Moelants, 2002a). Yet, hear-
ing a succession of sounds is not enough to establish a tempo, it is necessary to per-
ceive independent pulses that can be counted or tapped. The maximal speed of
isochronous tapping lies around 126 ms (Fraisse, 1956), but controlled tapping in
synchrony with an external stimulus seems to be impossible at periods shorter than
200 ms (Peters, 1989; Wing and Kristofferson, 1973). 200 ms seems to be the length
of an integration buffer in which we build up the image of the sound. Thus phe-
nomena like temporal summation of dynamics and masking of one tone by other
are effective up to the 200 ms threshold (Van Noorden and Moelants, 1999;
Moelants, 2002a). Tones that follow within this buffer will automatically be grouped
together. From these elements we can conclude that the fastest possible tempo is
found around 300 bpm.
Somewhere between this 300 bpm and the slowest possible tempo, located
around 40 bpm (1500 ms) (Van Noorden and Moelants, 1999; Moelants, 2002a),
there is an optimum. We can locate this “preferred tempo” around 120 bpm
(500 ms), with a preferred “tempo-octave”, found roughly between 80 and 160 bpm
(375-750 ms) (Moelants, 2002b). If periodicities in this area are present, it is
very likely that they will be perceived as the beat of the piece, although specific
configurations in the music, mainly in the spread of energy, can cause a shorter or
longer period to be chosen as the beat by a majority of listeners (McKinney and
Moelants, 2004). At a higher metric level, that of the measure, we see a similar
preference for a certain grouping period. The maximum length of a measure is
defined by the length of our working memory. This is the memory buffer in which
we integrate diverse perceptual streams into coherent units. Since the length of this

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buffer seems to be influenced by the amount and structure of the perceived

information, it is not easy to fix a threshold. As a typical value we can use 3 seconds
(Pöppel, 1996). Rhythmic patterns perceived within this period can be grouped
into structural units like measures. If the repetition rate is slower, there will be a
tendency to perceive not a single repeating measure, but an alternation of two
different patterns. Logically, the lower length of a measure is determined by pres-
ence of at least two beats of minimal length. This would put the limit at 400 ms,
although it is not very likely that a two-beat metre will be perceived at this speed.
Hence, measures shorter than about 500 ms are very unlikely to be found. Also here
we can define an optimum, somewhere around 1100 ms (Van Noorden and
Moelants, 1999; Vos, 1973).
Our hypothesis is that, in aksak metres, the basic time unit is too fast too serve
as the beat. In that case, the length of the basic unit should be less than 200 ms. On
the other hand, the length of the entities of 2 or 3 of these basic units, found at
the next metric level, should lie between 200 and 1500 ms, with a preference for
durations around 500 ms. This would give them a good duration to serve as the
beat. The length of the measure finally should not be longer than 3000 ms to be
suited to serve as one pattern, and preferably lie between 1000 and 1500 ms in order
to optimise its identity as a pattern.

TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AKSAK METRES

To give a view on the time of the different components in aksak metres, three sets
of data were analysed. The first set contains 46 melodies in various aksak metres,
collected from Bartók’s (1945) collection of instrumental Rumanian folk music.
Most melodies were originally recorded between 1908 and 1917. Starting from his
field recordings, Bartók made annotated transcriptions of both music and text.
These were published in several books and articles between 1913 and 1935. Finally
in 1945 he published an overview with 2,555 transcribed folk melodies. He revised
many of the older notations and added theoretic backgrounds and a system of
grouping the melodies. Bartók (1945, pp. 42-46) also addresses the issue of aksak
metres, giving a list of pieces included in the book that fall into that category. The
tempo-indications notated with each of these melodies are summarised here.
The second set contains the tempi from pieces in the most common aksak
metres, collected from the “WebFolk Bulgaria database” (http://musicart. imbm.
bas.bg/). This a database of more than 15,000 traditional pieces recorded by sever-
al Bulgarian folklorists throughout the 20th century in the whole country. The
multimedia database contains full documentation of the pieces including a large
number of sound fragments with a length between 10 seconds and one minute.
From this database 238 pieces were selected: the instrumental and vocal-instrumen-
tal pieces in 5/16, 7/16, 9/16 and 11/16 metres of which a sound example was
included. The timing characteristics of each individual piece were manually
annotated by fixing the length of a typical measure (or of a group of two or four

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measures, if that was more obvious). From this number the lengths of the basic unit
and the two-, three- and four-unit beats were derived.
The third set gives a summary of the pieces that will be analysed in detail below.
It consists of tempi found by analyzing performances of Bulgarian melodies and
some of Bartók’s Bulgarian dances, a total of 31 pieces. The results are summarised
in Table 1 and Figure 1.

