G108: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Submitted to
Dr. Saika Ahmed
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry, University of Dhaka

Submitted by
Naziba Ali
Roll 93
Section A, BBA 27

Date of Submission: 10th June, 2020

 Answer to the question no. 1

In 1911, Rutherford did an experiment by passing α-particles (He2+) through a thin (0.0004 cm)
gold foil. He placed a screen covered with ZnS behind
the gold foil which produced bright flashes of light
when α-particles fell on the screen. He observed that
most of the α-particles pass in straight lines through the
gold foil. A few α-particles deviate from their straight
path at small angles and only a very few particles (1 in
Figure 1: Rutherford's Alpha scattering experiment
8000) return back on their original path. From this he
concluded that-
 Since a few α-particles deflected through some angles and a very few of them scattered
back to their original path, there should be a positively charged particle in the center.
Rutherford named this positively charged center as nucleus. Almost whole of the mass
and positive charge is located here.
 Major part of an atom is empty. Electrons are present but due to its negligible mass
compared to α-particles, they cannot deflect α-particles.
However, if Rutherford had found that 7999 out of 8000 alpha particles were deflected back at
the alpha-particle source, the model would be like-
 The mass of the atom is distributed throughout its entire volume. That is, the postulate:
‘most of the space in an atom’ is empty is rejected.
 The whole atom is composed of positive charges that repel the positively charged α-
particles and deflect them.
 The size of the nucleus is almost as big as the atom itself.
 The presence of negatively charged electrons cannot be identified specifically.
 The atom would not be an electrically neutral sphere anymore.
Answer to the question no. 2
A nuclide is an atom that is described by an atomic number and mass number. Atomic number
refers to the number of protons and mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom.
Atomic number is denoted by Z (at the bottom) whereas mass number is denoted by A (at the
top).
a. Nuclide containing 44 protons and 57 neutrons has an atomic number 44 and the mass
number A= 44+57= 101. So this element is a rare transition metal- Ruthenium and the symbol
is 101
44𝑅𝑢 .

1
b. Nuclide containing 8 protons and 9 neutrons has an atomic number 8 and the mass number
is 17 (proton number+ neutron number). This implies that it is an isotope of Oxygen since it
has 9 neutrons instead of 8. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. The symbol is 178𝑂.

Answer to the question no. 3

Average atomic mass is the weighted average mass of all isotopes of an element. It is derived
from the totality of the masses of an element’s isotopes, each multiplied by its natural
abundance. That is,
Average atomic mass= (m1*p1) + (m2*p2) + (m3*p3) +….. [As per the no. of isotopes]
Given that,
Mass of Chlorine-35, m1=34.97 amu; percent abundances on earth, p1=75.77%
Mass of Chlorine-37, m2=36.97 amu; percent abundance on earth, p2 = 24.23%
Average atomic mass= (34.97*0.7577) + (36.97* 0.2423) = 35.45 a.m.u
Therefore, the average atomic mass of Chlorine is 35.45 a.m.u

Answer to the question no. 4

Ionic compounds are formed by the transfer of electrons between a metal and a non-metal. A
metal donates electron(s) to become a positively-charged cation whereas non-metals accept
electron(s) and become negatively charged anions. For example- Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
Conversely, a molecular compound is usually composed of two or more nonmetals that share
electrons with each other. For example- CO2, H2O, CH4 etc.
The molecules LiF, CH4, Cl2, BaCl2, Al(NO3)3, CO2, H2O and Na2O are classified into ionic
and molecular compounds as follows-
a. Ionic compounds: LiF, BaCl2, Al(NO3)3 & Na2O are ionic compounds. These
compounds have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces
between the anions and cations.
 In case of LiF, Lithium donates the electron from its valence shell to become a cation
(Li+) and Fluorine accepts that electron, fulfils its valence shell and turns into an anion
(F-). Thus, LiF is formed.
Li-e- ⟶Li+; F+e- ⟶ F-
 For BaCl2, a Barium atom will give up 2 electrons to form Ba2+ and a Chlorine molecule
will receive 2 electrons to form a pair of Cl- as follows-
Ba⟶Ba2++2e−; Cl2 +2e−⟶2Cl-

