School of Civil, Environmental, and Geotechnical Engineering

Methods of Research
Chapter 7

UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

Learning Objectives

1. Understand and discuss research methodology.

2. Differentiate various research methodology.
3. Correlate the fundamental philosophies and research methodology.
4. Determine the appropriate methodology for their own research.
5. Design the methodological framework of their own research.

Overview
1. Introduction
2. Research Methodology
3. Description of Research Methodologies
4. Methodological Framework
5. Structure of the Methodological Framework

1. Introduction

Generally, the research methodology is explained in this chapter. Remembering the Research
Process that we have learned on the earlier chapters, the next step after the comprehensive literature
review is the selection of methodology followed by devising the data collection methods. At this
point, we should have already finalized the conceptual framework of our study.

It is very important that the focus of the research study is now decided prior to the selection of
the research methodology to be used. The research methodology shall be appropriate and must fit
the research study. However, it will be hard to outline the methodology if the research project is
not yet settled. Referring to Figure 7.1 Research Process, the refining of idea shall only revolve on
the conceptual framework and theoretical framework.

Figure 7.1 Research Process

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For this reason, it is advisable that the research idea is refined and the statement of the problem
is final before deciding the research methodology to be used for us to avoid reworks and wasting
valuable time. If ever the statement of the problem is not yet established, for any instance or any
reason, the researcher shall take time to read more literatures and studies and seek advice from his
superior or adviser to finalize the research idea.

As shown on Figure 7.2, the methodological framework covers the selection of methodology
and devising data collection methods. We shall bear in our mind that the research methodology
must be able to support the research. The data that will be gathered will be the product and the
voice of the research study. It shall speak the outcome and purpose of the research. That is why it
is significant that the research methodology fits the research study. The designing of the data
collection methods is highly dependent on the outline of the research methodology. The researcher
shall consider the nature of the study and the methods shall be aligned with this.

Figure 7.2 Methodological Framework

With engagement of various studies and literatures, the researcher has been exposed to
numerous research methodology and data gathering methods. The research is expected to have at
least an idea on how the research project will progress; this includes the potential methodology to
be used in the study. To further guide the researcher for the selection of research methodology,
this chapter will focus on explaining various research methodology and design.

2. Research Methodology

Research methodology is the application of particular methods used to define, select, process
and interpret the data used to understand the issue, enabling the reader to assess the relevance and
effectiveness of a study. It answers the question of how the data was obtained and analyzed. The
readers need to know the reliability of the methodologies used. The methodology should be

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elaborate and should discuss the complete objectives of the research project. Research
Methodology in research is located after the literature review and before data collection methods.
Literature reviews have a big role in determining the research methodologies of one’s research
project. All the research elements must conform with each other. In the discussion of the
methodological pyramid, the basic ideologies, methods of studies and techniques of data gathering
of the research project must harmonize with each other.
It is important to distinguish the dissimilarity among research methods and research
methodology. For beginner researchers, research methods are perceived as techniques that are
performed by the researchers of carrying out a research study. These methods deal with the process
of gathering the data. The collected data, along with the accessible data and will be the required
information in solving the problem of the study. The methods of research can also be connoted as
the research analytical means. These involves the methods developed to relate the data and the
unsolved problems of research. These methods assess the correctness of the obtained results.
Research methods is different in some way from research techniques. In the article of Arvin
Singh on “Research Methodology: An Introduction”, the distinctions between research methods
and research techniques were introduced. According to Singh, research methods are vaguer. For
example, in field research, the method of participant observation involves research techniques like
“interactional recording”, “possible use of tape recorders” and “photographic techniques”. It is
important to know the difference between the two terminologies, however, in research practice,
most of the time they are interchanged. When talking about research methodology, both the
research methods and the logic behind the methods used in the study are considered. Describe the
reason of using these methods and not the methods used in other studies.
The methodological pyramid is depicted on Figure 7.3. The base of the methodology is the
fundamental philosophy of the research study wherein it will serve as the basis of selecting
appropriate research methodology. The data collection methods, research methodologies and
fundamental philosophies should fit together to support the research project. The purpose of these
methodologies is to help the researcher in creating a deeper understanding on the approach he/she
will undertake in his/her research project. This will guide the researcher in deciding what are the
most appropriate research methodologies applicable in their research study.
The research methodology to be used, we will reiterate, shall fit the research study. One might
wonder how a research methodology will fit the research study. For a methodology to fit the
research study, the following shall be considered:
• Focus of the research;
• Statement of the problem;
• Type of data required; and
• Location of that data

If you have not noticed yet, looking back to the related studies and researches you have read
during the review of related literature, the quality of the study is also dependent on the research
methodology. The choice of research methodology and the approach of how the data were gathered
defined the validity of the research.