Table 1
GROUP UNIT MEASURE FOUR THREE TWO
1. Mean 137 1119 548 410 273
Rumania Minimum 76 737 304 228 152
Maximum 208 1875 833 625 417

2a. Mean 133 666 533 400 266

WebFolk 5 Minimum 111 553 442 332 221
Maximum 193 967 774 580 387

2a. Mean 132 923 527 396 264

WebFolk 7 Minimum 96 674 385 289 193
Maximum 194 1349 777 582 388

2a. Mean 141 1272 565 424 283

WebFolk 9 Minimum 107 965 429 322 214
Maximum 212 1908 848 636 424

2a. Mean 136 1500 545 409 273

WebFolk 11 Minimum 113 1242 452 339 226
Maximum 170 1867 679 509 339

3a. Mean 138 1069 557 408 279

Bulgaria Minimum 111 662 450 322 225
Maximum 194 1688 780 572 390

3b. Mean 156 1126 632 468 316

Bartók Minimum 125 764 501 374 250
Maximum 201 1705 810 603 405

Total Mean 143 1107 571 428 286

Minimum 76 553 304 228 152
Maximum 261 3000 1043 783 522

The numbers are in agreement with our assumptions. The length of the
measures stays between 500 ms and 3 s and the averages lie close to the optimum
for metric grouping. Most unit lengths are shorter than 200ms and none is longer
than 250 ms, while the lengths of the three-unit beats lie close to the preferred
tempo range. One problem could be the presence of some values under 200 ms in
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the two-unit beats, shorter than the threshold of tempo perception. In Bartók’s
(1945) transcriptions we often see the use of 4-unit beats, e.g. 4+3+3 instead of
2+2+3+3. As shown in Figure 1(next page), the length of the 4-unit beats falls
exactly in the range of preferred tempo. To find some proof for the use of 4-unit
entities, we can look at the details of the performance timing. If for example the
successive 2-unit beats are both shortened relative to the 3-unit beats, the difference
between them increases, while the difference between the 4-unit and the 3-unit
beats diminishes. Since we expect a tendency to equalise beats (Povel, 1981;
Fraisse, 1982), this could be an indication of the use of 4-unit beats. Following the
same principle, lengthening the 2-unit beats relative to the 3-unit beats, can point to
the use of 2-unit beats, rather than 4-unit beats.
The perceptual evidence for the 2- and 3-unit groups to serve as the main beat
is corroborated by two other elements. When the peasant musicians are asked about
how they interpret the metre, they ignore how many basic units are present in one
measure. They just count the strong beats, even if they are irregularly spaced. So,
for them, a quintuple metre (2+3) is binary, and a septuple metre (2+2+3) ternary
(Rice, 2000). The same attitude is found in the description of traditional folk dances,
where we find 2-unit groups as short (Q = Quick), and 3-unit groups as long (S =
Slow) beats, usually marking only one basic movement for each Q or S beat. The
most common of these Bulgarian folk dances (horo) are: rachenitsa (Q+Q+S),
kopanitsa/gankino (Q+Q+S+Q+Q), pajdushko (Q+S), dajchovo (Q+Q+Q+S) and
chetvorno (S+Q+Q).

THE PERFORMANCE OF AKSAK METRES

EXAMPLES
From four different CDs 1 with Bulgarian traditional music, 11 pieces with an
isochronous asymmetric metre were selected. Within these examples we tried to
give a representative distribution of the metres, including more than one example
of the most common metres. These are 2+3, with 19%, 2+2+3 with 18,5% and
2+2+2+3 with 11,6 % of the traditional melodies (Kremenliev, 1952). Additionally,
one example of each 3+2+2 (chetvorno) and 2+2+3+2+2 (kopanitsa) were included.

(1)
- Music of Bulgaria. Tokyo:World Music Library [KICC 5146].
- Folk Music of Bulgaria (1966/94). Collected and edited by A.L. Lloyd. London: Topic Records
[TSCD 905]
- Musique du Pays Chope. Anthologie de la musique Bulgare vol. 1. Collection Herman Vuylsteke.
Paris: Le Chant du Monde [LDX 274 970].
- Bulgaria/Bulgarie (1990). Series: Musiques & Musiciens du Monde. Ivry-sur-Seine: Auvidis-
Unesco [D8019].

