Heat Transfer Lectures

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Technology, Iraq

Heat Exchangers
Introduction
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and
separated by a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement
this exchange is termed a heat exchanger, and specific applications may be found in space heating
and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat recovery, and chemical processing.
In this chapter, our objectives are to introduce performance parameters for assessing the
efficiency of a heat exchanger and to develop methodologies for designing a heat exchanger or for
predicting the performance of an existing exchanger operating under prescribed conditions.
Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of
construction. In this chapter will present different types of heat exchangers as follows:
1. Double-pipe heat exchange
In this type of heat exchange (Figure 1), the hot and cold fluids move in the same or
opposite directions in a concentric tube (or double-pipe) construction.
• In the parallel-flow (i.e. Cocurrent) arrangement of Figure 1a, the hot and cold fluids enter
at the same end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.
• In the counterflow arrangement of Figure 1b, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in
opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.

cold fluid cold fluid

hot fluid hot fluid

1 2 1 2

(a) Parallel-flow arrangement (i.e. Cocurrent) (b) Counterflow arrangement

Figure 1: Double-pipe heat exchange. (a) Parallel flow. (b) Counterflow

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2. Finned and Unfinned Tubular Heat Exchangers

In this kind of heat exchangers, the fluids may move in cross flow (i.e., perpendicular to
each other), as shown in Figure 2. The two configurations are typically differentiated by an
idealization that treats fluid motion over the tubes as unmixed or mixed. In Figure 2a, the fluid is
said to be unmixed because the fins inhibit motion in a direction (y) that is transverse to the main
flow direction (x). In this case, the fluid temperature varies with x and y. In contrast, for the
unfinned tube bundle of Figure 2b, fluid motion, hence mixing, in the transverse direction is
possible, and temperature variations are primarily in the main flow direction. Since the tube flow
is unmixed, both fluids are unmixed in the finned exchanger, while one fluid is mixed and the other
unmixed in the unfinned exchanger. The nature of the mixing condition can significantly influence
heat exchanger performance.

Figure 2: Cross-flow heat exchangers. (a) Finned with both fluids unmixed. (b) Unfinned with one fluid mixed
and the other unmixed

3. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

This type of heat exchanger is widely used in the chemical process industries. One fluid
flows on the inside of the tubes, while the other fluid is forced through the shell and over the
outside of the tubes. To ensure that the shell-side fluid will flow across the tubes and thus induce
higher heat transfer baffles are placed in the shell as shown in Figure 3. Baffles are usually installed
to increase the convection coefficient of the shell-side fluid by inducing turbulence and a cross-
flow velocity component. In addition, the baffles physically support the tubes, reducing flow-
induced tube vibration. Baffled heat exchangers with one shell pass and two tube passes and with
two shell passes and four tube passes are shown in Figure 4a and 4b, respectively.

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Figure 3: Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass (cross-counterflow mode of
operation)

Figure 4: Shell-and-tube heat exchangers. (a) One shell pass and two tube passes. (b) Two shell passes and
four tube passes

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4. Compact Heat Exchangers

It is a special and important class of heat exchangers is used to achieve a very large (≥ 400
m /m for liquids and ≥ 700 m2/m3 for gases) heat transfer surface area per unit volume. The
2 3

compact heat exchangers have dense arrays of finned tubes or plates and are typically used when
at least one of the fluids is a gas and is hence characterized by a small convection coefficient. The
tubes may be flat or circular, as in Figure 5a and 5b, 5c, respectively, and the fins may be a plate
or circular, as in Figure 5a, 5b and 5c, respectively. Parallel-plate heat exchangers may be finned
or corrugated and may be used in single-pass (Figure 5d) or multipass (Figure 5e) modes of
operation. Flow passages associated with compact heat exchangers are typically small (Dh ≤ 5
mm), and the flow is usually laminar.

Figure 5: Compact heat exchanger cores. (a) Fin–tube (flat tubes, continuous plate fins). (b) Fin–tube
(circular tubes, continuous plate fins). (c) Fin–tube (circular tubes, circular fins). (d) Plate-fin (single pass).
(e) Plate-fin (multipass)

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The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

We have already discussed the overall heat transfer coefficient in the previous chapters
with the heat transfer through the plane wall of Figure 6.

