5th IFAC Conference on

5th IFAC Conference on

Engine
5th IFACand Powertrain
Conference onControl, Simulation and Modeling
Engine and Powertrain Control, Simulation and online
Available Modeling
at www.sciencedirect.com
5th IFACand
Engine Conference
Changchun, onControl,20-22,
China, September
Powertrain 2018 and Modeling
Simulation
Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018
Engine and Powertrain
Changchun, Control,20-22,
China, September Simulation
2018 and Modeling
Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018
ScienceDirect
IFAC PapersOnLine 51-31 (2018) 285–289
Acceleration
Acceleration Velocity
Velocity Trajectory
Trajectory
Acceleration
Optimization of Velocity
Intelligent Trajectory
EVs Using
Acceleration
Optimization of Velocity
Intelligent Trajectory
EVs Using
OptimizationBatteryof Intelligent
Life Model EVs

 Using
OptimizationBatteryof Intelligent
Life Model EVs
 Using
Battery Life Model 
Battery Life Model
Hong Chu ∗∗ Qing Zheng ∗∗ Lulu Guo ∗,∗∗ ∗
∗,∗∗ Bingzhao Gao ∗
Hong Chu ∗ Qing Zheng ∗ Lulu Guo ∗,∗∗ Bingzhao Gao ∗
Hong Chu ∗ Qing Zheng ∗ Lulu Guo ∗,∗∗ Bingzhao Gao ∗
∗ Hong Chu Qing Zheng Lulu Guo Bingzhao Gao
∗ State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin
∗ State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin
∗
State Key Laboratory
University,
University, PR of
PR Automotive
China
China Simulation and Control, Jilin
(zhuhong17@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
(zhuhong17@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
Statezhengqing16@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
Key Laboratory
University, PR of Automotive
China Simulation and Control, Jilin
(zhuhong17@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
zhengqing16@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
University, PR China Tel: guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
(zhuhong17@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
zhengqing16@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
gaobz@jlu.edu.cn, guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
+86-431-85095198).
gaobz@jlu.edu.cn, Tel: +86-431-85095198).
∗∗ zhengqing16@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
∗∗ Department gaobz@jlu.edu.cn,
of Tel:and guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn,
+86-431-85095198).
∗∗ Department of Control
Control Science
gaobz@jlu.edu.cn, Science
Tel: and Engineering,
Engineering, Jilin
+86-431-85095198). Jilin University,
University,
∗∗
Department PR
PR of Control
China
China Science
(e-mail:
(e-mail: and Engineering,
guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn)
guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn) Jilin University,
Department PR of Control
China Science
(e-mail: and Engineering, Jilin University,
guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn)
PR China (e-mail: guoll14@mails.jlu.edu.cn)
Abstract: In
Abstract: In this
this paper,
paper, taking
taking an an intelligent
intelligent electric
electric vehicle
vehicle as as the
the research
research object,
object, mathemati-
mathemati-
Abstract:
cal
cal models
models are In
are this paper,
firstly
firstly built taking
for
builttaking an intelligent
calculating
for calculating the electric
percentage
the percentage vehicle
of as the
lithium-ion
of lithium-ion research
battery
battery object, mathemati-
capacity
capacity loss and
loss and
Abstract:
cal
the models
internalare In this
resistancepaper,
firstly built an intelligent
for calculating
increase. Based onthe electric
thepercentage vehicle as the
of lithium-ion
model established,
established, a research
battery object,
control-oriented mathemati-
capacitybatteryloss andlife
the
cal internal
models resistance
are firstly increase.
built Based
for calculating on the
the model
percentage of during
lithium-iona control-oriented
battery capacity batteryloss life
and
the
model
model internal
is
is derivedresistance
derived using
using to increase.
to calculate
calculate Based
the on the
battery
the battery model
capacity
capacity established,
loss a
an control-oriented
acceleration
loss during aancontrol-oriented battery
process.
acceleration process. Then,
Then,life
the
model internal
a velocityis derived
velocity resistance
trajectory increase.
usingoptimization
to calculate Based
the on the is
battery
framework model
capacity
presentedestablished,
loss to
during
minimizean acceleration battery
batteryprocess.
the battery aging Then,
life life
for
a
model trajectory
is derived optimization
usingoptimization
toancalculate framework
the battery is presented
capacity to minimize
lossproblem
during an the
acceleration aging
process. life
Then,for
a velocity
intelligent
intelligent trajectory
EVs during
EVs during framework
acceleration
an acceleration process
process is presented
and the
and the problem to minimize is the
solved
is solved battery
by SQP
by SQP aging life
algorithm.
algorithm. for
a velocity
intelligent
Finally, trajectory
EVs during
according to optimization
theansimulation
simulation framework
acceleration process
results, itis can
presented
andbe
can to minimize
theconcluded
be problem
concluded the
the battery
is solved
that by SQP
energy aging life for
algorithm.
consumption
Finally,
intelligent according
EVs to
during thean acceleration results,
processit and the problem that
is the
solved energy
by SQP consumption
algorithm.
Finally,
per
per meter
meter according
is 5.50kJ/m
is 5.50kJ/m to thefrom
fromsimulation
0 to results,
100km/h
0 to 100km/h it
within
within can be
10s.
10s. concluded
The effect
The effectthat that
on the
battery
on battery energy consumption
capacity
capacity is much
is much
Finally,
per meter
greater according
than is 5.50kJ/m
that to battery
on thefromsimulation
0internal
to 100km/hresults, it can
within
resistance during be concluded
10s. Theacceleration
the the
effect on battery energy
process. consumption