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Figure 1.
Overview of some important thresholds in rhythm (tempo) perception, with an indication of the timing of the main components of aksak meters (cf.
Table 1). The model shows the lower and upper limits of rhythm (from fusion until the perception of isolated events) and the limits of tempo with the
addition of a “resonance curve” representing a preference for tempi around 120 bpm. The basic unit, two-, three- and four-unit beat and measure lengths
are represented by simplified boxplots with the box representing the area between the 25% and 75% percentiles and the whiskers the extremes. The figure
clearly shows that the tempi of the basic units largely fall below the tempo threshold, while the 3 and 4-unit beats are usually found in the preferred tempo
 Perception and performance of aksak metres
DIRK MOELANTS

An overview, classified according to the metre (the numbers at the right will be used
in further discussion):
5/8 (2+3):
Paidushko Horo (Metodi Yanchev, kaval) (1)
Devolko devolko mome (Stoina and Vangeliya Gruev, accompanied by tamburas) (2)
7/8 (3+2+2):
Chetvorno Horo (Metodi Yanchev, kaval) (3)
7/8 (2+2+3):
Tsone Milo Chedo (the Filip Kutev ensemble) (4)
Ratchenitsa from Cerovo (arr. Sofia) (5)
Ratchenitza from Sinagevtsi (NW Bulgaria) (Iordan Todorov, kaval) (6)
9/8 (2+2+2+3):
Daichovo Horo (Iordan Todorov, kaval) (7)
Folk Tune (Yanko Stoilov Bojilov, gadulka) (8)
Bagpipe solo (Stefan Zakhmarov from Sokolovtsi, Rodopi district) (9)
The little cherry-tree (Cerovo) (10)
11/8 (2+2+3+2+2):
No.1 from Two Dances from Cerovo (11)
The second part of our data set consists of four performances of pieces from
Béla Bartók’s “Mikrokosmos” (1926-1939), a series of six volumes with 153 pro-
gressive piano pieces. Five of the pieces written in isochronous asymmetric metres
were chosen for analysis: no. 113 “Bulgarian Rhythm” from book 4 and four of the
“Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm” from book 6. Contrary to the orally transmit-
ted traditional examples, these pieces have properties of music typical of the
Western classical tradition: they are precisely notated in the score with explicitly
notated metre, tempo and phrasing.
An overview, including metre and tempo as indicated in the score:
- MK113 “Bulgarian Rhythm 1”: 7/8 (2+2+3);
= 343 MM = 175 ms.
- MK149 “Six dances in Bulgarian Rhythm, no. 2”: 7/8 (2+2+3);
= 420 MM =
143 ms.
- MK150 “Six dances in Bulgarian Rhythm, no. 3”: 5/8 (2+3);
= 400 MM = 150 ms.
- MK152 “Six dances in Bulgarian Rhythm, no. 5”: 9/8 (2+2+2+3);
= 360 MM =
167 ms.
- MK153 “Six dances in Bulgarian Rhythm, no. 6”: 8/8 (3+3+2);
= 448 MM =
134 ms.
Four performances of these pieces were analysed and compared, each of
them taken from commercial CD recordings2. One is a recording played by the

(2)
- Bartók, Béla (1941/1991). Bartók, Contrasts, Mikrokosmos (excerpts). Sony Classicial [MPK
47676].
- Bruylants, Betty (1994). Béla Bartók, Mikrokosmos. Brussels: René Gailly [CD 87 089].
continue next page
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composer himself (BBa), two by other expert performers who recorded the integral
Mikrokosmos, Claude Helffer (CH) and Dezsö Ránki (DR), and one is an
adaptation for harpsichord, played by Betty Bruylants (BBr).
The temporal characteristics of the pieces were analysed using an onset detec-
tion system (Moelants and Rampazzo, 1997). From the output of the onset analy-
sis, those time points initiating a (short or long) metric unit were manually extract-
ed and adjusted if necessary. This gave us the duration of each beat, with measure-
ment errors below 10 ms. To enable comparison between beats of different size,
an additional calculation was made, transforming each beat duration to its “unit
duration” by dividing its total length by the number of elementary units it contains.

ASPECTS OF TEMPO
A first question considers the stability of the tempo: is the tempo stable or variable
and what factors influence this? A general approximation of the stability is given by
the standard deviation (SD) of all the units in a piece. Correlations between the unit
durations and their rank numbers can point to “linear” increases or decreases in
tempo and we can compare different structural sections to see if the musical con-
tent influences the tempo. In the Bulgarian folk music examples, the mean SD of
the basic unit durations was 7.93% (range: 5.39-13.03%) of the mean unit durations
or each piece. In the Bartók pieces the SDs were clearly higher, with an average of
13.46% (range: 6.26-18.49%). The correlation analysis shows a difference in the
direction of the tempo change between the two sets. 7 of the Bulgarian dances have
significant negative correlations between the duration of the units and their rank
number, 3 others have non-significant negative correlations and (10) is the only
example with a significant positive correlation (r = 0.254, p < 0.0001; cf. infra).
In the Bartók pieces, correlations are mainly positive. While for MK113, the cor-
relations lie close to zero for each of the performers, for the four Bulgarian dances,
9 out of the 16 performances have significant positive correlations, and all except
one of the non-significant correlations are also positive. Some examples can clarify
the nature of these “linear” fluctuations in tempo.
In the traditional examples the beginning is usually clearly slower than the
average tempo, followed by a gradual acceleration (Figure 2). There is generally no
final ritard, although in some cases the very last measure is taken somewhat slower.
Often this scheme is interrupted by the start of new phrases. Each phrase can
have a somewhat different base tempo and most of them also get slightly faster
(Figure 3). In the Bartók pieces we find ritards to conclude important sections or at
the end of the piece, which can partly explain the positive correlations. This is most
clearly the case in MK150, to a lesser extend also in MK153 and MK152, but in

- Helffer, Claude (1973/1991). Bartók, Microcosmos Intégrale. Harmonia Mundi France

[190968.69].
- Ránki, Dezsö (1977/1992). Béla Bartók, Mikrokosmos — For Children. Teldec [9031-76139-2].

