ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESS ENGINEERING

LECTURE 2

POLLUTION

Definition; Pollution is the discharge of particulate matter or gaseous matter into the air.

Particulates/Particles

Particulates/Particles are very tiny/minute solid substances. In general particulate matter is

normally airborne and remains suspended in the air for quite a long time unless and until they are
removed either chemically or physically. The particulates/particles can be classified into three
different categories which are;

(i) Smoke - is a flue gas produce as a result of burning a substance. This flue gas will consist
of quite a number of gases and a number of tiny/minutes solid substances ( solids which
are of a diameter less than 1µm)
(ii) Dust - dust are tiny/minutes solid substances with a diameter in the range between 1 to 75
µm
(iii) Grit - grit are tiny/minutes solid substances with a diameter greater than 75 µm

Sources of Particulates

There are various sources of particulates and these depend upon the category in which they fall
and these are;

(i) Smoke – is mainly from the burning of fuels e.g. petrol/diesel combustion in motor
vehicle, fuel combustion in the industry, incineration plants etc.
(ii) Dust – Wind generates particulate matter by blowing dust and other particulates from
places of deposition into the ambient air from various industries such as construction
science, cement manufacturing industries, granulated fertilizer industries, mining
industries during communition etc.
 (iii) Grit - is also from the 2 formentioned only that the particulate size will be greater
than 75.

Effects of Particulates to Health

The particulates of particles are always suspended in the air hence these are normally inhaled by
animals, people etc. when they are breathing. Their presence in the air breathed by the living
organisms is as follows: The exposure by the living organisms such as animals, people etc to the
surroundings with particulates/particles; they can suffer from;

(i) Short-term exposures can aggravate heart or lung diseases leading to symptoms such
as increased medication use, hospital admissions, ED visits, and premature mortality;
(ii) Long-term exposures can lead to the development of heart or lung disease and
premature mortality.

Effects of Particulates to the Environment

The presence of the particulates in the air do affect the environment as follows;

(i) Impairs visibility i.e. it causes a misty or cloudy surrounding resulting in the
invisibility/ obscurity upon visualization.
(ii) Adversely affects the ecosystem processes, and damages soils structures and property.
(iii) Variable climate impacts depending on particle type. Most particles are reflective and
lead to net cooling,
(iv) while some (especially black carbon) absorb energy and lead to warming.
(v) Other impacts include changing the timing and location of traditional rainfall patterns.

Gaseous Matter

These are the minute/tiny particles far much less than a micron similar to air which expand
(random movement) to occupy any given volume or space.
There are quite a number of gases which are produced from industry and as a result they add to
the pollutants in the air. These gaseous pollutants are a threat to the environment and health.
Some of the gases are;

(i) Ozone
Is a strong oxidizing agent made up of 3oxygen atoms and its chemical formula is O3.

Sources of Ozone - it is emitted directly from some industrial processes into the atmosphere and
photochemical and chemical reactions between other air pollutants in the atmosphere. Since
ozone comes from chemical reactions among ozone precursors in the atmosphere, the sources of
ozone are actually the sources of the precursors. Ozone precursors come from:

a. Fuel combustion and evaporation associated with cars, trucks, buses and equipment;
b. Fuel combustion and evaporation associated with large stationary sources such as
power plants, oil refineries, and factories;
c. Fuel combustion and evaporation from small stationary sources such as gasoline
dispensing facilities, print shops and others;
d. Organic compound evaporation from consumer products such as paints, cleaners, and
solvents; and
e. Fuel combustion and evaporation from off-road engines in aircraft, trains,
construction equipment, agricultural operations, and lawn and garden equipment.

Effects of Ozone to Health

a. It Decreases lung function and causes respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and
shortness of breath;
b. It aggravates asthma and other lung diseases leading to increased medication use,
hospital admissions, emergency department (ED) visits, and premature mortality.
c. It is an irritant and can damage sensitive tissues in animals (including humans) and plant
tissues

Effects of Ozone to the Environment

 a. It Damages the vegetation by visibly injuring leaves, reducing photosynthesis, impairing
reproduction and growth, and decreasing crop yields. Ozone damage to plants may alter
ecosystem structure, reduce biodiversity, and decrease plant uptake of CO2.
b. It is is also a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming

(ii) Oxides of Sulphur –

These are gaseous compounds which contain sulphur and oxygen are normally denoted as SOx
gases. In the gaseous state the x normally ranges from 1 to 3 and these are normally referred to
as monoxides, dioxides and trioxides respectively. The SOx mainly present in the atmosphere is
sulphur dioxide. These normally constitutes the oxidation states of sulphur in the presence of
oxygen.

Sources of Oxides of Sulphur

a. Fuel combustion most sulfur dioxide is produced by burning fuels containing sulfur or
b. Mining – most sulpur is also produced in the mining industry by roasting metal sulfide
ores which have high contents of sulphur.
c. Volcanoes – this is a natural source from which sulphur is emitted during the volcanic
eruption, and this accounts 35–65% of total sulfur dioxide emissions
d. Power generation – The Thermal power generation stations which are used for producing
steam in order to produce electricity do contribute to large emissions of anthropogenic
sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere due to the combustion of high-sulphur fossil fuels
such as coal and oil used for heating water.
e. Industrial boilers – the coal/oil fired boilers in the industry also contribute to the SOx
emissions into the atmosphere.
f. Metal smelters – the metal smelters in which coal is used as a fuel also contribute to high
emissions of SOx.
g. Vehicles can also contribute to high local ambient concentrations of sulfur dioxide
especially in urban areas.
h. Domestic fires.
Effects of Oxides of Sulphur to Health

(i) Aggravate asthma, leading to wheezing, chest tightness and shortness of breath, increased
medication use, hospital admissions, and ED visits; very high levels can cause respiratory
symptoms in people without lung disease.