Figure 6: Overall heat transfer through a plane wall

The heat transfer through the plane wall can be expressed as follows:
(𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 )
𝑞=
1 ∆𝑥 1
[ + + ]
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴
where TA and TB are the fluid temperatures on each side of the wall. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient U is defined by the following relation:

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
From the standpoint of heat exchanger design, the plane wall is of infrequent application;
a more important case for consideration would be that of a double-pipe heat exchanger, as shown
in Figure 7. In this application, one fluid flows on the inside of the smaller tube while the other
fluid flows in the annular space between the two tubes. The convection coefficients are calculated
by the methods described in previous chapters, and the overall heat transfer is obtained from the
thermal network of Figure 7 as follows:
(𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 )
𝑞= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑟𝑜 )
1 𝑖 1
[ + + ]
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

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cold fluid

ro
hot fluid ri

T4

T3
1 2 T1 T2

T1 T2 T3 T4
q q
1 𝑙𝑛(𝑟° Τ𝑟𝑖 ) 1
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 =
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

Figure 7: Double-pipe heat exchanger

The overall heat-transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside or outside area of
the tube at the discretion of the designer. Accordingly,
𝐷𝑜
1 1 𝐷𝑖 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝐷𝑖 ) 𝐷𝑖
=[ + + ]
𝑈𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ𝑜 𝐷𝑜

𝐷𝑜
1 𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 1
𝐷𝑖
=[ + + ]
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ𝑜

Although final heat-exchanger designs will be made on the basis of careful calculations of
U, it is helpful to have a tabulation of values of the overall heat-transfer coefficient for various
situations that may be encountered in practice. Comprehensive information of this sort is available
in References 5 and 6, and an abbreviated list of values of U is given in
Table 1.
We should remark that the value of U is governed in many cases by only one of the
convection heat-transfer coefficients. In most practical problems the conduction resistance is small
compared with the convection resistances. Then, if one value of h is markedly lower than the other
value, it will tend to dominate the equation for U. The following examples will be illustrated this
concept.
*References 5 and 6
5. Perry, J. H. (ed.). Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
6. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers Guide, annually

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Table 1: Approximate values of overall heat-transfer coefficients

Physical Situation U (W/m2. °C)

Brick exterior wall, plaster interior, uninsulated 2.55
Frame exterior wall, plaster interior: uninsulated 1.42

with rock-wool insulation 0.4

Plate-glass window 6.2

Double plate-glass window 2.3

Steam condenser 1100-5600

Feedwater heater 1100-8500
Freon-12 condenser with water coolant 280-850
Water-to-water heat exchanger 850-1700
Finned-tube heat exchanger, water in tubes, air across tubes 25–55
Water-to-oil heat exchanger 110–350

Steam to light fuel oil 170–340

Steam to heavy fuel oil 56–170
Steam to kerosone or gasoline 280–1140
Finned-tube heat exchanger, steam in tubes, air over tubes 28–280
Ammonia condenser, water in tubes 850–1400
Alcohol condenser, water in tubes 255–680

Gas-to-gas heat exchanger 10–40

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Example 1: Hot water at 98°C flows through a 2-in schedule 40 horizontal steel pipe
(k =54 W/m. °C) and is exposed to atmospheric air at 20°C. The water velocity is 25 cm/s.
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient per unit length for this situation, based on the outer
area of the pipe. The free convection heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the pipe can be
calculated from the following equation:

∆𝑇 1/4 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4
ℎ𝑜 = 1.32 ( ) = 1.32 ( )
𝑑 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 98 °𝐶:
𝜌 = 960 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 , 𝑃𝑟 = 1.76, 𝑘 = 0.68 𝑊 Τ𝑚. °𝐶, 𝜇 = 2.82 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚. 𝑠
Solution:
From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P.
𝑻∞ = 𝟐𝟎 °𝑪
Holman), the dimensions of 2-in schedule 40 pipe are
ID = 2.067 in=0.0525 m water
Ti= 98 oC
𝒖= 25 cm/s
OD = 2.375 in=0.06033 m
We need to calculate Reynolds number
𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 (960)(0.25)(0.0525)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = 44680
𝜇 2.82 × 10−4
According to the obtained Reynolds number (i.e., 44680),
the flow is turbulent. Therefore, we will use the following
Equation to calculate the heat transfer coefficient:
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023(44680)0.8 (1.76)0.4 = 151.4
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 (0.0525)
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = ⇒ 151.4 =
𝑘 0.68
ℎ𝑖 = 1961 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . °𝐶
For unit length of the pipe the thermal resistance of the steel is
𝑙𝑛(𝐷° Τ𝐷𝑖 ) 𝑙𝑛(0.06033Τ0.0525)
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 2𝜋(54)(1)
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 4.097 × 10−4 °𝐶 Τ𝑊

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Again, on a unit-length basis the thermal resistance on the inside is

1 1 1
𝑅𝑖 = = = = 0.0031 °𝐶 Τ𝑊
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝜋𝑟𝑖 𝐿 2𝜋(1961)(0.02625)(1)
The thermal resistance for the outer surface is as yet unknown but is written, for unit lengths,
1 1
𝑅𝑜 = =
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑜 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝐿
Now, we need to calculate the outside heat transfer coefficient

∆𝑇 1/4 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4 Tav Ti To T∞

ℎ𝑜 = 1.32 ( ) = 1.32 ( )
𝑑 𝑑 q q
1 𝑙𝑛(𝑟° Τ𝑟𝑖 ) 1
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 =
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

where To is the unknown outside pipe surface temperature. We designate the inner pipe surface as
Ti and the water temperature as Tav; then the energy balance requires
𝑇𝑎𝑣 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞
𝑞= = =
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑜
Since
𝑇𝑎𝑣 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
=
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
98 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
=
0.0031 4.097 × 10−4
98 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
= (1)
0.0031 4.097 × 10−4
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑞 = ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ ) = = (2)
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, ℎ𝑜 = 1.32 ( )
𝑑
By substituting the above equation into Eq. 2

𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑞 = 1.32 ( ) 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ ) =
𝑑 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑞 = 1.32 ( ) 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝐿(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ ) =
𝑑 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

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𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 1/4 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
1.32 ( ) 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝐿(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ ) =
𝑑 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
1.32𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ )1/4 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ ) =
𝐷𝑜 1Τ4 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

1.32𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
1Τ4
(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ )5/4 =
𝐷𝑜 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

1.32𝜋(0.06033 )(1) 5/4

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
(𝑇𝑜 − 20) =
(0.06033 )1Τ4 4.097 × 10−4
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
0.5(𝑇𝑜 − 20)5/4 = (3)
4.097 × 10−4
From equations 1 and 3, we obtain

𝑇𝑜 = 97.6 °𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖 = 97.65 °𝐶

As a result, the outside heat-transfer coefficient and thermal resistance are

97.6 − 20 1/4
ℎ𝑜 = 1.32 ( ) = 7.91 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . °𝐶
0.06033
1 1
𝑅𝑜 = = = 0.667 °𝐶 Τ𝑊
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (7.91)𝜋(0.06033)(1)
The calculation clearly illustrates the fact that the free convection controls the overall heat-
transfer because Ro is much larger than Ri or Rwall. The overall heat-transfer coefficient based on
the outer area is written in terms of these resistances as
1
𝑈𝑜 =
𝐴𝑜 (𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑅𝑜 )
With numerical values inserted,
1
𝑈𝑜 =
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 𝐿(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑅𝑜 )
1
𝑈𝑜 =
𝜋 (0.06033) (1)(0.0031 + 4.097 × 10−4 + 0.667)
𝑈𝑜 = 7.87 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . °𝐶
Thus, we find that the overall heat-transfer coefficient is almost completely controlled by
the value of ho. We might have expected this result strictly on the basis of our experience with the

