INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE

ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT, JAIN UNIVERSITY

SUBMITTED BY
K.N.V. PAVAN KALYAN (17BTRAE136)
MANAW KUMAR JHA (17BTRAE131)
ROSHAN RAY (17BTRAE134)
KELVIN FREDY MATEE (17BTRAE130)
EVIN JOE ROY (17BTRAE129)

SUBMITTED TO
DEEPAK JAIN
Department of aerospace engineering,
IIT Kanpur
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JAIN UNIVERISTY_GROUP G_EXPERIMENT 2

Contents
DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION USING CESSNA-206H ..................................................... 3
CRUISE EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................................ 3
Aim: ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Requirements: ........................................................................................................................ 3
Theory: ................................................................................................................................... 3
Cruise mode: .......................................................................................................................... 3
Calculations:........................................................................................................................... 4
Procedure: .............................................................................................................................. 5
Tabular Column: .................................................................................................................... 6
Result: .................................................................................................................................... 7
Graphical representation: ....................................................................................................... 7
Climb Experiment .................................................................................................................... 8
Aim: ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Theory: ................................................................................................................................... 8
Procedure: .............................................................................................................................. 8
Tabular representation: .......................................................................................................... 9
Graphical representation: ..................................................................................................... 10
1. Rate of climb v/s Speed:............................................................................................ 10
2. Angle of climb v/s Speed: ......................................................................................... 10
Result: .................................................................................................................................. 11
DRAG POLAR:...................................................................................................................... 11
RATE OF CLIMB: ................................................................................................................ 11
Physical Relevance of the experiment: ................................................................................. 11
What is the Significance of the experiment for commercial flying? .................................. 11
Phugoid Effect: ....................................................................................................................... 12
Dutch Roll: .............................................................................................................................. 13
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JAIN UNIVERISTY_GROUP G_EXPERIMENT 2

 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION USING CESSNA-206H

CRUISE EXPERIMENT

Aim: To estimate the drag polar using Cessna 206H.

Requirements:
• Airspeed indicator
• Engine RPM indicator
• Manifold pressure gauge
• Outside air temperature
• Altimeter
• Stopwatch
• Cessna 206H
Theory:

To obtain the performance of an airplane requires the value of the drag coefficient of the
airplane (CD) when the lift coefficient (CL) and Mach number (M) are given. The relationship
between the drag coefficient and the lift coefficient is called ‘Drag polar’. It may be pointed
out that aerodynamics generally deals with the drag, lift and pitching moment of individual
components like wing, fuselage etc. Whereas, for the estimation of the airplane performance
the knowledge of the drag, lift and pitching moment of the entire airplane is required .

CD = CDo + KCL²

Where,

• CD is the coefficient of drag of the aircraft and CDo is the zero lift drag of the aircraft.
• K =1/𝜋ARe, where AR is the aspect ratio of the wing and e is the Oswald efficiency factor.
• CL is the coefficient of lift
• KCL2 denotes the induced drag of the aircraft.

Cruise mode:
In this experiment we will take the readings at cruise mode. Cruise is the level
portion of aircraft travel where flight is most fuel efficient. It occurs between ascent and
descent phases and is usually the majority of a journey. Technically, cruising consists of
heading (direction of flight) changes only at a constant airspeed and altitude. It ends as the
aircraft approaches the destination where the descent phase of flight commences in
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preparation for landing.

JAIN UNIVERISTY_GROUP G_EXPERIMENT 2

For most commercial passenger aircraft, the cruise phase of flight consumes the majority of
fuel’ as this lightens the aircraft considerably, higher altitudes are more efficient for
additional fuel economy. However, for operational and air traffic control reasons it is
necessary to stay at the cleared flight level. Typical cruising speed for long distance
commercial passenger flights is 475-500 knots (898-926 km/h; 547-578 mph). There is also
an optimum cruise altitude for a usually designs for optimum performance at their cruise
speed. There is also an optimum cruise altitude for a particular aircraft type and conditions
including payload weight, centre of gravity, air temperature, humidity, and speed. As in any
phase of the flight, the aircraft in cruise mode is always in communication with an Air Traffic
Control (ATC) station. Although the general tendency is to follow a straight line towards the
destination, there may be some deviations from the flight plan for weather, turbulence or
air traffic reasons, after receiving clearance from ATC.

Calculations:

• To plot the graph for this aircraft we need the BHP and the air speed of the aircraft.