capacity is much
greater
per meter than that on battery
is 5.50kJ/m from 0internal
to 100km/h resistance
within during10s. the
Theacceleration
effect on battery process.capacity is much
greater than that on battery internal resistance during the acceleration process.
© 2018, than
greater IFAC that(International
on battery Federation
internalofresistance
Automatic Control)
during the Hosting by Elsevierprocess.
acceleration Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Intelligent
Keywords: Intelligent EVs, EVs, lithium-ion
lithium-ion battery,
battery, control-oriented
control-oriented life life model,
model, velocity
velocity trajectory
trajectory
Keywords:
optimization. Intelligent EVs, lithium-ion battery, control-oriented life model, velocity trajectory
optimization.
Keywords: Intelligent EVs, lithium-ion battery, control-oriented life model, velocity trajectory
optimization.
optimization.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION process
process has has been
been done.done. TheThe exact
exact value
value of of acceleration
acceleration
1. INTRODUCTION process
is not has been during
constant done. The a exactchange(Donoghue
speed value of acceleration and
1.effort
INTRODUCTION is not
process constant
has during
been during
done. a
The speed
exact change(Donoghue
value ofmethods accelerationand
In recent years, the to save the modern society from is not constant
Burghart
Burghart (1987))
(1987)) and
and a speed
different
different change(Donoghue
acceleration
acceleration methods and
lead
lead
In recent years, the effort to save the modern society from is not constant during a speed change(Donoghue and
In recent
energy years,
crisis andthe effort
environmental to save the modern
pollution has society
been from
made Burghart
to different
to different (1987))
energy
energy and different
consumption. acceleration
Based on methods
the goallead
of
energy
In recent
energy
with
crisis
years,
crisis
challenges
andthe
andand
environmental
effort
environmental
hope to
mutually
pollution
save pollution
theemerging.
modern hassociety
has
been made
been
Automobile from Burghart
made to different
reducing (1987))
energyenergy andconsumption.
differentwhile
consumption.
consumption
Based onmethods
acceleration
Based
maintainingon
the goallead
the thegoal
of
of
driv-
with challenges and hope mutually emerging. Automobile reducing
to differentenergyenergy consumption
consumption. while maintaining
Based on thethe the driv-
goal of
energy
with crisis and
challenges
manufactures and
have environmental
hope
exerted mutually
great pollution
emerging.
effort and has been to
Automobile
energy made
de- reducing
ing energy
performance consumption
of a given whilean
load, maintaining
acceleration driv-
control
manufactures
with challenges have
and exerted
hope great effort
mutually and energy
emerging. to de- ing
Automobile
performance
reducing energy of a given load,
consumption while anmaintaining
accelerationthe control
driv-
manufactures
velop newnew energy have exerted
energy vehicles(Xu
vehicles(Xu et great effort
et al.
al. (2018)).and
(2018)). So energy
So there to
there hasde- ing performance
strategy for smart of a given
electric load,
vehicles
has strategy for smart electric vehicles has been developed an acceleration
has been control
developed
velop
manufactures have exerted de- ing performance of electric
a given load, an has acceleration control
velop
been an
been new
an energy
increase
increase in researchgreat
invehicles(Xu
research and
and
effort
et practice
al. and
(2018)).
practice on energy
on So there
electric
electric
tovehi-
has
vehi-
strategy
and
and can for smart
can reduce
reduce energy
energy vehicles
consumption
consumption by been developed
by 2%(Thomas
2%(Thomas and
and
velop
been
cles new
an
(EVs) energy
increase in
(Demircali vehicles(Xu
research
et al. andet al. (2018)).
practice
(2018)). However,on So there
electric
because has
vehi-
of strategy
and can
Stephen for
reduce smart
(2014)). electric
energy
Nevertheless, vehicles
consumption these has
by
work been
2%(Thomas
only developedand
considers
cles (EVs) (Demircali et al. (2018)). However, because of Stephen
and (2014)).
can (2014)).
reduce Nevertheless,
energy consumption these work
by only
2%(Thomas considers
and
been
cles
the an increase
(EVs)
limited in
(Demircali
range research
caused et al.
by and energy
practice
(2018)).
low However,on electric
density because
of vehi-
battery of Stephen
the energy Nevertheless,
consumption in an these
accelerationwork only
process, considers
in this
the limited range caused by low energy density because
of battery the energy
Stephen consumption
(2014)). in an acceleration
Nevertheless, these work process,
only in this
considers
cles
the (EVs)
limited
and inadequate (Demircali
range
inadequate capacity caused
capacity ofet al.
by (2018)).
low
of energy energy However,
energy storage, density
storage, the of battery
the public
public is of the energy
paper, a speedconsumption
optimization in an acceleration
problem
is paper, a speed optimization problem is built for intelligent is built process,
for in this
intelligent
and
the
verylimited
and inadequate
doubtful range caused
capacity
about the by of low
energy
endurance energy density
storage,
mileage the ofpublic
battery
of intelligent
intelligent is the energy
paper,
electric
electric
consumption
avehicles
speed
vehicles optimization
by in an
by considering
considering
acceleration
problem
the
the loss
lossis ofbuilt
of
process,
battery
battery
in this
for intelligent
capacity
capacity
very
and doubtful
inadequate about
capacity the endurance
of energy mileage
storage, of
the public is paper, a speed optimization problem is built for intelligent
very
electricdoubtful about the endurance
vehicles(Chakraborty and Nandi
Nandimileage Different electric
of intelligent
(2016)). and
and it vehicles
it also
also by considering
calculates
calculates the