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 Perception and performance of aksak metres
DIRK MOELANTS

Figure 2. Evolution of the measure length in (8).

Figure 3. Evolution of the measure length in (4).

MK149 and MK113, there is no trace of a final ritard. Another type of tempo
change we encounter in the Bartók pieces are abrupt changes related to changes
in the rhythmical surface structure. In MK153 for example (Figure 4, next page),
all performers suddenly slow down in measure 46. This is the point where the
continuous movement of 8th notes stops and only the main beats (3+3+2) are
articulated in loud (double forte) chords.
In general, the four performers agree quite well on the timing, as illustrated by
significant positive correlations between the measure durations of the different
performance of each piece. Agreement is best in MK150, with an average correlation

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 Figure 4. Evolution of the measure length in 4 performances of MK 153.

of .819 and worst in MK113 with an average correlation of .347. The three pianists
generally follow the indicated tempo really well, with averages deviating less than
10 ms at the 8th note level. An exception here is MK152 that is performed
considerably faster than indicated (8th note lengths between 128 and 131 ms, while
167 is prescribed), even by the composer. This is probably due to the addition of
the tempo indication “allegro molto”. The same indication appears at the beginning
of MK 113, but here only one of the pianists (DR) takes the tempo significantly
faster than indicated (139 ms for the 8th note), while the others stick closely to
the indicated 175 ms. In contrast, the harpsichordist (BBr) plays every piece
considerably slower than indicated (making 8th notes between 22 and 35 ms longer
on average). This could be explained by both technical (e.g. repetition technique)
and acoustical aspects of the instrument.
By dividing the pieces in structurally significant parts, we can see if performers
actually use significantly different tempi for the interpretation of different sections.
In the previous section we already showed that there clearly changes at structural
points in MK153. This piece can be divided in 5 main sections (excluding some
transgressions): ms. 1-16, 17-23, 25-45, 46-67 and 75-94. All four performances
of this piece make significant differences (all p < 0.001) between the tempi in the
different sections. The three pianists follow roughly the same profile, with the
second and third parts fast and the fourth part particularly slow (cf. Figure 4). Other
pieces have a different type of structure. In MK149 for example, three types of
material are used: a “rhythmic” motive (e.g. ms. 1-3), a “melodic” motive (e.g.
ms. 4-7) and a “scale” motive (e.g. ms. 17-20). In three of the four performances
significant differences in tempo between these three motivic types are made, most
prominently by performer BBa, whose mean unit times are 152, 142 and 159

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respectively (F(2,155) = 9.7, p < 0.001). These examples show that in the “classical”
pieces, tempo changes are linked to the rhythmic content. In our set of Bulgarian
folk music, rhythmic contrasts are less pronounced. In the vocal-instrumental and
ensemble pieces, structural sections can be defined by changes in instrumentation.
Minor tempo changes are possible between sections played by different soloists as
in (4) (F(4,81) = 16.6, p < 0.001) (cf. Figure 2). Most striking is the change between
instrumental and vocal-instrumental in the two songs (2) and (10) in the collection.
In both cases the instrumental parts are significantly faster with average measure
lengths of 647 ms versus 685 ms (F(1,132) = 74, p < 0.001) and 1162 ms versus
1380 ms (F(1,69) = 229, p < 0.001) respectively (Figure 5, next page).