2
  We know that Aluminium is a metal and Nitrate is an oxidized version of Nitrogen
which is a non-metal. So, in case of Al(NO3)3, the Aluminum cation donates its 3
valence electrons and polyatomic Nitrate ion requires only 1 electron. Hence 3 Nitrate
ions react with each Aluminum ion and this results in Aluminium nitrate.
Al3+ + 3NO3- ⟶ Al(NO3)3
 During the bond formation between sodium and oxygen, two Sodium atoms lose one
electron each (cations) to an Oxygen atom (anion) as follows-
2Na−2e →2Na+
O2+2e− →O2-
2Na +O2-→Na2O
b. Molecular compounds: A molecular compound is usually formed between two or
more nonmetals. Cl2, CO2, H2O and CH4 are molecular compounds. They can exist in
solid, liquid or gaseous state and their electrical conductivity is low.
 Each Chlorine atom (non-metal) has 7 valence electrons in their last shell and requires
one more electron to achieve Ar(18) electronic configuration. By sharing the 2 electrons
in their outermost shells, each Chlorine now has 8 electrons. Thus each atom shares its
1 electron with the other Chlorine atom and thus forms the Cl2 molecule.
 Two hydrogen atoms each share their 1 electron with Oxygen to form two covalent
bonds and make a H2O molecule. In this case both Hydrogen and Oxygen are non-
metals and hence do not form ions.
 We know that the valency of Carbon is 4 and that of Hydrogen is 1. As a result, in case
of CH4 formation, an atom of Carbon shares its 4 valence electrons with four atoms of
Hydrogen to form four covalent bonds.
 Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell and Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell.
Two Oxygen atoms and 1 Carbon atom will each share two electrons to form four
covalent bonds and make a CO2 molecule.
Answer to the question no. 5

A bottle containing a compound with the formula Na2Q consists of a positively charged anion
Na and a negatively charged ion Q. The total positive charge in the compound due to the Na+
is +2 (1 x 2+), so the total negative charge should be -2 as well. Hence, each Q ion must have
a charge of 2-. Considering this, Q is supposed to be an element from Group VIA on the
periodic table. Group VIA elements are mostly non-metals which accept electrons and become
anions while forming ionic compounds. Elements of this group have 6 electrons in their

3
outermost shell and they require 2 more electrons to achieve stable electronic configuration.
Hence their oxidation number is -2. For example- Oxygen, Sulphur etc.
8O→1s
2
2s2 2p4
16S→1s
2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Thus, Na2Q compound could represent Na2S (Sodium Sulphide), Na2O (Sodium Oxide) etc.

Answer to the question no. 6

The equations are balanced as follows:

A. C4H10 + 13/2O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O

B. Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

C. Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 → 3Ca(H2PO4)2

Answer to the question no. 7

Electron, proton and neutron numbers of the following elements are-

 127
I has 53 electrons, 53 protons and (127-53) =74 neutrons. Since Iodine is in its neutral
state, so proton number is equal to its electron number.
137 2+
 .𝐵𝑎 has 56 protons and 54 electrons (since it has a charge of +2). Its neutron number
is (137-56) = 81.
 Xe-131 is a noble gas with 54 electrons and 54 protons. Its neutron number is 77 (131-
54).

Elements Electron Proton Neutron

127
I 53 53 74
𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝟐+
.𝑩𝒂 54 56 81
Xe-131 54 54 77

Answer to the question no. 8

a. Atomic number refers to the number of protons and mass number is the summation of
protons and neutrons of an atom. Since Atom A has 3 protons, its atomic number is 3. Mass
number is (4+3) = 7.
b. Since atomic number of Atom A is 3 and mass number is 7, so the atom is Lithium ( 73𝐿𝑖 ).
c. Since proton and electron number of atom A is the same, so it is neutral in charge.