the energy
energy theeconomy.
loss of battery capacity
electric
very
electric
kinds of
vehicles(Chakraborty
doubtful about have
vehicles(Chakraborty
Life Models the endurance
been
and
andset Nandi
to mileage(2016)).
ofthe
(2016)).
calculate
Different
intelligent
Different
battery electric
and vehicles
it also by considering
calculates the energy theeconomy.
loss of battery capacity
economy.
kinds ofvehicles(Chakraborty
electric Life Models have beenand setNandi
to calculate
(2016)). theDifferent
battery As and
As mentioned
it also
mentioned above,
calculates
above, in
the
in this
energy
this paper, aa battery
economy.
paper, battery life life model
model
kinds of Life
aging process Models
process and have
and several been
several optimizationset to calculate
optimization work the
work have battery
have beenbeen As
aging
kinds of Life Models have been set to calculate the battery needs
needsmentioned
to
to be
be above,
established.
established.in thisThe
Thepaper,
battery
battery a battery
life
life life model
models
models are
are
aging
conducted
conducted process
in and
in intelligentseveral
intelligent EVs. optimization
Furthermore,
EVs.optimization
Furthermore,work work have
optimization
optimization beenis
is needs As mentioned
generally to be above, from
established.
established in this Thepaper,
battery
accelerated a battery
life
aging life model
models
texts(Ecker are
aging
conducted
a process
technique in to and
arrive several
intelligent at EVs.
one orFurthermore,
more solutions, have
optimization
which beenis
cor- generally
needs established
to established
be established. from accelerated
The batteryaging aging texts(Ecker
life models are
a technique
conducted to arrive at one or more solutions, which cor- generally
et al. (2012))(Schmalstieg from etaccelerated
al. (2014)), which texts(Ecker
can
can not be
not
arespond
technique
respond to in
to tointelligent
either
eitherarrive at EVs.
minimum
minimum one or or
orFurthermore,
more solutions,
maximum
maximum
optimization
values
values which
of onecor-
of one is et
or
or et
used
al. (2012))(Schmalstieg
generally
al.directly established
(2012))(Schmalstieg
for fromet
acceleration et
al. (2014)),aging
accelerated
al.
speed(2014)),
optimization
whichtexts(Ecker
which can
due not
to
be
be
the
amore
technique
respond to to
eitherarrive at
minimum
objectives satisfying one
satisfying certain or
or more
maximum solutions,
values
certain conditions(Chakraborty which
of
conditions(Chakraborty used one cor-
or used
et directly
al.directly for acceleration
(2012))(Schmalstieg speed
et speed
al. optimization
(2014)), which due
can to
not the
be
more
respond objectives
to either minimum or maximum constant chargefor acceleration
and discharge rate. optimization
And the batterydue to
modelthe
more
et al. objectives
et al. (2015)).
(2015)). satisfying
Speed
Speed certain
optimization
optimization can use values
conditions(Chakraborty
can use the
of one or constant
the information
information used
constant
in
charge
directly
charge
literature(Huangfor and
and
dischargespeed
acceleration
discharge
(2017))
rate. optimization
rate.
And the battery
And
identified the
with battery
the due model
to the
model
constant
more
et objectives
andal.control
(2015)).
control satisfying
Speed
technology to certain
optimization
make the conditions(Chakraborty
canvehicle
the use theidentify
vehicle information
identify road in literature(Huang
constant charge and (2017)) identified
discharge rate. Andwith the constant
the battery model
and
et al. (2015)). technology
Speed to make
optimization can use theidentify
informationroad in literature(Huang
pre-exponential
pre-exponential factor
factor (2017))
B
B value. identified
value. As the with
As the the constant
literature
literature showed,
showed,
and control
conditions
conditions technology
and
and change
change to
the
the makespeed
speed the or
orvehicle
acceleration
acceleration road
value
value in literature(Huang
pre-exponential
the B value is factor (2017))
connectedB identified
value.
with Asthethe Cwith the
literature
, and constant
showed,
in
and controland
conditions
automatically. technology
change to themake speed theorvehicle identify value
acceleration road the B value is factor
pre-exponential connected withAsthe
B value. the
rate
Cliterature in this
rate , and showed, this
automatically.
conditions and change the speed or acceleration value paper, the
paper, B value
the B is
valueconnected
is with
considered the
as a C ,
alterable
rate and in this
value and
automatically. the B value is considered as a alterable value and
The work
automatically. that to minimize the energy consumption of the aathe
paper,
new
new
B battery
value
the
battery
iscapacity
B value connected
capacity loss
with
is considered
loss model
model
the
as is
is
Crate , and
aestablished.
alterable
established.
in this
value
Then,
Then, anda
a
The work that to minimize the energy consumption of the paper, the B value is considered as a alterable value and
The
power work that
source byto minimize
optimizing the energy
speed consumption
during a of
acceleration the a new battery
control-oriented
control-oriented capacity
battery
battery loss model
capacity
capacity is
model
model established.
which
which can
can Then,
be
be used
used a
power
The worksource
thatbybytooptimizing
minimize the the speed
the speed during
energyduring a acceleration
consumption of the acontrol-oriented
new battery capacity loss model is established. Then, a
power source optimizing a acceleration in
in actual driving
actual drivingbattery battery capacity
conditions
conditions is model
deduced
is deduced which
from
fromcancan
the be used
model
thebemodel
 This source
power is by optimizing the speed during a acceleration control-oriented
in actual driving capacity
conditions is model
deduced which
from the used
model
 This work supported by the National Key R&D Program of mentioned above.