METRIC CHARACTERISTICS
In addition to the symbolic indication of the metre, representing its main structure,
the metre of a particular piece includes microelements that are related to the basic
movement of the piece (Moelants, 1997). In a musical performance this is mainly
visible through the stress that is put on certain (important) beats, mainly through
dynamic and agogic accents, known as the “metric microstructure” (Clynes, 1987).
In dance music, where musical and physical movement have to be coordinated, we
see that in many cases particular dances are linked with particular types of metric
microstructure (Clynes and Walker, 1982; Alén, 1995). Since the music in the cur-
rent set is essentially dance music, or music based on dances, it is possible that sys-
tematic deviations from metronomic timing can be found that are related to this
kind of metric characteristics. Another factor that could influence the ratio between
the beats is the difficulty to perform a 2:3-ratio. It has been shown (Povel, 1981;
Fraisse, 1982) that people show a tendency to move towards a simple ratio. In this
particular case this would mean that the 2:3 ratio would either become more equal
(tendency to a 1:1 ratio) or more unequal (tendency to a 1:2 ratio), but that beats of
equal length will be performed in a similar way. However, in most cases the notes
the subbeat level are (partly) articulated, which could prevent this type of drift.
Within the folk examples, we can compare the examples with the same basic
metre: (4), (5) and (6) in 2+2+3 metre and (7), (8), (9) and (10) in 2+2+2+3 metre
(Table 2, p. 161; Figure 6, p. 162). In order to exclude the influence of tempo
changes (cf. supra), the beat lengths were expressed as % within the measure and
then normalised to the unit length for every beat (i.e. by two or three). This analysis
shows considerable differences in metric microstructure between the different
pieces. Beats that are lengthened in one piece are shortened in another and vice-
versa. Although the differences are not huge, ANOVA shows that they are all
significant at the p < 0.001 level. The only common feature is the lengthening of
the third beat in the 2223 metres. This means that every piece has its specific metric
character, and that we can not simply distinguish between short and long beats.
Rather, every beat has its own agogic value within the metre.

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 Figure 5.
Tempo difference between the instrumental and vocal-instrumental sections in (2) and (10).
The boxes represent the unit durations, given for each (2 or 3-unit) beat in the measure
separately.

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Figure 6.
Comparison between Bulgarian folk music pieces with similar meters: 9/8 (2+2+2+3) and
7/8 (2+2+3). The columns show the average deviation for each beat in the measure, different
colors representing different pieces.

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 Table 2
average share of measure % deviation from standard
2 2 3 2 2 3
(4) 29.3 28.4 42.3 2.56 -0.74 -1.29
(5) 27.4 28.8 43.8 -4.18 0.86 2.05
(6) 29.1 29.2 41.7 1.67 2.26 -2.75

average share of measure % deviation from standard

2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3
(7) 22.5 21.9 23.3 32.4 1.06 -1.44 4.64 -2.84
(8) 21.9 20.9 23.3 34.3 -1.56 -5.93 4.74 3.03
(9) 23.3 22.3 22.6 31.8 4.75 0.37 1.66 -4.52
(10) 21.7 21.8 23.2 33.4 -2.37 -1.75 4.20 0.26

An analysis of the microstructure in different sections shows that microstructur-

al changes can occur within the piece. A striking example is found in (1) (Figure 7a).
Halfway the piece, at the beginning of the second part, the relative lengthening of
the first beat, switches to a relative lengthening of the second; thus the ratio between
the short and the long beat changes from .70 to .60. This leads to a highly
significant two-way effect beat x part, on the unit duration (F (3, 108) = 31.3,
p < 0.001) and a very different metric feeling (Figure 7b). In the other examples
microstructural changes are usually limited to enhancing or diminishing the timing
differences between the beats. In (2) e.g. the lengthening of the first (short) beat is
more extreme in the vocal sections as it is in the purely instrumental ones (ratio .69
versus .74). In both (5) and (6) there seems to be an intensification of the music
towards the end, obtained by shortening the first beat. In (6) the two short beats are
equal until the last phrase, in (5) the first beat is relatively shorter throughout the
piece, but in the last quarter of the piece the difference becomes much more extreme
(expressed as % of the measure the first beat decreases from 27.5 to 26.1%).
A remaining question is that of the counting units, do the short (two-unit) beats
always serve as independent beats, or are they sometimes grouped together to form
a four-unit beat? As mentioned before, the two-unit beats are often very short,
really at the edge of the existence region of musical pulse, while four-unit beats are
generally very close to the optimal tempo. Especially in longer metres joining some
beats together simplifies the pattern, in (11) e.g. an asymmetric ternary metre 434
seems preferable over an irregular quintuple metre 22322. In this case also the
absolute timing is likely to facilitate a ternary interpretation, with average beat
lengths of 480-351-469 ms to one in which the short beats are shorter than 250 ms.
Also interesting in this respect is the lengthening of the third (short) beat in all of
the 2223 examples. It seems necessary to give this beat an agogic accent, to make
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Figure 7.
The change of metric microstructure within (1). At the top the evolution in length of the two
beats is represented, notice the change in measure 33. At the bottom the metric microstructure
of the two parts is compared, here the boxes represent the unit durations of the two beats
separately, as they occur in each part.