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relative magnitude of convection coefficients; free-convection values for air are very low
compared with forced convection with liquids.
Fouling Factors
After a period of operation, the heat-transfer surfaces for a heat exchanger may become coated with
various deposits present in the flow systems, or the surfaces may become corroded as a result of the
interaction between the fluids and the material used for construction of the heat exchanger. In either event,
this coating represents an additional resistance to the heat flow, and thus results in decreased performance.
The overall effect is usually represented by a fouling factor, or fouling resistance, Rf, which must be
included along with the other thermal resistances making up the overall heat-transfer coefficient. Fouling
factors must be obtained experimentally by determining the values of U for both clean and dirty conditions
in the heat exchanger. The fouling factor is thus defined as follows:
1 1
𝑅𝑓 = −
𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑈𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛

An abbreviated list of recommended values of the fouling factor for various fluids is given in Table 2, and
a very complete treatment of the subject is available in Reference [9].
Table 2: Selected fouling factors values

Type of fluid Fouling factor, m2. °C/W

Seawater, below 52 °C 0.00009
Seawater, above 52 °C 0.002
Treated boiler feedwater above 52 °C 0.0002
Fuel oil 0.0009
Quenching oil 0.0007
Alcohol vapors 0.00009
Steam, non-oil-bearing 0.00009
Industrial air 0.0004
Example 2: Suppose the water in Example 1 is seawater above 52 °C and a fouling factor of
0.0002 m2. °C/W is experienced. What is the percent reduction in the convection heat-transfer
coefficient?
Solution:
The fouling factor influences the heat-transfer coefficient on the inside of the pipe. We have
1 1
𝑅𝑓 = −
ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛

1 1
0.0002 = −
ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 1961
ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 = ℎ𝑖 = 1409 𝑊/𝑚2. °𝐶
1960 − 1409
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100% = 28%
1960

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This is a 28 percent reduction because of the fouling factor.

*Reference [9]: Somerscales, E. F. C., and J. G. Knudsen (eds.). Fouling of Heat Transfer Equipment. New York: Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., 1981.
The Log Mean Temperature Difference
Consider the double-pipe heat exchanger shown in Figure 1. The fluids may flow in either
parallel flow or counterflow, and the temperature profiles for these two cases are indicated in
Figure 8.

Figure 8: Temperature profiles for (a) parallel flow and (b) counterflow in a double-pipe heat exchanger

We propose to calculate the heat transfer in this double-pipe arrangement as follows:

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚 (1)
where

𝑈 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑈
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝑠𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟
An inspection of Figure 8 shows that the temperature difference between the hot and cold
fluids varies between inlet and outlet, and we must determine the average value for use in Equation
(1). For the parallel-flow heat exchanger shown in Figure 8a, the heat transferred through an
element of area 𝑑𝐴 may be written as follows:

𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐 (2)

where the subscripts ℎ and 𝑐 designate the hot and cold fluids, respectively. The heat transfer
could also be expressed as follows:

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𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴 (3)

From Eq.2, we obtain

−𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐

where 𝑚̇ represents the mass-flow rate and 𝐶 is the specific heat of the fluid. Thus
−𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = ( )−( )
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
1 1
𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞 ( + ) (4)
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
By substituting equation 3 into Eq.4, we obtain
1 1
𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴 ( + )
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
By arranging the above equation. We obtain the following equation
𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) 1 1
= −𝑈 ( + ) 𝑑𝐴 (5)
(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
The above differential equation may now be integrated between conditions 1 and 2 as
indicated in Figure 1.
2
𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) 1 1
∫ = ∫ −𝑈 ( + ) 𝑑𝐴
1 (𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
1 1
[ln(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )]12 = −𝑈 ( + )𝐴
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
1 1
ln(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − ln(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 ) = −𝑈 ( + )𝐴
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
ln ( ) = −𝑈𝐴 ( + ) (6)
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐
Returning to Equation (2), the products 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 and 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ may be expressed in terms of the
total heat transfer q and the overall temperature differences of the hot and cold fluids. Thus

𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐 (2)

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Equation (2) can be written as follows:

𝑞 = −𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ (𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇ℎ1 ) = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑞 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑞
𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ =
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 )
𝑞
𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 =
(𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