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Figure 7.3 Methodological Pyramid

For the selection of the research methodology, it must also fit the fundamental philosophies of
the research project. You will observed on different research studies and proposals that the research
methodology was able to support the research project. The key concepts of the research will be
entangled by the research methodology thereby representing the outcome of the research project
by using appropriate data gathering methods.

There are many different research methodologies. Some of these are briefly explained below.
The summary is not complete since there are many more research methodologies available within
the field. The list provides the research methodologies which were more frequently used. In order
to develop more understanding, it is worthwhile to be familiar on these methodologies for the
researcher to have better idea on how a research project can and will progress. Likewise, it will
help the researcher in deciding the appropriate methodology of their own research project.

Table 7.1 Research Methods

Survey Life history
Case study Phenomenology
Experimental design Narrative analysis
Ethnography Semiotics
Action research Attitude research
Grounded theory Image-based research
Content analysis Archival analysis
Discourse analysis Textual analysis
Documentary analysis Meta-analysis
Historical analysis Feminist research

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3. Description of Research Methodologies

This part of the chapter will help you to define different research methodologies and their
applications in conducting a research project. The list of research methodologies is provided in
Table 7.1.
Survey research is a method of gathering information in the form of questionnaires either oral,
written, through phone or online. It is a type of research methodology which the data are obtained
by direct personal observation from the source. The data can be acquired immediately after
conducting the survey. The information gathered in survey research are in the form of beliefs,
opinions and emotions of a particular group of people or population sample. Interviews and
questionnaires, the most popular types of surveys, are consisting of multiple-choice questionnaires,
opinions and polls. Questionnaires are spread via mail polls, questionnaires conducted by a group
of people. Interviews can be conducted in person or by telephone and are often a more private
study type than survey questions.
Case study is a research methodology defined as a comprehensive analysis of a confined body.
It is an intensive investigation of a person, group of people, a community or a unit which the
researcher intends to deduce over several variables. The case study method enables the researcher
to simplify a complex topic or problem into a more feasible research project. The first procedure
in carrying out a case study is by describing a group of homogenous cases in relation to the present
study. A good practice of literature review is required to acquire a basic comprehension of the
cases, followed by emergence of research questions. Data in case studies can be qualitative or
quantitative in nature, or it can be a combination of both. In carrying out multiple case studies, the
researcher performs concentrated analysis of the cases through comparisons of existing theories to
the present study. However, due to multiple case studies are to be considered, an enormous amount
of unorganized data must be handled properly.
Experimental design is a research methodology utilized when carrying out an experiment. It is
not applicable in conducting social research because it is best administered in a laboratory setting.
In experimental design, there are two groups to be tested, the experimental and control. The first
step is to test both groups and determine the dependent variable. Then, apply the independent
variable to one group only, which is the experimental group. Both groups will be subjected to
retesting and the dependent variable will again be measured. If the dependent variable of the
experimental group is different from the previous dependent variable, and the same for the case of
the control group, the independent variable clearly caused the difference. In this regard, the
experimental design is a success since it was proven that the modification in the independent
variable is the main reason in the adjustments in the dependent variable in the case of the
experimental group. Experimental design has its own advantages compared to other research
methodologies. The results are highly particular. The researcher is able to manipulate the data to
achieve wanted results. Experimental results that were analyzed can be implemented to other
studies within the same aspect. Lastly, experimental research design can be performed with other
types research methodology.
Ethnographic research is conducted by in thorough investigation of a certain culture. The
researcher observes a phenomenon under investigation. The researcher must be both inclusive and
exclusive of the culture when conducting ethnographic research. The person conducting the
research must be inside the culture to study a certain phenomenon extensively, at the same time

