Communication and Systems Summary of Week 1 EE-17236 (TC-307)

Communication: is a process of exchanging information from source to destination.

Basic Elements:
• Sender: is a person who wants to send information(audio/video) to another person.
• Transmitter: it modulates the information/ message and pass it to channel.
• Receiver: it receives information after passing through the channel or medium, demodulates
and process it.
Classification:

• According to modes: one-way(simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex)

Simplex:
It is unidirectional, that is we can send information only.
Full duplex:
This is bidirectional. Here both Tx and Rx can send and receive information at same time.
Half duplex:
This is also bidirectional but Tx and Rx cannot send and receive message at one time.
• According to transmission: baseband or broadband transmission
Baseband transmission:
Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals directly into the medium is referred to as
baseband transmission.
Broadband transmission:
The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna for transmission. This process is called
broadband transmission.
• According to input message: Analog Communication system (ACS) or Digital Communication
system (DCS) respectively.
Blocks Used in ACS:
(a) Information source (b) Transducer (c) Transmitter (d) Channel (e) Receiver (f) Noise
Blocks Used in DCS:
(a) Information source (b) Transducer (c) Source encoder (d) Channel encoder (e) digital modulator
(f) Channel (g)Digital demodulator (h) Channel decoder (i) Source decoder (j)Output transduce

✓ Defining each block individually,

Information source:
is a non-electrical quantity.

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Transducer:
When message produced by source is not electrical in nature, input transducer is used to convert it into
time varying electrical signal.
Transmitter:
The main function of transmitter is to modify the baseband signal and send this modulated signal for
transmission over channel to the desired receiver. The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic
components and circuits.
Channel:
The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to
another, from transmitter to receiver.
Receiver:
A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message
from the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by humans.
Digital modulator:
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier.
Source encoder:
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits.
Channel encoder:
The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction.
Digital demodulator:
Channel decoder This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as
converted again from analog to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
Source decoder:
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital output is
obtained without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source output.
Output transducer:
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which was at the input of
the transmitter.
• Analog to digital conversion:
Pulse-code-modulation (PCM) is widely used to convert Analog into digital
Which is a 3-step process.
1. Sampling 2. Quantization 3. Encoding

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• Modulation is a process in which message signal is superimposed on carrier to change the

parameters of carrier signal wrt message signal.
Types of Modulation:
1. Analog Modulation 2. Digital Modulation 3. Pulse Modulation
Analog Modulation:
Amplitude modulation (AM): The baseband information signal called the modulating signal varies the
amplitude of the higher-frequency carrier signal.
Frequency modulation (FM): The information signal varies the frequency of the carrier.
Phase modulation (PM): Varying the phase angle produces phase modulation.
Digital Modulation:
ASK: If amplitude of carrier is varied proportional to information signal then ASK is produced.
FSK: If frequency is varied proportion to information signal then FSK is produced.
PSK: If phase is varied proportion to information signal then PSK is produced.
• Need and Benefits of Modulation:
• Antenna size gets reduced: Min antenna height = λ/4 = c/4f
• Modulation reduces noise and interference: Modulation have property to suppress noise &
interference with increase in bandwidth known as Wideband noise reduction.
• Avoid mixing of signals: if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then
they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain.
• Communication range increases: The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted. Therefore, it increases the range of communication.
• Multiplexing of signals is possible: Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be
transmitted over the same communication channel. This is possible only with modulation.
• Reception quality improves: With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication
techniques such as PCM, the effect of noise is reduced. This improves quality of reception.
• CODING:
Coding is method to convert data into non understandable form so that unauthorize people cannot
access it its purpose to secure the channel and the signal. Coding is essential is digital technique for wide
band noise reduction.
The 2 most significant limitation on performance of comm system are
1. Noise: Noise refers to random and unpredictable electric signals produced by natural process both
internal and external to the system.
2. Bandwidth: is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.

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Summary of Week 2

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Electromagnetic waves are the signals that oscillate sinusoidal, in free
space. The range of an electromagnetic signal is divided into bands with names and boundary
encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum, as shown below:

• Laws of CS:
Nyquist Shannon sampling theorem: This is used to calculate signal bandwidth.
r or C=2B (For Binary Signals). r or C = 2B log2N (For multilevel Signals)
Hartley Shannon capacity theorem: This is used to find channel bandwidth.
I or C = 2B (without noise). I or C = B log2 (1+ SNR) (with noise)
Nyquist sampling rate: Minimum sampling rate is equal to twice the highest audio input frequency.
fs ≥ 2fm where fs= minimum Nyquist sampling rate (Hz) fm = maximum analog input frequency (Hz)
If fs is less than 2fm; an impairment called aliasing occurs which leads to loss of information.

•
Bit Rate Baud
Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital Baud, like bit rate, refers to the rate of change of
information signal, which is usually binary. a signal on the transmission medium after
encoding and modulation have occurred.

• Modem: Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows

a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet. It converts
or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a
computer can recognize.
Multiplexing: In Multiplexing, the resource allocation is assigned and sharing of a channel such as
telephone users usually takes place confined to a local site.