China
work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of
This(2018YFB0104805),
work is supported the National
by the NationalNatureKeyScience Foundation
R&D Program of
mentioned
in actual above. The
driving The influence
influence
conditions
on
on the
the internal
is acceleration
deduced internal
from
resistance
resistance
the model
China
 (2018YFB0104805), the National Nature Science Foundation mentioned
is
is also
also be
be above. The
considered
considered influence
during
during an
an on the internal
acceleration resistance
process.
process.
of This
China
China work is supported
(61520106008,
(2018YFB0104805), by the
61522307),
the National
the China
National NatureKey R&D Program
Automobile
Science Industry
Foundation of mentioned above. The influence on the internal resistance
of China (61520106008, 61522307), the China Automobile Industry is also be considered during an acceleration process.
China
of China (2018YFB0104805),
Innovation
Innovation
and Development
(61520106008,
and Development
the National
61522307),JointtheFund
Joint Fund
Nature
China Science Foundation
(U1664257),
Automobile
(U1664257),
and Jilin
Industry
and Jilin The
is
The alsorest
be of
rest this
this paper
considered
of paper is
is organized
during an acceleration
organized as
as following:
process.Sec.
following: Sec. 2 2
of China (61520106008,
Province
Innovation Department
and of61522307),
Development Education
Joint the China
”Thirteen
Fund Automobile Industry
Five” scientific
(U1664257), and and
Jilin The
describesrest theof this paper is organized
establishment of the as following:battery
control-oriented Sec. 2
Province Department of Education ”Thirteen Five” scientific and describes the establishment of the control-oriented battery
Innovation
technological and
Province Department Development
research projects
of Education Joint ”Thirteen
Fund (U1664257),
(JJKH20170379KJ).
technological research projects (JJKH20170379KJ).
and Jilin
Five” scientific and The
describes the establishment of the control-oriented battery2
rest of this paper is organized as following: Sec.
Province Department
technological of Education
research projects ”Thirteen Five” scientific and
(JJKH20170379KJ). describes the establishment of the control-oriented battery
technological
2405-8963 © research
© 2018
2018, IFACprojects (JJKH20170379KJ).
(International Federation of Automatic Control)
Copyright IFAC 308 Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright
Peer review© under
2018 IFAC 308 Control.
responsibility of International Federation of Automatic
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 308
10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.10.051
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 308
IFAC E-CoSM 2018
286
Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018 Hong Chu et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 51-31 (2018) 285–289