• The true airspeed (TAS) can be known from the airspeed indicator but the brake
horse and the power can be calculated using the below formula.

Where the values are provided in the table below:

Parameter Value

Rated RPM (r-rpm) 2700

Rated Manifold Pressure 29.92 inch of Hg

Sea Level Temperature 288.15 K

Wing Area (S) 174ft2 , 16.16m2

Wing Span (b) 36 ft , 10.99728m

Rated HP (r-HP) 300HP , 233.709 kW

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Procedure:

The following steps will elaborate the procedure to estimate the performance
characteristics such as profile drag coefficient (CDO) and Oswald’s efficiency factor (e) of a
propeller driven aircraft using flight data obtained during its cruise.

• Wait until the cruise altitude is reached.

• Record the airspeed from airspeed indicator, engine manifold pressure, outside air
temperature, rpm of the engine and altitude during the cruise.
• Use equation (5.4) to obtain break horse power of the engine from the above
recorded data.
• Repeat the above steps for different altitudes.
• Calculate the Brake Horse Power using the above mentioned equation.
• Now, the power required during the steady and level flight is given as,

1 2W²
PV= ( ρSCDo )V4 + πAReρS
2

• For the sake of convenience, we can rewrite the equation as:

Y=mX+C
• By comparing the equations, we obtain

Y = PV

1
m=2ρSCDo
2𝑊²
c=
ԯAReρS

Since we have measured velocity and calculated power required, if we plot PV vs V 4, we will
get a straight line whose y intercept is c and slope will be m. Now after calculating slope and
y intercept of experimental data, using the above equations, we can estimate the profile
drag coefficient (CDo) and Oswald’s efficiency factor (e).
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 Tabular Column:

MP OAT Altitude V4 *106 BHP BHP*V

RPM
(mmHg) (°C) (feet) (true) (kW) (kWm/s)
V(knots) V(m/s) (m/s)4

83 42.69 2230 17.8 17 1500 3.321 109.032 4654.5

87 44.75 2240 19.3 17 1500 4.010 118.750 5314.06

91 46.81 2250 21.2 17 1500 4.802 130.44 6105.8

99 50.93 2260 23.1 17 1500 6.728 142.13 7238.6

m = 0.537
c = 3×106
AR =7.450
ρ = 1.18 kg/m3
2m
CDO =
𝜌s

2 ×0.537
CDO = = 0.058
1.18 ×16.16

1672.09+1529.59
W= = 1600.84 kg
2

2W2
e=
πARρSc

2 ×( 1600.84 ×9.82 )
e=
π×7.450×1.18×16.16×3×106
6

e = 0.341
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JAIN UNIVERISTY_GROUP G_EXPERIMENT 2

Result:
The value of no lift drag and Oswald’s efficiency was found to be

CDO = 0.058
e = 0.341

Graphical representation:

BHP*V V/S V 4 ×10 6

8000

7000

6000

5000
BHP*V

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V4 × 106

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JAIN UNIVERISTY_GROUP G_EXPERIMENT 2

 Climb Experiment

Aim:
The aim of the climb performance experiment is to determine the maximum rates of
climb, and the corresponding speeds at different altitudes, and to extrapolate the service
and absolute ceilings for airplane. Minimum time required for climb from h1 to h2 can also
be evaluated.

Theory:

In aviation a climb is the operation of ascent of an aircraft. It is also the logical phase of a
typical flight (the climb phase or climb-out) following take-off and preceding the cruise.
During the climb phase there is an increase in altitude to a predetermined level. As the
climb progresses, the rate of climb decreases as thrust reduces due to reducing air density.
Rate of climb is an aircraft’s vertical speed- Ascent of aircraft per unit time, usually
expressed as feet per minute or meters per second. In order to increase altitude, we must
add energy to the aircraft. We can do this by increasing the thrust or power available. If we
do that, one of three things can happen:

• We will increase kinetic energy (accelerate).

• We will increase potential energy (climb).
• We will do both, accelerate and climb.

If we desire to climb, we should hold the airspeed constant and use all excess power to
increase our potential energy. Consequently, if we assume that we keep the airspeed
approximately constant (called the quasi-steady assumption).

Procedure:

• Record the take-off weight (WT)

• Note the initial altitude h1 in time t1 and the final altitude h2 and the corresponding
time t2 during the steady climb experiment.
• Simultaneously record the speed (v), RPM, manifold pressure of the engine and
outside air temperature from the cockpit instrumentation panel. Repeat the
experiment for different climb speeds.
• Record the weight after landing (WL). The weight that has to be considered for
calculations is average of take-off and landing weights.