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it more salient. Probably this enables the possibility to create a 423-metre, again plac-
ing the shortest beat in the middle. This type of metre is often used by Bartók in his
transcriptions (Bartók, 1945) and in his own pieces (e.g. the first “Dance in Bulgarian
rhythm”, no. 148 of “Mikrokosmos”). Possibly the slower piece (9) with average beat
durations of 390-375-380-534, is an exception. The short beats can easily be count-
ed and the microstructural profile (see Figure 6) shows a tendency to uniformity,
lengthening all short beats and shortening the long one, which might indicate count-
ing in four. The use of three distinct beat durations in the 423-metre, is certainly not
surprising if we consider this as a characteristic type of ternary metre, with an elon-
gated first beat and a shortened second beat. The average beat duration of the three
examples is then 506-270-388 ms.
The analysis of four interpretations of the pieces from “Mikrokosmos” can
show if performers agree on the metric interpretation of the same material.
Sometimes there is general agreement between the performers. In MK153 for
example, everyone shortens the second beat by ca. 5-6%, while the two other beats
are lengthened in various degrees (Figure 8a). In other cases there is a common
tendency, but the degree of deformation varies widely. In MK113 for example, the
first beat is lengthened, the last shortened and the second more or less normal, but
BBa follows this scheme in a very extreme way, while the others give less pronounced
interpretations (Figure 8b). In other cases, finally, there is absolutely no agreement
between the performers. In MK150 for example, CH and DR follow the 2:3-ratio
closely, but BBa lengthens the first and shortens the second beat and BBr uses an
opposite pattern (Figure 8c). Hence, we can conclude that the musical material can
imply a certain metric interpretation, but that the performers can vary the degree of
metric deformation. In some cases they can even use completely different strategies.
As in the Bulgarian folk tunes, changes of metric structure can be found within
one piece. One example: between the five parts of MK153 (cf. supra), all of the
performers change metric articulation somewhere, despite a general agreement in
timing (see Figure 5). BBa (average share of the beats in the measure: 39.2-35.1-
25.7%) shortens the first beat in the second section (36.6-37.5-25.9%), and length-
ens it in the fifth (41.0-33.9-25.1%). BBr (average: 38.2-35.7-26.1%) follows a com-
pletely different metric interpretation in the fourth section (41.1-36.3-22.6%). CH
(average: 38.0-34.8-27.2%) shortens the last beat in respect to the first in the first sec-
tion (40.1-34.8-25.1%). DR (average: 39.4-35.5-25.1%), finally, plays “flat” in the sec-
ond section (37.5-37.5-25.0%) and shortens the last beat in the third section (38.7-
37.4-23.9%). This shows that despite the general agreement between the different
performers, each of them has different ideas about some part of the piece, leading
to other metric interpretations.
In the interpretation of Bartók’s pieces in aksak metres we find several instances
where the metric interpretation shows an extreme departure from the notation,
destroying the typical 2:3-ratio between short and long beats. In MK113, BBa length-
ens the first (short) beat and shortens the last (long) beat that much that the
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Figure 8.
Comparison between the different performances of MK 153, MK 113 and MK150.
The columns represent the average deviation for each beat in the measure, different colors
representing different performances.

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2:2:3-ratio is changed to a 2.3:2:2.7-ratio, or almost 7:6:8. In MK150, the same
performer changes the 2:3-ratio to 3:4 making them more equal, while BBr makes
it almost a 4:7-ratio, showing a tendency to a 1:2-ratio. In MK153 finally, it is CH
who lengthens the last (long) beat that much that its ratio to the short beats is also
changed to 4:7, instead of 2:3. We should also note here that MK153 is apparently
a “real” 2+2+2+3, and not a 4+2+3 like most of the traditional examples. This is
shown in the time signature as well as in the interpretations, where no lengthening
of the third beat is found.

CONCLUSIONS

The comparison between perceptual thresholds and the time characteristics of

different sets of aksak metres revealed their special position within asymmetric
metre. Since the basic, regular pulse is too fast to serve as the beat, the beating unit
moves to groups of two, three and even four of these units, creating an irregular
beat. Still, maintaining the articulation of the basic level helps the performers to
maintain the “unnatural” 2:3-ratio. Interestingly, we see that some of the largest
departures from the 2:3-ratio occur in those passages in the Bartók pieces where the
eight notes are not articulated (e.g. parts of MK150 and the fourth phrase of
MK153). This can be an indication that, when the short units are omitted, the per-
former has a tendency to move to a more natural 1:2 or 1:1-ratio. Further research
should show if this is also the case when Bulgarian traditional musicians per-
form this kind of structures, or if it is purely due to the western performers’
relative lack of familiarity with aksak metres. In other words, is it possible to learn
the asymmetry in such a degree that it becomes natural or does one always need
the help of the subdivision to maintain the ratio?
Comparison of the two sets shows that the traditional examples are performed
with a more regular tempo than the Bartók pieces. In the traditional pieces, the
tempo varies slightly; generally speeding up throughout the piece or within every
phrase, but the variance is low. Exceptionally, sudden changes in tempo occur
related to changes in instrumentation. In the piano pieces on the other hand we see
a different type of tempo evolution, with sudden changes and phrase endings with
a ritard. A similar distinction is found in the metric microstructure. In a few
instances sudden shifts in the microstructure of the traditional pieces are found, but
apart from these, the ratios between the beats are quite stable. In the Bartók pieces,
the variance within the measure is larger, both through frequent changes of
microstructure, related to motive or phrase, and through isolated deviations like the
lengthening of some important beats. These differences confirm that we are deal-
ing with two sociologically different types of music. On the one hand dance music,
where the performers have to keep a stable and correct metre to facilitate the
performance of traditional dances, but where a slight acceleration could be used to
excite the dancers. At the other hand typical European concert music, in which
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DIRK MOELANTS