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outside of it to view what is the strangeness level of a said culture. The ethnographic researcher
must perceive the strangeness of the culture when analyzing the data gathered. Ethnographic
research is commonly used at the beginning of the research study. Ethnography focuses on the
conception stage of the research design. Ethnographic research requires deep comprehension of
the design problem. Ethnographic research design is advantageous in terms of identifying and
analyzing design problems. Ethnography is beneficial in coming up with a true portrayal of the
subject’s way of thinking. However, it is said to be disadvantageous in a way that it is time-
consuming.
The primary function of Action Research is to develop and refine the quality of the subject’s
actions or performance. The participants of this type of research are rewarded with enhanced
knowledge. An example of action research is the act of teaching to the students. The development
of the students shows the action done by the teachers in helping the students to finish the course.
Before conducting an action research, it is important to understand first the steps to be undertaken.
First, the researcher must choose a subject. The second step is clarification of theories. After that,
determine the research statements. Next procedure is to gather the needed data. By that time, it is
allowed to analyze this information based on the selected methods. The results obtained from the
data analysis must have a detailed report. Finally, the last step is to take the informed activity.
In the Grounded theory methodology, the theory of the study is gathered from the data alone.
Grounded theory researchers believe that the knowledge that will be acquired from the data itself
is substantial and can provide the basis of theory of the study. Most of the ground theory researches
include a short portion or do not include the review of literature at all. Holton et. al, (2015)
described ground theory research as the revelation of the evolving patterns of information.
Grounded theory is a method which allows the researcher in identifying and contextualizing the
deep-seated social trends and systems of your field of concern via a continual comparison course.
It is a collection of strict study processes that results to conceptual classifications arising. In ground
theory method, the gathering and analyzing the information is done at the same time. Theoretical
testing used to improve different classifications.
Another type of research methodology is the phenomenology which deals with the
investigation of live experience of those population living the experience. There are two types of
phenomenology. The first one is hermeneutic phenomenology. The researcher illustrates texts to
analyze the experiences of the subjects. The other one is called the transcendental phenomenology.
This is the type of phenomenology that deals with the subject’s interpretation of an experience of
a theory. It defines the importance of participation in reality. Phenomenological research method,
however, has its own constraints. It is difficult to gather the population of the research study. Data
collection and conducting interviews can be time consuming. The investigation of the information
might be challenging. Small samples of participants can be a limitation because we can’t say that
the participation of a sample population is what was the experiences of the majority.
Narrative research or narrative analysis is a research methodology used in collecting and
analysis of stories of an individual who has lived with the experience and told to the researcher.
Anthropologists, sociologists, educational researchers, socio linguists, and other groups with their
respective discipline specific procedures, each lay claim to narrative research methods. Narrative
method imparts voice for those normally not heard. In performing a narrative research, the
following steps are considered:

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1. Identify a trend that deals with the issue of education;
2. Purposely select a subject, must be a person;
3. Gather the information from the subject;
4. Tell the narrative again while collaborating with the subject;
5. Write the narrative again regarding the past encounters;
6. Check the correctness of the narrative.
Historical research is a critical investigation method of previous occurrences to precisely
describe and interpret those occurrences (Wiersma 1986). Historical research aims to describe a
previous situation and the corresponding definition of the current issue. Another goal of historical
research is to offer a well-supported and friendly introduction to the world of publishing. There
are two sources of historical information, the primary sources and the secondary sources. Historical
research is important for its purpose – to preserve and interpret facts.
Content analysis is a method utilized in identifying the existence of theories bounded in a text
or set of texts. Content analysis is an investigation of documented people interaction like books,
newspaper articles, interviews, discussions, speeches, conversation advertising, theater and
informal conversations. There are two kinds of content analysis. Conceptual analysis is the process
of analysis of frequency of theories in human interaction. On the other hand, relational analysis
which is the investigation of the origin of the theories in human interaction. Two kinds of contents
are to be subjected to examination, in content analysis. The process of conducting content analysis
are as follows. First, the researcher must prepare the research questions, then, define the processes
on how to measure a variable, then produce a coding format, after that, do the sampling, then lastly,
quantify the code. The advantages of carrying out a content analysis is the unobtrusive behavior,
cost-friendly, allows for the quantitative and qualitative type of study. On the other hand, content
analysis method could take a lot of time, the researcher may encounter some coding error and may
not take the context into consideration.
Discourse analysis is term used to study how language is used among individuals, both in
written documents and in spoken environments. While other fields of language research may look
at individual language components, such as words and grammar or components in making up
words, discourse analysis looks at a discussion that involves a writer and reader. In conducting
discourse analysis, careful observation and investigation of the research of others is very important.
To be able to identify false information is a thing to remember in undertaking discourse analysis.
Document analysis describes the study of present information of similar commercial operations
or schemes to extract parts of data appropriate to the present study, and therefore project
specifications should be taken into consideration. It is somewhat similar to discourse analysis, in
a way that the process of data analysis is taken as discourses, which establish and represent their
reality.
Semiotics, also known as semiology, is the study of signs and the use of symbols. It was co-
founded by a Swiss phonologist, Ferdinand de Saussure. Going back to late 19th and early 20th
centuries with the autonomous job of Saussure and the American philosopher Charles Sanders
Peirce arose the concept of semiotics as an integrative way of examining phenomena in distinct
areas.
Attitude research is a method used in measuring attitudes of individual towards anything. It is
an inquiry into people's attitudes towards an entity or its items. Attitude research is essential in