4
d. The nuclide symbol of Atom A is 𝟕𝟑𝑳𝒊.
e. Atom B consists of 3 protons and 3 neutrons. So its atomic number is 3 and mass number is
6 (3+3). So the atomic symbol is Li.
f. Mass number of atom B is 6 whereas mass number of atom A is 7. Though atom A and B
have the same proton number but they have different neutron number. That is, atom A & B are
isotopes of one another.
g. Atom B has equal number of electrons and protons which is 3. So it has no charge.
h. Nuclide symbol of atom B is 𝟔𝟑𝑳𝒊.
i. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. For
example Lithium-7(atom A) has 4 neutrons whereas Lithium-6(atom B) has 3 neutrons. Actual
atomic mass of an isotope is greater than its mass number. Hence, they are not equal.

Answer to the question no. 9

a. As we know, the total positive charge and the total negative charge in the compounds must
neutralize each other. So in this case, the cations X+, X2+and X4+ combined with the 𝐶𝑂32− anion
will form the compounds X2CO3, XCO3, and X(CO3)2 respectively.
2X++ 𝐶𝑂32− → X2CO3 (for example- H2CO3)
X2++𝐶𝑂32− → XCO3 (for example- CaCO3)
X4++2𝐶𝑂32− → X(CO3)2
b. It is seen that the positively charged cation X has multiple oxidation states e.g. +1, +2 and
+4. And carbonate ion has a charge of -2. So the name of the compound must be in reference
to the charge of the cation. If the name of element X is ‘exam,’ then the names of the
compounds in part (a) would be X2CO3: di-exam carbonate, XCO3: exam carbonate and
X(CO3)2 - exam di-carbonate.

Answer to the question no. 10

As we know, the periodic table is a cluster of elements that are arranged according to the
increasing atomic number i.e. number of protons. Initially, scientist Mendeleev used atomic
weights in clustering the elements but found some discrepancy and switched to atomic number.
However, there are still some inconsistencies in the periodic table. For example- the placement
of Hydrogen in group 1 (alkali metals) is not justified. Because it also demonstrates the
properties of group-17. Besides, periodic table doesn’t accommodate isotopes. Also, f-block
elements- lanthanides and actinides have been out casted from the main body of periodic table.
Consequently, changes need to be made in the periodic table for better representation and

5
understanding of elements. In the periodic table, elements can be grouped according to their
physical properties. Such as-
 Physical state of the element: Elements can be arranged as per their physical structure-
solid, liquid or gas.
 Melting point & boiling point: Sodium (11Na) has a melting point of 371 K and
Magnesium (12Mg) has a melting point of 922 K. In this way, elements can be placed
in a group as per increasing order of melting and boiling point.
 Density: At 20̊ C, Lithium (3Li) has a density of 0.534 g/mol whereas that of Sodium
(11Na) is 0.972 g/mol. That is, as we go down a group, proton number increases
resulting in an increase in density.
Chemical properties that could be considered to re-arrange the periodic table are reactivity,
reaction with water, reaction with Oxygen, heat of combustion etc.
Besides, elements can be divided based on the number of valence electrons. Elements with
multiple isotopes can be categorized especially. Some chemists have presented the idea of 32
columns instead of 18 columns to allow continuous sequence of atomic numbers.
Answer to the question no. 11

i) 2Li + Br2 → 2LiBr

ii) 2Na + S → Na2S

iii) 3Ba + N2 → Ba3N2

iv) 4Al + 3O2→ 2Al2O3

Answer to the question no. 12

a. The given reaction is: 2CH3CHO(l) + O2(g) → 2CH3COOH(l)

In a laboratory test, 20 g CH3CHO and 10 g O2 were put in a reaction vessel.

Given mass
We know, number of moles, n = Molecular mass

Mole number of CH3CHO= (20/44) = 0.45 mol

Mole number of O2 = (10/32) = 0.3125 mol

In the standard reaction, 1 mole O2 reacts with 2 moles of CH3CHO, so required number of
CH3CHO moles to react with 0.3125 moles of O2 is (0.3125*2)= 0.625 mol

6
Since 0.45 mol of CH3CHO is less than the required amount of 0.625 mol, hence CH3CHO is
the limiting reactant.

b. Molecular mass of 2 mol CH3COOH= (2X60) = 120 g/mol

Since CH3CHO is the limiting reactant, so we take this into account while calculating the
amount of acetic acid that can be produced.