Now, by substituting the above relations into Eq. 6, we obtain

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
ln ( ) = −𝑈𝐴 ( 𝑞 + 𝑞 )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

ln ( ) = −𝑈𝐴 ( + )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑞 𝑞

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) + (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

ln ( ) = −𝑈𝐴 ( )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑞
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 −𝑇ℎ1 + 𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 + 𝑇𝑐1
ln ( ) = 𝑈𝐴 ( )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑞

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 (𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

ln ( ) = 𝑈𝐴 ( )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑞

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴 [ ] (7)
𝑇 −𝑇
ln (𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ℎ1 𝑐1

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚 (1)
By comparing Equation (7) with Equation (1), we find that the mean temperature difference
is the grouping of terms in the brackets. Thus
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
∆𝑇𝑚 = ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
𝑇 −𝑇
ln (𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ℎ1 𝑐1

This temperature difference is called the log mean temperature difference (LMTD). Stated
verbally, it is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger less the temperature
difference at the other end of the exchanger divided by the natural logarithm of the ratio of these
two temperature differences. It is left as an exercise for the reader to show that this relation may

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also be used to calculate the LMTDs for counterflow conditions. The above derivation for LMTD
involves two important assumptions: (1) the fluid specific heats do not vary with temperature, and
(2) the convection heat-transfer coefficients are constant throughout the heat exchanger. The
second assumption is usually the more serious one because of entrance effects, fluid viscosity, and
thermal-conductivity changes, etc.
If a heat exchanger other than the double-pipe type is used, the heat transfer is calculated
by using a correction factor applied to the LMTD for a counterflow double-pipe arrangement with
the same hot and cold fluid temperatures. The heat-transfer equation then takes the form

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
Values of the correction factor F can be obtained from Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11, and
Figure 12 for several different types of heat exchangers.

Figure 9: Correction-factor plot for exchanger with one shell pass and two, four, or any multiple of tube passes

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Figure 10: Correction-factor plot for exchanger with two shell passes and four, eight, or any multiple of tube passes

Figure 11: Correction-factor plot for single-pass cross-flow exchanger, both fluids unmixed

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Figure 12: Correction-factor plot for single-pass cross-flow exchanger, one fluid mixed, the other unmixed

When a phase change is involved, as in condensation or boiling (evaporation), the fluid

normally remains at essentially constant temperature and the relations are simplified. For this
condition, P or R becomes zero and we obtain
F =1.0 for boiling or condensation
Example 3: Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75 °C by an oil having a specific
heat of 1.9 kJ/kg.°C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat exchanger, and the oil
enters the exchanger at 110 °C and leaves at 75 °C. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is
320 W/m2.°C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area. Given that the specific heat of water is equal to
4180 kJ/kg.°C
Solution:
The total heat transfer is determined from the energy absorbed by the water

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68
𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤 = ( ) (4180)(75 − 35) = 189493 𝑊
60
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 ) ∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 (110 − 75) − (75 − 35)
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = = = 37.44 °𝐶
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ∆𝑇2 110 − 75
ln (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) ln (∆𝑇 ) ln ( )
ℎ1 𝑐1 1 75 − 35
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 ⇒ 189493 = 320𝐴(1)(37.44) ⇒ 𝐴 = 15.82 𝑚2
Note: The value of the correction factor F for double pipe heat exchanger equal to one
Example 4: Instead of the double-pipe heat exchanger of previous example 3, it is desired to use
a shell-and-tube exchanger with the water making one shell pass and the oil making two tube
passes. Calculate the area required for this exchanger, assuming that the overall heat-transfer
coefficient remains at 320 W/m2.°C.
Solution:
To solve this problem, we determine a correction factor from the below Figure to be used
with the LMTD calculated on the basis of a counterflow exchanger.