W1 + W2
W= 2

• Find out the rate of climb for each velocity and the corresponding angle of climb ℽ,
using the following equations:
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h2 −h2
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RC ≈
t2 −t1
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 To
RCtrue = RCobserved ×
Ts

RC
Sin𝛾 =
V

• Plot rate of climb v/s speed.

• Plot angle of climb v/s speed.
• From the plots find out the maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb and
corresponding speeds.

Tabular representation:

MP Rate of
OAT
V (knots) V (m/s) RPM (mm in h1 (feet) h2 (feet) Time(s) climb 𝞬
(°C)
Hg) (m/s)

79 40.6411 2730 28.1 20 1000 1500 36 14.080 20.242

85 43.7278 2740 28.1 20 1000 1500 28.1 17.731 23.891

92 47.3289 2750 28.1 20 1000 1500 33 15.045 18.542

104 53.5022 2760 28.1 20 1000 1500 30 16.550 18.00

V: True airspeed
H1: Altitude at which climb begins.
T1: Time at which climb begins.
T2: Time at which the climb ends.
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Graphical representation:

1. Rate of climb v/s Speed:

Rate of climb Vs Airspeed

5.6
5.4
5.2
5
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Airspeed

2. Angle of climb v/s Speed:

Angle of climb vs airspeed

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
30 35 40 45 50 55
Airspeed
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Result:
It can be observed that,
• The velocity at the maximum rate of climb is 43.72m/s
• The velocity at the maximum angle of climb is 43.72m/s

DRAG POLAR:
The drag polar is the relationship between the lift on an aircraft and its drag,
expressed in terms of the dependence of the drag coefficient on the lift coefficient.
It may be described by an equation or displayed in a diagram called a polar plot.

As speed increases, the induced drag decreases, but parasitic drag increases
because the fluid is striking the object with greater force, and is moving across the
object's surfaces at higher speed.

RATE OF CLIMB:
In aeronautics the rate of climb is an aircraft's vertical speed – the positive or
negative rate of altitude change with respect to time.

Physical Relevance of the experiment:

Estimation of drag polar tells us about the aerodynamic efficiency of the
aircraft, the analysis of this polar gives us the relation between the lift and
drag of the aircraft.

What is the Significance of the experiment for commercial flying?

Commercial airliners want to make the most money out of a flight, this can
be done only when an aircraft is fuel efficient. By analysing the drag polar one
can optimize the aircrafts design to make it more efficient and hence burn less
fuel and require less power. 11
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Phugoid Effect:
A phugoid is an aircraft motion in which the vehicle pitches up and climbs, and then
pitches down and descends, accompanied by speeding up and slowing down as it goes
"downhill" and "uphill". This is one of the basic flight dynamics modes of an aircraft (others
include short period, Dutch roll, and spiral divergence), and a classic example of a negative
feedback system. The phugoid has a nearly constant angle of attack but varying pitch,
caused by a repeated exchange of airspeed and altitude. It can be excited by an elevator
singlet (a short, sharp deflection followed by a return to the centered position) resulting
in a pitch increase with no change in trim from the cruise condition. As speed decays, the
nose drops below the horizon. Speed increases, and the nose climbs above the horizon.
Periods can vary from under 30 seconds for light aircraft to minutes for larger aircraft.
Microlight aircraft typically show a phugoid period of 15–25 seconds, and it has been
suggested that birds and model airplanes show convergence between the phugoid and
short period modes. A classical model for the phugoid period can be simplified to about
(0.85 × speed in knots) seconds, but this only really works for larger aircraft.

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Dutch Roll:
Dutch roll is a type of aircraft motion, consisting of an out-of-phase combination of
"tail wagging" and rocking from side to side. This yaw roll coupling is one of the basic flight
dynamic modes (others include phugoid, short period, and spiral divergence). This motion is
normally well damped in most light aircraft, though some aircraft with well-damped Dutch
roll modes can experience a degradation in damping as airspeed decreases and altitude
increases. Dutch roll stability can be artificially increased by the installation of a yaw
damper. Wings placed well above the centre of gravity, sweepback (swept wings) and
dihedral wings tend to increase the roll restoring force, and therefore increase the Dutch
roll tendencies; this is why high-winged aircraft often are slightly anihedral, and transport-
category swept-wing aircraft are equipped with yaw dampers.

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