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scheduling campaigns for advertising experts. Attitude measurements have a quantitative
measurement of attitudes, views or values by summarizing numerical ratings provided by the
researchers to the reactions of individuals to sets of statements exploring fundamental theme
characteristics.
Image-based research is the use of images in social studies. Researchers can gather information
from every type of image such as pictures, videos, paintings, and other kinds of visual
representation.
Archival research is a form of study involving the search and extraction of proof from archives.
The data can be kept either in the collection of institutions, such as schools and art galleries, or in
the care of the institution that initially created or acquired them, or in the custody of a predecessor
organization. Archival studies can be compared with secondary research involving the
identification and supervision of secondary sources related to the inquiry subject and other forms
of the main study and empirical research such as field research and experimentation.
Textual analysis is a technique that includes learning the language, symbols and images current
in texts in order to obtain data on how individuals make much sense of and interact experiences of
life. The messages are frequently recognized as being affected by bigger social constructions. The
researcher must therefore comprehend the wider social constructions affecting the messages
contained in the text.
The statistical method for merging information from existing research studies is called meta-
analysis. It relies largely on the reliability of data form the previous projects, hence, making it an
error-prone research method.
The feminist method is a way to carry out research and develop a hypothesis from a female
point of view. Feminist methodologies are diverse, but appear to have some common goals or
features, which include attempting to resolve study biases, provide social change, demonstrate
biological diversity and recognize the researcher's standpoint. Some feminist techniques, such as
increasing awareness, influence women's mutual feelings when factors like economic stats are
more of a systemic consequence.

4. Methodological Framework

To further improve our understanding on the research methodology, let’s discuss what we have
learned on our past modules. In the four frameworks approach, the other three frameworks
develops from the conceptual framework; kindly refer to Figure 7.4. The conceptual framework
directs the other framework in order to accomplish the research project. The conceptual framework
constitutes the research idea and more specifically the statement of the problem. As discussed on
the earlier part of this module, the statement of the problem shall be established prior to selection
of research methodology.

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Figure 7.4 Four frameworks approach to research project

The devising of data gathering methods is based on the research methodology to be used. The
selection of methodology shall fit the focus of the research. The conceptual framework clearly
defines the focus and purpose of the research. Its specific objectives are clearly outlined to
determine how the research study will achieve its main objective.

It was clearly imparted that selection of methodology is very crucial on a research project.
Deciding the appropriate methodology to be used shall be taken seriously as this will be the guide
how the research project will be undertaken. The methodology shall be capable of supporting the
study by paving out the way of achieving the main objective of the research. Also, as all research
is time-bounded, the researcher must also consider the time and duration of the research
methodology to be used. The researcher must be exposed to various research and studies for him
to be able to decide promptly for the appropriate methodology.

Finding the best research methodology for a researcher’s study is quite difficult and time-
consuming process. It is a common problem for the starters. Finding time and having a resourceful
skill can help the beginner researchers in selecting the appropriate methodologies in their study.
Frequently, a research study fits with multiple research methodologies. This is possible as long as
your research is still logically structured. With this, take some advice and consideration from your
superior or adviser for the appropriate selection of research methodology before proceeding to the
next steps of the research process.

5. Structure of Methodological Framework

As expounded beforehand, the methodological frameworks emerges from the conceptual

framework of the research project. The primary framework is the guide of the methodological
framework in outlining how the research will be undertaken. The integral parts of the
methodological framework is succinctly discussed as follows:

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• Introduction – In this part of the research methodology chapter of the thesis, the researcher
is introducing the research methodology undertaken. Likewise, the population, sampling
method and data collection method shall be overviewed.
• Research Methodology – It shall be clearly discussed in this chapter the justifications
supporting the research methodology. Here it is explained why the chosen research
methodology is appropriate to the research study. Similarly, the process on how the chosen
research methodology was used shall be briefly described.
• Population of the study – the population or the universe from whom the pertinent data that
will be gathered shall be briefly elaborated. The population of the study shall be detailed.
Depending on the research study, the population may be respondents or experimental
samples. Further, the population of the study shall also be clarified on the scope and
delimitation section of the thesis.
• Sample – The details of the sample drawn from the population shall be defined. If the case
that the population sample was used, the researcher shall explain the size and basis of the
sample. Furthermore, the relation of the sample size to the population shall be clearly
explained. This is very important since the sample is the representation of the entire
population. The data that will be gathered in the sample will describe the population on its
entirety. For this reason, the sample and sampling method shall be done delicately.
• Sampling Method – The proportion, in other words sample, of the population to be used as
representation must have been determined before the actual gathering of data. The
computation of the sample must already be done. In this part of the research methodology,
the researcher must detailed the procedure on how the sample was determined but not to
show the actual computation. Among the elements that should be explained are:
o The size of population;
o The study population;
o The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;
o The type or technique of sampling used;
o The actual computation of the sample; and
o The sample
Between the probability sampling and non-probability sampling, the probability sampling
is used to establish statistically that the selected samples will describe the entire population.
Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein each individual or unit has an equal
chance to be chosen and to be included in the sample of the population. This basic rule of
probability sampling is based on the theories of mathematics and statistics. The following
are some random sampling techniques:
o Simple Random Sampling;
o Stratified Random Sampling;
o Systematic Random Sampling;
o Cluster Sampling; and
o Multistage Sampling
• Data Gathering Methods – Subsequently, after the sample representing the population has
been determined, the researcher should thoroughly explain the data gathering methods that
were used in the research project. Data are what research is conducted for and these are
subjected to analysis and interpretation. Through the data gathered, the relationships of the
variables, principles and generalizations are being drawn to establish what the research is
aiming to accomplish. It is very important in this portion that every data collection method

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is strongly explained. The justification on why these methods were chosen shall be clearly
expounded. In practice, the tools used in data gathering were included in the appendices of
the thesis report such as questionnaires and written records.
• Issues of Validity and Reliability – The researcher shall discussed in this part the validity
and reliability of the research methodology. The data collection method that was used shall
be valid to clearly identify the specific objective it is under. The validity of the method
shall be appropriate and acceptable that shall be establish. The methods used will be
considered as valid if it is designed to achieve what it has to achieve. Reliability, on the
other hand, is the degree of the research that it can be repeated and will have consistent
results. Depending on the research study, reliability is a more of a concern of a quantitative
research.
• Triangulation – We have known that triangulation is the use of at least two different
approach in answering the research question. This means that the researcher is looking
from more than one perspective at the research study. By doing triangulation, the researcher
is gathering more data by different approaches to establish the consistency of the data and
results. This is to intensely support the research project by providing more pertinent
information in relation to the study. Triangulation allows you to use as many data collecting
methods appropriate to the research study for you to have different point of views on the
focus area being investigated. Upon completing the gathering of data, the results are being
compared to establish a more comprehensive analysis and discussion. However, by doing
triangulation, the researcher must also consider the available resources he had before
continuing the triangulation process as this will also consume more time, funding and
efforts.
• Ethics – Before ending the methodological framework, the ethics portion is an appropriate
portion of the research project to discuss the ethical issues in the design and mostly during
the execution of the research project. This is very important for the readers to understand
the difficulties that the researcher had faced while conducting the research study.

To close the discussion of this chapter, the breakdown of the word count for the methodological
framework is shown on Table 7.2. This will serve as a guide in preparing the written report of the
research. As discussed, the totality of the methodological framework from the systematic approach
in conducting research project is incorporated in the research methodology section of the thesis.

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Table 7.2 Structure of Methodological Framework
20 000 word 15 000 word 10 000 word
thesis/report thesis/report thesis/report

Introduction 100 words 100 words 50 words

Research methodology 600 words 200 words 150 words
Population of the study 200 words 100 words 50 words
Sample and sampling method 300 words 200 words 150 words
Data collection methods 900 words 700 words 400 words
Issues of validity and reliability 300 words 300 words 200 words
Triangulation 200 words 100 words 50 words
Ethics 400 words 300 words 150 words
Total word count 3000 words 2000 words 1200 words

End of Chapter Questions

1. Detail the distinction between research methods and research techniques.

2. Explain why the methodological framework emerges from the conceptual framework.
3. Explain the importance of having an established conceptual framework before selecting
research methodology.
4. Identify and elaborate at least eight research methodologies.
5. Detail the difference between research methods and research methodology.
6. List the research methodology you want to utilize in your study and describe why it is the
most suitable research methods for your research.
7. Explain the parts of methodological framework.
8. Define the similarities and differences between discourse analysis and document analysis.
9. Explain the feminist method in relation to social research.
10. Explain the term triangulation.

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