Fig. 2. Days-Normalized capacity

Fig. 1. Cycle number-Normalized capacity
capacity loss and internal resistent increase models which where B is the pre-exponential factor, E is the activation
can suit different kinds of driving conditions. In Sec. 3, energy, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute tempera-
a optimal control problem is established which regards ture, z is the power law factor, Ah is the total ampere-hour
the percentage of battery capacity loss as the performance throughput given by
 t
function and the state equation is builded by the vehi-
cle longitudinal dynamics equation, then, the problem is Ah (t) = |i(τ )|dτ (3)
0
solved by SQP algorithm. The analyze simulation results when considered the discharging rate, the equation can be
are showed in Sec. 4. Finally, conclusion is given in Sec. 5. expressed as (Wang et al. (2011)), The E and B values
are decreased with increasing Crate . The power law factor
2. MODELING PROCESS
z, on the other hand ,remains fairly constant at all Crate ,
therefore, z value is set at 0.5.
Lithium-ion battery aging shows the loss of battery capac-
ity and the increase of internal resistance. For a battery −3700 + 370.3 × Crate
Qloss = Bexp[ ](Ah)0.5 (4)
aging prediction, many different aging factors must be RT
considered. These factors are e.g. time, temperature, SOC The Crate is given by
range, the depth of discharge (DOD) and current rate i
(Käbitz et al. (2013)). Crate = (5)
S0
In this section, firstly, a control-oriented battery life model where i is the cell battery discharge current, S0 is the
based on the semi-empirical models which described the cell battery rated capacity. From the experiment results
loss of battery capacity is derived. After that, a resistance in Table 1(Wang et al. (2011)), B values can be got from
model is established, whose function is to verify the in- different Crate , by fitting function, the equation can be
crease in resistance during acceleration of electric vehicles. expressed
B = 29660exp(−0.09703Crate ) (6)
2.1 Battery capacity loss Model

Based on the experimental data, John Wang et al. pro- Table 1. B values under different Crate
posed to represent the lithium-iron/phosphate graphite
battery life model as the following(Wang et al. (2011)) Crate C/2 2C 6C 10C
B value 31,630 21,081 12,934 15,512
Q loss = f (t, T, DOD, Crate ) (1)
Obviously, the percentage of battery capacity loss is a −3700 −370.3
function of time, battery temperature, depth of discharge, Qloss =29660exp[ +( − 0.09703) (7)
and discharge rate. According to the literature(Wang et al. RT RT
(2011)), the authors compared the effects of different × Crate ](Ah)0.5 .
discharge depths on the remaining capacity of the battery For the accelerating process studied in this paper, in
in terms of cycle times and time. The discharge rate is order to compute the percentage of battery capacity loss
C/2, the temperature is 60◦ C. It was found that when the for different discharge current, temperature and other
battery is discharged at a low rate(C/2), the effect of DOD factor, the following part will use equation(7) as a basis
on the cycle life of the battery is minimal and negligible. As to derive a mathematical model that can be used to
shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2(Wang et al. (2011)). Therefore, calculate the percentage of battery capacity loss during an
when the lithium-iron battery is discharged at a low rate, acceleration period. Fig. 3 shows the change of the total
the percentage of capacity loss is mainly affected by time battery capacity loss rate during an acceleration progress.
and temperature, and the life model can be written as Obviously, the percentage of battery capacity loss will
−E gradually increase during the acceleration period from t0
Qloss = Bexp( )(Ah)z (2) to tf . Before the acceleration process, the battery is not
RT