88 g CH3CHO can produce 120 g CH3COOH. So, 20 g CH3CHO can produce= (120X20)/88
g= 27.27 g= 0.4545 mol

Thus, 27.27 g acetic acid can be produced.

c. In the reaction, 2 moles of CH3CHO react with 1 mole of O2 to produce 2 moles of
CH3COOH. But if 20g CH3CHO/ 0.4545 mole CH3CHO is being used, then mole number of
required O2= (0.4545/2) = 0.227 mol. So, Oxygen is the excess reactant.
Therefore, mole number of excess Oxygen= (0.3125-0.227) mol=0.085 mol
Amount of excess O2= (0.085x32) g= 2.72 g
d. Given that, the percentage yield of this reaction is 85.6%. From (b), it is seen that 27.27 g
CH3COOH was supposed to be produced which is the theoretical yield. We know, Percentage
yield= (Actual yield/theoretical yield) X100%
Hence, actual yield in this reaction is = (0.856X27.27) g = 23.34 g CH3COOH

Answer to the question no. 13

A. The chemical reaction is: AlCl3 →Al3+ + 3Cl-

It is seen that 3 Chloride ions react with 1 Aluminium ion. So, 15 Chloride ions react with
(15/3) = 5 Aluminium ions. So, 5 Al3+ are present in the sample.

B. Mass of AlCl3 in sample = (5*27) + (15*35.45)

= 666.75 a.m.u

= 666.75x1.661x10-24 g [1 a.m.u = 1.66X10-24 g]

= 1.11x10-21 g (approx.)

C. We know, molecular mass of AlCl3= 27 + (3*35.45) = 133.35

Weight
Number of moles of AlCl3 in this sample = Molecular mass

= 1.11x10-21 g/ 133.35 g mol-1

=8.3x10-24 mol

7
 Answer to the question no. 14
a. In order to have a thorough reaction, a ratio of 2 moles of hydrogen and 1 mole of oxygen
are essential. But in this instance, enough oxygen is not supplied. Since Hydrogen is a
flammable substance, it burns itself making the ‘fffffft’ sound.

b. The formation reaction of water is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)

That is, in the balanced equation, the ratio of H2 to O2 is 2:1. But if equal amount of Hydrogen
and Oxygen are used, for example 1 mol each, we will see that-

2 moles of H2 react with 1 mole of Oxygen. Therefore, 1 mol of H 2 reacts with ½ mole of
Oxygen. Remaining amount of O2= (1-0.5) mole=0.5 mol

That is, 1 mole of Hydrogen will be fully used up and hence, it will be the limiting reactant.
0.5 mole of unreacted O2 will remain in the reaction vessel. Thus, a sizable bang will be
produced due to the disproportionate amount of Hydrogen.

c. In this case, 2 moles of H2 reacts with 1 mole of O2 which is the desired stoichiometric
amount, so all of the Hydrogen and all of the Oxygen react fully producing the loudest bang.

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)

d. In order for the reaction to occur, both Oxygen and Hydrogen must be present. Since no
hydrogen is present to burn and Oxygen is not flammable, hence no reaction occurs.
Consequently, no sound is produced.

Answer to the question no. 15

Aufbau principle states that electrons fill atomic orbitals in the increasing order of orbital
energy level. This is because lower energy levels are more stable than higher energy levels.
That is, orbitals are filled in the order of increasing value of n+l. For 3s orbital, the value of
n+l= (3+0) = 3 and in case of 4s orbital, n+l=4. Again, if two orbitals have identical value for
n+l, then the orbital with lower value of n will be filled first.

Considering all these, the Electronic configuration of the mentioned elements are as follows:

21Sc→1s
2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

18Ar→1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 6

29Cu→1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
2 2 6 2 6 10
4s1

29Cu
2+
→1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9

8
30Zn →1s
2+ 2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10

8O →1s
2- 2
2s2 2p6

24Cr→1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
2 2 6 2 6 5
4s1