𝑇1 = 35 °𝐶 𝑇2 = 75 °𝐶 𝑡1 = 110 °𝐶 𝑡2 = 75 °𝐶
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 75 − 110
𝑃= = = 0.467
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 35 − 110
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 35 − 75
𝑅= = = 1.143
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 75 − 110
From Figure 9, we obtain

𝐹 = 0.81

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝑙𝑚

189493 = 320𝐴(0.81)(37.44)

𝐴 = 19.53 𝑚2

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Example 5: Water at the rate of 3.783 kg/s is heated from 37.78 to 54.44 °C in a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. On the shell side one pass is used with water as the heating fluid,1.892 kg/s,
entering the exchanger at 93.33 °C. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1419 W/m2.°C, and the
average water velocity in the 1.905-cm diameter tubes is 0.366 m/s. Because of space limitations,
the tube length must not be longer than 2.438 m. Calculate the number of tube passes, the number
of tubes per pass, and the length of the tubes, consistent with this restriction. Given that the specific
heat of water is equal to 4182 kJ/kg.°C

Solution: mw=1.892 kg/s

T2=54.44 °C t1=93.33 °C
We first assume one tube pass and
check to see if it satisfies the
conditions of this problem. The total
required heat transfer is obtained
from the cold fluid information:
t2=? mw=3.783 kg/s
T1=37.78 °C

𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤 = (3.783)(4182)(54.44 − 37.78) = 263569.63 𝑊

The exit temperature of the hot water is calculated from the following equation:

𝑞 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ ∆𝑇ℎ = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤 = 263569.63 𝑊

𝑞 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶ℎ ∆𝑇ℎ = 263569.63 𝑊
𝑞 = (1.892)(4182)∆𝑇ℎ = 263569.63 𝑊 ⇒ ∆𝑇ℎ = 33.31 °𝐶
𝑇ℎ,𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 93.33 − 33.31 = 60 °𝐶
For a counterflow exchanger, the log mean temperature difference can be calculated as follows:
∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 (93.33 − 54.44) − (60 − 37.78)
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = = 29.78 °𝐶
∆𝑇 93.33 − 54.44
ln (∆𝑇2 ) ln ( 60 − 37.78 )
1

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 , 𝐹 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟

263569.63 = (1419)𝐴(1)(29.78) ⇒ 𝐴 = 6.237 𝑚2

𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑁

𝑁 = 𝑛𝑃

Where

𝑁: Total number of tubes

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𝑛: number of tubes per each pass

𝑃: number of tubes passes

Hence
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑛𝑃

Now, we need to find number of tubes per pass. Using the average water velocity in the tubes and
the flow rate, we calculate the total flow area (𝐴𝑥 ) as follows:

𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴𝑥 ⇒ 3.783 = (1000 )(0.366)𝐴𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴𝑥 = 0.01034 𝑚2

This area is the product of the number of tubes and the flow area per tube:
𝜋 𝜋
0.01034 = 𝑛 𝑑2 ⇒ 0.01034 = 𝑛 ( ) (0.01905)2 ⇒ 𝑛 = 36.3 = 36 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
4 4
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑛𝑃 ⇒ 6.237 = 𝜋(0.01905)(𝐿)(36)(1) ⇒ 𝐿 = 2.896 𝑚

This length is greater than the allowable 2.438 m, so we must use more than one tube pass.
When we increase the number of passes, we correspondingly increase the total surface area
required because of the reduction in LMTD caused by the correction factor F. We next try two
tube passes.

𝑇1 = 37.78 °𝐶 𝑇2 = 54.44 °𝐶 𝑡1 = 93.33 °𝐶 𝑡2 = 60 °𝐶

𝑡2 − 𝑡1 60 − 93.33
𝑃= = = 0.6
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 37.78 − 93.33
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 37.78 − 54.44
𝑅= = = 0.5
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 60 − 93.33
From Figure 9, F =0.88, and thus

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝑚

263569.63 = (1419)𝐴(0.88)(29.78) ⇒ 𝐴 = 7.09 𝑚2

𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑛𝑃 ⇒ 7.09 = 𝜋(0.01905)(𝐿)(36)(2) ⇒ 𝐿 = 1.646 𝑚

This length is within the 2.438-m requirement, so the final design choice is
Number of tubes per pass = 36
Number of passes = 2
Length of tube per pass = 1.646 m

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