309
IFAC E-CoSM 2018

Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018 Hong Chu et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 51-31 (2018) 285–289 287

2.2 Resistance Model

ܳ௟௢௦௦ ሺ‫ݐ‬௙ ሻ
ܳ௟௢௦௦ ሺ‫ ݐ‬൅ ο‫ݐ‬ሻ According to the literature (Schmalstieg et al. (2014)), the
ܳ௟௢௦௦ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ οܳ௟௢௦௦ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ resistant increase in the battery cycling aging process is
connected with the depth of discharge (DOD) and the
average voltage ØV, the normalized resistance can be
shown as
R = 1 + βAh (16)
β is the aging factor connected with the linear cycle depth
ο‫ݐ‬ (DOD in the range of 0-1) and quadratic average voltage
ܳ௟௢௦௦ ሺ‫ݐ‬଴ ሻ
(ØV ), whose unit is v, Ah is the charge throughput in
‫ݐ‬଴ ‫ݐ‬ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ο‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ‬௙ ampere-hours.
β =2.153 · 10−4 (ØV − 3.725)2 − 10521 · 10−5 (17)
Fig. 3. The changing trend of a battery capacity loss during −3
+ 2.798 · 10 DOD .
an acceleration process.

entirely new, so it can be assumed that the loss of battery 3. OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEM
capacity at time t0 is a constant value as Qloss (t0 ). Here, a
terminology called the equivalent variable Ah-throughput The intelligent EV accelerating to a certain speed from
Āh (t) is defined, which is equal to the result of the battery starting during a certain time has different kinds of speed
aging at a fix condition such as a maintained temperature trajectory as Fig. 4 shows. When the target is to get the
and a constant discharge rate, and it can be obtained as minimum loss of the battery capacity, the problem can
follows be solved using optimal control method. It can specifi-
Q2loss(t) cally expressed as the following : Under the premise that
Āh (t) = 2 2M i(t) (8) the initial state and the terminal state are all fixed, an
M1 e 2 allowable control variable u∗ (t) subject to an inequality
where (4) and (5) are used, M1 and M2 are constants as constraint is obtained. Under the condition that regarding
−31700 the state equation as an equality constraint to make the
M1 = 29660exp( ) (9) performance index obtain the extremum J ∗ (min), and the
RT
corresponding optimal trajectories x∗ (t) and u∗ (t) must
370.3 0.09703 also satisfy the constraint on the state equation.
M2 = − (10)
RT S0 S0
∆t is a time increment infinity approaching to 0 , between
the time t and t+ ∆t, the cell battery discharge current
i(t) can be thought as a certain value, and the equivalent
Ah-throughput’s increment ∆Ah (t) between this time can
be calculated as
 t+∆t
1 i(t)
∆Ah (t) = i(τ )dτ = ∆t (11)
3600 t 3600
Thus, at the time t+∆t, the percentage of battery capacity
loss can be obtained
Qloss (t + ∆t) =M1 eM2 i(t) [Āh (t) + ∆Ah (t)]0.5 (12)
2
Q (t) i(t)
=M1 eM2 i(t) [ 2 loss + ∆t]0.5 .
M1 e2M2 i(t) 3600
Using Taylor expansion the equation can be converted to
the following one, and in very small time, Qloss (t) can be
replaced with Qloss (t0 ).
M12 e2M2 i(t) i(t)
Qloss (t + ∆t) = Qloss (t) + ∆t . (13) Fig. 4. Different acceleration velocity trajectories
7200Qloss (t0 )
Therefore, the battery capacity decay rate during the
acceleration progress can be expressed as Therefore, the optimal control problem can be built as
 tf
M12 e2M2 i(t) i(t) min J = L(x(t), u(t), t) dt
∆Qloss (t) = ∆t , (14)
7200Qloss (t0 ) t0

Obviously, from t0 to tf , the percentage of battery capacity s.t. ẋ(t) = f [x(t), u(t)] (18)
loss can be expressed as µ[x(t), u(t)] ≤ 0
Qloss (t) =Qloss (tf ) − Qloss (t0 ) (15) γ[x(t0 ), u(tf )] = 0
2  tf where x(t) is state variable, u(t) is control variable,
M1
= e2M2 i(t) i(t)dt . J is cost function minimized by control variable u(t),
7200Qloss (t0 ) t0 L(x(t), u(t), t) is integral function, µ is the inequality