the performers are expected to communicate their personal interpretation and the
musical structure to a seated audience. This allows a less strict interpretation of the
metre and more variance in the tempo.
The data on the metric microstructure of the individual pieces show that each
piece has its own specific metric character. The deviations from a mechanical
performance can not simply be explained by rules like the lengthening of the first
beat of the measure or a drift toward simple 1:1 or 1:2-ratios. On the contrary,
dances with the same metre, a similar tempo and originating from the same region,
can follow a completely different timing scheme. Even within the same piece a
performer can thoroughly change the microstructure and different performers can
interpret the metre of the same piece in a different way.
We can compare the ratios found between the beats in the asymmetric metres
studied here and those found in similar research on dance music from Western
Europe: the Norwegian springar (Hopkins, 1982) and the Viennese waltz (Bengtsson
and Gabrielsson, 1983). Both are triple metres and can thus easily be compared to
a majority of the pieces in our data set (MK113, MK 149, MK 153 and all Bulgarian
pieces except (1), (2) and (9)). The springar has been classified among the asym-
metric metres with an irregular beat (cf. supra), while the waltz is generally
regarded as a “symmetric” triple metre with an elongated second beat.
Bengtsson and Gabrielsson showed that expert listeners prefer the beats of a
waltz metre to occupy 27, 40 and 33% of the measure, while similar structures were
found in performances. Similarly, the 18:15:10-ratio of a typical springar corre-
sponds to a 42-35-23% division of the measure. This gives an average differ-
ence in length of 8.7% between the beats of the waltz, and of 12.4% between these
of the springar. The pieces currently investigated are very comparable with these
data. With the exception of the 4+2+3 metres, in which the beats have an aver-
age difference of ca. 13-14%, all the pieces show less difference than the springar.
In seven of them the difference between the beats is even smaller than in the waltz,
most notably in Bartóks interpretation of MK 113 (32.5-28.6-38.9%, average dif-
ference 6,8%) and in (11), where the 4+3+4 metre divides the measure as 36.9-
27.0-36.1%, with an average difference of 6.6%. Thus, asymmetric ternary metres
can have a more regular beat structure than a symmetric ternary dance as the waltz.
Quantitively, the similarity between “regular” metres in which some beats are
elongated and aksak metres, is higher than one might expect. Hence, we could
interpreted aksak metres as expressive transformations of regular metres (Rice,
2000; Cler, 1994). The function of the “subbeats” could be the prevention of a
drift towards more regular proportions. A question yet to be solved is if there is a
direct link between “regular” and aksak metres, if there is some kind of evolution
from one to the other. Bartók (1945) found an example of a piece that existed
both in a regular 2/4 version and in (what he calls) a “Bulgarised” version in
4+3+3/16. Yet, it is unclear weather the aksak version is an “expressive transfor-
mation” of the regular version, or if the 2/4 version is a “regularised” version of

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the aksak metre. Further research could reveal if more melodies with both regular
and aksak versions exist, and what is the exact relation between them. If we assume
that aksak metres indeed originated as expressive transformations of regular
metres, possibly in function of certain dance movements, an example of how such
a transformation might happen is given in Figure 9.3
Figure 9.

Illustration of the possibility of a transformation between a regular ternary meter and an

asymmetric 7/8: a beat is elongated (as found in “regular” dance movements like the waltz),
then an ornament is added on the elongated beat, when this ornament becomes a regular
element, we get to the typical asymmetric structure of an aksak meter.

(3) Address for correspondence:

Dirk Moelants
IPEM - Department of Musicology
Ghent University
Blandijnberg 2, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
e-mail: Dirk.Moelants@UGent.be

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• Percepción e interpretación de los ritmos aksak

En este trabajo se estudian diferentes aspectos de los rápidos ritmos irregulares de

los Balkanes (aksak). Comparando sus características temporales con los umbrales
de percepción rítmica, se muestra que la únidad básica regular es demasiado rápida
para servir de pulso. Así, el pulso se desplaza a las unidades (desiguales) de dos,
tres o cuatro golpes. Esto otorga a los ritmos aksak una especial posición dentro de
la tipología general de ritmos asimétricos. Se analizan dos conjuntos de datos para
dar más detalles del tempo real de una interpretación: un conjunto de melodías
tradicionales búlgaras e interpretaciones de cuatro pianistas diferentes de obras
para piano de Bartók. A pesar de la similaridad global de tempo y ritmo, se
encontraron diferencias en el tratamiento del tempo entre ambos conjuntos,
que pueden explicarse por los diferentes contextos interpretativos. En ambos
conjuntos, se encontraron modelos específicos de micro-estructura métrica que
pueden darnos más información sobre la interpretación métrica real y se mostraron
claros efectos de la estructura musical en ambas micro-estructuras, la de tempo y
la métrica. En resumen, parece que los ritmos aksak están más cerca de los ritmos
regulares de lo que comúnmente se había pensado.