Effects of Oxides Sulphur to the Environment

(i) It contributes to the acidification of soil and surface water and mercury methylation in
wetland areas.
(ii) It causes injury to vegetation and local species losses in aquatic and terrestrial systems.
(iii) It corrodes metal, and causes building materials and textiles to deteriorate and
weaken
(iv) It reacts with atmospheric moisture and causes acid rain.
(v) It participates in photochemical reactions in the atmosphere to produce smog.

(i) Oxides of Nitrogen

These are gaseous compounds which contain Nitrogen and oxygen are normally denoted as NOx
gases. In the gaseous state the x normally ranges from 1 to 2 and these are normally referred to
as monoxides, dioxides and respectively. The NOx mainly present in the atmosphere is nitrogen
dioxide. These normally constitutes the oxidation states of nitrogen in the presence of oxygen.

Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen

(i) Nitrogen oxides occur naturally and also are produced by man's activities. In nature,
they are a result of bacterial processes, biological growth and decay, lightning, and
forest and grassland fires.
(ii) The primary source of man-made nitrogen oxides is from the burning of fossil fuels.
(iii) Of the nitrogen oxides emitted, most is nitric oxide, some is nitrous oxide and less
than 10 per cent is nitrogen dioxide. The amount of nitrogen dioxide emitted varies
 with the temperature of combustion; as temperature increases so does the level of
nitrogen dioxide.
(iv) Agriculture also plays a role in nitrogen oxide emissions with the use of fertilizers
contributing nitrous oxide to the atmosphere.

Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen to Health

(i) Aggravate lung diseases leading to respiratory symptoms, hospital admissions, and
ED visits; increase susceptibility to respiratory infection.

Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen to the Environment

(i) Contributes to the acidification and nutrient enrichment (eutrophication, nitrogen
saturation) of soil and surface water. Leads to biodiversity losses.
(ii) Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas, it contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere
(iii) Nitrogen oxide is potentially toxic to plants, can injure leaves and reduce growth and
yield. In combination with either ozone (O3) or sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
dioxide may cause injury at even lower concentration levels.
(iv) It reacts with atmospheric moisture and causes acid rain.

Oxide of carbon –
These are gaseous compounds which contain carbon and oxygen only. There are only two oxides
of carbon in gaseous state namely carbon monoxide which is the product of incomplete
combustion of organic matter, including fossil fuels and carbon dioxide which is a result of
complete combustion of material composed of organic carbon. Their chemical formula is CO and
CO2 respectively.

Sources of the Oxides of Carbon

Sources of Carbon Monoxide

(i) is the product of incomplete combustion (caused by inadequate supply of oxygen) of

organic matter, including fossil fuels
 (ii) It is found in exhaust gases of motor vehicles, cigarette smoke etc.
(iii) It is found in the reaction of steam with red coke at 900oC

Sources of Carbon Dioxide

(i) Produced by the respiration of plants, animals, and microorganisms that use oxygen
as an electron acceptor,
(ii) burning of fossil and other fuels for generation of heat and power.

Effects of Carbon Monoxide to Health

(ii) Reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s organs and tissues; aggravates heart
disease, resulting in chest pain and other symptoms leading to hospital admissions and
ED visits.

Effects of Carbon Monoxide to the Environment

(iii) Contributes to the formation of CO2 and ozone, greenhouse gases that warm the
atmosphere.

Effects of Carbon Dioxide to Health

Effects of Carbon Dioxide to the Environment

(i) carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is its contribution, along with methane, to the
promotion of global warming, caused by the so-called greenhouse effect.

Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds (VOCs)

These are a class of chemicals that are emitted directly to the air as a result of evaporation or
another type of volatilization.

Sources of Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds (VOCs)

(i) Sources include stored gasoline, stored solvents and other industrial chemicals, and
certain industrial processes.
 (ii) Incomplete combustion of fuels of many types is also an important source of VOC
discharge to the ambient air.

Effects of Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds (VOCs) to Health

(i) Some are toxic air pollutants that cause cancer and other serious health problems.
Contribute to ozone formation with associated health effects.

Effects of Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds (VOCs) to the Environment

(i) Contributes to ozone formation with associated environmental and climate effects.
(ii) Contributes to the formation of CO2 and ozone, greenhouse gases that warm the
atmosphere.
(iii) Possible contribution to smog via photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

(iv)Hydrogen Sulphides

It is a colourless, flammable gas with a characteristic odour of rotten eggs.

Sources of Hydrogen Sulphide

It occurs in nature and is produced by numerous industrial activities

Effects of Hydrogen Sulphide to Health

(i) It has the ability to desensitize the olfactory apparatus in a few minutes if the
concentration is higher than a few parts per billion by volume. Persons who have
entered confined spaces containing hydrogen sulfide gas have died because soon after
entering the space they were unable to smell the H2S, did not realize they were
breathing it, and were overcome by a fatal dose.
(ii) It is an irritant of the lungs and at low concentrations irritates the eyes and the
respiratory tract. Exposure may result in headache, fatigue, dizziness, staggering gait,
 and diarrhoea, followed sometimes by bronchitis and bronchopneumonia (Sax and
Lewis, 1989).
(iii) Very large concentrations result in paralysis of the respiratory centre, causing
breathing to stop and may potentially lead to death

Effects of Hydrogen Sulphide to the Environment

(v) Malodorous Odours –

(vi)Hydrocarbons