310
IFAC E-CoSM 2018
288
Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018 Hong Chu et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 51-31 (2018) 285–289

constraint, γ is the boundary condition. For the optimal 250

peaak toeque
control system of an intelligent EV, the motor speed is 200
rated torque

selected as a state variable and the motor torque is used

motor torque(Nm)
as a control variable. According to the vehicle longitudinal 150

dynamics equation, so, the state equation can be expressed 100

as
πρCD Ar 2 30i20 ηt 30g(f + i)i0 50
ẋ(t) = − x (t) + u(t) − (19)
60mi0 πmr2 πr 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
The integral function L(x(t), u(t), t) is expressed as motor speed(rpm)

M12 Fig. 5. Distribution of motor operating points.

L(x(t), u(t), t) = e2M2 i(t) i(t). (20)
7200Qloss (t0 )
100
And the inequality constraint and boundary condition in
the optimal problem are as the following 80

0 ≤ x(t) ≤ nm,max (21)

speed(km/h)
60
0 ≤ u(t) ≤ Tm,max [nm (t)] (22)
x(t0 ) = 0, x(tf ) = nm (tf ) (23) 40

where nm,max is the maximal motor speed, and Tm,max is 20

the maximal torque that motor can output.
0
The above state equation and performance function 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time(s)
present nonlinear characteristics, making it more difficult
to solve the optimal control problem of the acceleration Fig. 6. Speed changes during the acceleration process.
speed process. For such optimal control problem, it must
be converted into a nonlinear programming problem for 200

solving. And sequential quadratic programming (SQP) is

discharge current(A)

150
used to solve the nonlinear programming problem.
100
4. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
50
In this section, by using the method mentioned above,
some simulation results can be obtained and will be p- 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
resented. Firstly, some parameters about the battery and time(s)
the electric vehicle requested in simulation are showed in
Table 2 and Table 3. The simulation is conducted on Fig. 7. Discharge current changes during the acceleration
process.
Table 2. VEHICLE PARAMETERS
Symbol Description Value[Unit] peak torque. In the Fig. 6, the speed profile can be seen
m mass 1600[kg] during the acceleration process. The acceleration value
ρ air density 1.23[kg/m3 ] decreases as the figure showed, and the distance traveled
CD coefficient of air resistance 0.36 by the intelligent EV is 160m within 10s as the Fig. 9
A face area 2.0[m2 ] showed. In the Fig. 7, due to the motor working initial-
r dynamic tire radius 0.32[m] ly at low rotating speed with large torque, the optimal
i0 speed ratio 9 discharge current of battery pack increases rapidly, and
ηt total efficiency of transmission system 0.92
f coefficient of rolling resistance 0.0104
with the motor torque decreasing, the discharge current
increases slowly. The battery capacity loss at the end of
the acceleration process is 1.88 × 10−5 %, and the energy
Table 3. BATTERY PARAMETERS consumption of the battery pack is 8.80 × 102 kJ. Besides,
Description Value Unit
similar with fuel consumption per hundred kilometers for
rated capacity 2.3 Ah traditional vehicles, battery energy consumption per meter
open-circuit voltage 3.6 V is defined as the index of energy economy. And the energy
charging cut-off voltage 3.9 V consumption per meter is 5.50kJ/m. In addition, using
discharge cut-off voltage 2.3 V the resistant model, the percentage of the cell battery
standard discharge rate 0.5 C resistance increase can be calculated during the accel-
eration process. As mentioned in section 2, to calculate
the flat road, under an accelerating from 0 to 100km/h the resistant increase, the discharge throughput should be
within 10 seconds, and the results are showed in Fig. 5. calculated during the acceleration process firstly. At the
And all the simulations are conducted at the centigrade end of the acceleration process from 0 to 100km/h within
temperature of 25o C. According to the simulation result 10 second, the percentage of the cell battery resistant
of the motor torque showed in the Fig. 5, the vehicle increase is 1.74 × 10−10 %. Comparing with the percentage
accelerates firstly with motor peak torque, and then the of the cell battery capacity loss, it can be concluded that
motor torque decreases with the increasing motor speed, the increase of the resistance is far less than the degree of
finally, the motor torque changes following with the motor battery capacity loss.