• Percezione ed esecuzione di metri aksak

Nel presente articolo si studiano differenti aspetti dei metri veloci irregolari (aksak)
della musica balcanica. Confrontando le loro caratteristiche temporali con le soglie
della percezione ritmica, emerge che l’unità regolare di base è troppo veloce per
servire da pulsazione. La pulsazione si sposta dunque verso unità (ineguali) di 2, 3
o 4 battiti. Ciò conferisce ai metri aksak una posizione speciale entro una tipologia
generale del metro asimmetrico. Si analizzeranno due serie di dati allo scopo di
dare maggiori dettagli sull’effettivo tempo d’esecuzione: una serie di motivi
tradizionali bulgari e le esecuzioni di alcuni brani pianistici di Bartók da parte di
quattro diversi interpreti. Nonostante la similarità di tempo e metro complessivi,
nelle due serie si sono rilevate differenze nel trattamento del tempo musicale, il che
si può spiegare con la diversità dei contesti esecutivi. In entrambi i gruppi si sono
individuati modelli specifici di microstruttura metrica, in grado di offrirci maggiori
informazioni sull’effettiva interpretazione metrica e sugli effetti evidenti della
struttura musicale sia sul tempo che sulla microstruttura metrica. Nel complesso,
i metri aksak appaiono più prossimi ai metri regolari di quanto non si pensi
comunemente.

• Perception et exécution des mètres aksak

On étudie ici certains aspects des mètres rapides irréguliers que l’on trouve
dans les Balkans (aksak). Il ressort de la comparaison de leurs caractéristiques
temporelles avec les seuils de la perception rythmique que l’unité régulière de base
est trop rapide pour jouer le rôle de la pulsation. Aussi celle-ci se fonde-t-elle sur

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les unités (inégales) de 2, 3 ou 4 temps. Ceci confère aux mètres aksak une
position particulière au sein de la typologie générale du mètre asymétrique. Deux
corpus de données détaillent la structure temporelle de son exécution : des chants
traditionnels bulgares et l’exécution de pièces pour piano de Bartók par quatre
interprètes différents. En dépit de la similitude de l’ensemble du tempo et du
mètre, des différences de traitement du tempo — que l’on peut expliquer par des
contextes d’exécution distincts — apparaissent entre les deux corpus. Les modèles
particuliers de microstructure métrique que l’on trouve dans les deux corpus sont
susceptibles de nous éclairer sur l’interprétation métrique exacte et sur la manière
dont la structure musicale influence le tempo et la microstructure métrique. D’une
manière générale, les mètres aksak s’avèrent plus proches des mètres réguliers que
ce qui est généralement admis.

• Wahrnehmung und Performanz von Aksak-Metren

In diesem Artikel werden verschiedene Aspekte der schnellen ungeraden Metren,

die im Balkan zu finden sind (Aksak), analysiert. Der Vergleich ihrer zeitlichen
Eigenheiten mit Schwellenwerten der Rhythmuswahrnehmung zeigt, dass die
zugrunde liegende regelmäßige Einheit zu schnell ist, um als Puls zu dienen.
Dadurch verschiebt sich der Puls zu den (ungleichmäßigen) Einheiten von 2, 3 oder
4 Schlägen. Aksak-Metren erreichen daher eine besondere Stellung innerhalb einer
generellen Typologie asymmetrischer Metren. Zwei Datensätze wurden analysiert
um die wirkliche zeitliche Gestaltung während der Performanz detaillierter
darzustellen : ein Datensatz aus traditionellen bulgarischen Melodien sowie
Darbietungen von Bartók-Klavierstücken durch vier verschiedene Spieler. Trotz
Gemeinsamkeiten im globalen Tempo und Metrum fanden sich Unterschiede
zwischen den beiden Datensätzen hinsichtlich der Tempogestaltung, die durch den
unterschiedlichen Kontext der Darbietungen erklärt werden können. In beiden
Datensätzen waren spezifische Muster in der metrischen Mikrostruktur erkennbar,
die mehr Informationen über die wirkliche metrische Interpretation zulassen,
außerdem zeigten sich klare Einflüsse der musikalischen Struktur auf das Tempo
und die metrische Mikrostruktur. Insgesamt scheint es, dass die Aksak-Metren
den regulären Metren näher kommen als gemeinhin angenommen wurde.

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