311
IFAC E-CoSM 2018

Changchun, China, September 20-22, 2018 Hong Chu et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 51-31 (2018) 285–289 289

250 From the simulation results of the acceleration process

from 0 to 100km/h within 10 seconds, it can be concluded
that the acceleration value decreases and the motor torque
motor torque(Nm)

200
decreases with the increasing motor speed. The discharge
current increases rapidly in the beginning, and with the
150 motor torque decreasing, the discharge current increases
slowly. The percentage of the battery capacity loss at the
100
end of the acceleration process is 1.88×10−5 %. The energy
0 1 2 3 4 5
time(s)
6 7 8 9 10 consumption of the battery pack is 8.80 × 102 kJ and the
energy consumption per meter is 5.50kJ/m. Using the re-
Fig. 8. Torque changes during the acceleration process. sistance increase model, the percentage of the cell battery
resistance increase is calculated as 1.74 × 10−10 %,which is
200 far less than the degree of battery capacity loss.
150
REFERENCES
distance(m)

100 Chakraborty, D. and Nandi, A. (2016). Finding opti-

mal driving region of electric vehicles during acceler-
50
ation. Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems
(PEDES), 2016 IEEE International Conference on.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Chakraborty, D., Vaz, W., and Nandi, A. (2015). Op-
time(s) timal driving during electric vehicle acceleration using
evolutionary algorithms. Applied Soft Computing, 34,
Fig. 9. Distance changes during the acceleration process. 217–235.
Demircali, A., Sergeant, P., Koroglu, S., Kesler, S., öztrk,
×10-5
2 E., and Tumbek, M. (2018). Influence of the temper-
ature on energy management in battery-ultracapacitor
percent of capacity loss(%)

1.5 electric vehicles. Journal of Cleaner Production., 176,

716–725.
1 Donoghue, J. and Burghart, J. (1987). Constant power
acceleration profiles for electric vehicles. IEEE Trans-
0.5 actions on Industrial Electronics, 34, 188–191.
Ecker, M., Gerschler, J.B., Vogel, J., Käbitz, S., Hust, F.,
0 Dechent, P., and Sauer, D.U. (2012). Development of a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time(s) lifetime prediction model for lithium-ion batteries based
1000
on extended accelerated aging test data. Journal of
Power Sources, 215, 248–257.
energy consumption(kJ)

800
600
400
200
0 (2013). Cycle and calendar life study of a graphite-
0 1 2 3 4 5
time(s)
Fig. 10. The battery capacity loss and the energy con-
sumption during the acceleration process.
5. CONCLUSION
In this work, a battery capacity loss model and a battery
resistant increase model for LiF eP O4 Lithium-ion battery
are established. In order to solve the problem that the
battery life model only fits the specific conditions and it
cannot be used to optimize in actual driving conditions, a
control-oriented battery life model is establish which can
minimize the battery capacity loss by optimizing the vehi-
cle speed during an actual driving condition. The control-
oriented battery life model is choosed as the integral func-
tion. And then the state equation which depends on vehicle
longitudinal dynamics and the constraint equations of the
state variable and the control variable are established.
Finally, the speed optimization problem is solved by the
SQP algorithm.
Huang, B. (2017). Speed Optimazation of Intelligent EV in
Consideration of Battery Aging. Master’s thesis, JiLin
University.
Käbitz, S., Gerschler, J., Ecker, M., Yurdagel, Y., Em-
mermacher, B., André, D., Mitsch, T., and Sauer, D.
6 7 8 9 10
lini1/3 mn1/3 co1/3O2 li-ion high energy system. part a:
Full cell characterization. Journal of Power Sources,
239, 572–583.
Schmalstieg, J., Käbitz, S., Ecker, M., and Sauer, D.
(2014). A holistic aging model for li(nimnco)o2 based
18650 lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources,
257, 325–334.
Thomas, L. and Stephen, B. (2014). Minimum-time speed
optimisation over a fixed path. International Journal of
Control, 87, 1297–1311.
Wang, J., Liu, P., Hicks-Garner, J., Sherman, E., Souki-
azian, S., Verbrugge, M., Tataria, H., Musser, J., and
Finamore, P. (2011). Cycle-life model for graphite-
lif epo4 cells. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 3942–3948.
Xu, N., Ouyang, M., Liu, X., Lu, L., Xia, Y., and He,
X. (2018). Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion
battery for electric vehicles: A review. Energy Storage
Materials, 10, 246–267.

312