• Types of Multiplexing:
FDM: divides the bandwidth into smaller frequency ranges and each user transmit data simultaneously
through a common channel within their frequency range.
TDM: allocates a fixed time slot for each user to send signals through a common channel

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WDM: combines multiple light beams from several channels and combine them to a single light beam
and sends through a fiber optic strand similar to FDM.
Multiple access: Multiple access usually involves remote sharing of a resource such as in satellite
communication or mobile communication radio channel by large number of users in dispersed locations.
• Types of Multiple access:
FDMA: FDMA systems are like frequency- division multiplexing in that they allow many users to share a
block of spectrum by simply dividing it up into many smaller channels. Typical channel widths are 30
kHz, 200 kHz,1.25 MHz, and 5 MHz
TDMA: relies on digital signals and operates on a single channel. Multiple users use different time slots.
Because the audio signal is sampled at a rapid rate, the data words can be interleaved into different
time slots. In TDMA systems, slot one allows three users per frequency channel and the other allows
eight users per channel.
CDMA: Direct-sequence SS is also called code-division multiple access (CDMA), or SS multiple access.
CDMA is used in satellite systems so that many signals can use the same transponder.
• Wave Propagation Through (Radio/ Microwave)
Ground Waves/surface waves: Surface wave propagation is used for ship to ship and ship to shore
communication, for radio navigation and maritime mobile communication.
Sky Waves: Sky wave signals are radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere, where they are
bent back to earth. This bending of the signal is caused by refraction in a region of the upper
atmosphere known as the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into three layers, the D layer, the E layer, and the F
layer; the F layer is subdivided into the F1 and F2 layers. The D and E layers, the farthest from the sun,
are weakly ionized. They exist only during daylight hours, during which they tend to absorb radio signals
in the medium frequency range from 300 kHz to 3 MHz The F1 and F2 layers, the closest to the sun, are
the most highly ionized and have the greatest effect on radio signals. The F layers exist during both day
and night.
Space Waves: This method of radio signal propagation is by direct waves, or ground reflected wave. A
direct wave travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
Direct wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-of-sight communication.
Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow the curvature of the earth. Because of their
straight-line nature, direct wave signals travel horizontally from the transmitting antenna until they
reach the horizon, at which point they are blocked.
• Classification of signals:
Periodic vs non periodic signals:
A periodic signal is a signal which repeats again and satisfies the condition g(t)=g(t±𝑇°) • A non-periodic
signal or A periodic signals does not satisfy above condition
Deterministic Vs Random Signals:
A deterministic signal has no uncertainty w.r.t its value while random signals have uncertainty.

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Energy and Power signals:

Signal g(t) is an energy signal if total energy satisfies the condition 0< 𝐸 < ∞. Signal g(t) is a Power signal
if total power satisfies the condition 0< 𝑃 < ∞. Energy signal has zero average power whereas power
signal has infinite energy.
Odd and even signals:
A signal has odd symmetry if is satisfies v(t)= - v(-t).
A signal has even symmetry if it satisfies v(t)= v(-t).

• Phasor Representation:
To describe phasor in frequency domain the corresponding amplitude and phase with respect to
frequency. The frequency domain description would be the line spectrum which consists of 2 plots:
amplitude Vs frequency and phase Vs frequency.
• Line spectrum has Four conventions:

✓ We use f cyclic frequency rather than radian frequency w

✓ Phase angles are measured w.r.t cosine waves. Hence sine waves need to be converted into
cosine using the identity sin Ѡt = cos (Ѡt – 90⁰)
✓ Amplitude should always be a positive quantity. When negative sine appears, it must be edit in
the phase using -A cos Ѡt= A cos (Ѡt + 180⁰) It does not matter whether you take plus or minus
180 since phasor ends in same place either way
✓ Phase angles are expressed in degrees even though Ѡt are inherently in radians.

• Two-Sided Line Spectrum:

✓ Phasor diagram consists of two phasors with equal length but opposite angles and direction of
rotations this type of line spectrum is two sided since it includes negative frequencies.
✓ The amplitude spectrum has even symmetry while the phase spectrum has odd symmetry.

• Fourier Series for Periodic signals:

Trigonometric Fourier series formulas: Trigonometric Fourier series gives one sided line spectrum.
Exponential Fourier series: Exponential Fourier series gives two-sided line spectrum.
• Sinc Function:
The normalized sinc function is the Fourier transform of the rectangular function with no scaling.
It is used in the concept of reconstructing a continuous bandlimited signal from uniformly spaced
samples of that signal.

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TASK#3: APPLICATIONS

• MODULATION AND ITS TYPES:

There are 3 basic types of modulation: Amplitude modulation, Frequency modulation, and Phase
modulation
APPLICTION OF FREQUENCY MODULATION:
Telemetry, radar and seismic prospecting, EEG monitoring of new-born’s etc. also use the technique of
frequency modulation. Frequency modulation can be used for the broadcasting of FM radio. This helps
in larger signal to noise ratio. It is also used in music synthesis, some systems that use video
transmission and also for magnetic tape-recording systems.
FM BROADCASTING:
FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation (FM). Invented in 1933
by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, wide-band FM is used worldwide to provide high fidelity sound
over broadcast radio. FM broadcasting is capable of higher fidelity—that is, more accurate reproduction
of the original program sound—than other broadcasting technologies, such as AM broadcasting or DAB
radio. Therefore, FM is used for most broadcasts of music or general audio (in the audio spectrum). FM
radio stations use the very high frequency range of radio frequencies.
APPLICATION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Broadcast transmissions: AM is still widely
used for broadcasting on the long, medium and short-wave bands. It is simple to demodulate and this
means that radio receivers capable of demodulating amplitude modulation are cheap and simple to
manufacture. E.g. VACCUM TUBES

APPLICATION OF PHASE MODULATION:

Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral element of many digital
transmission coding schemes that support an ample range of wireless technologies such as GSM,
Satellite television, and Wi-Fi.
• MULTIPLEXING
The 3 types of multiplexing techniques include the following.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
APPLICATION OF FDM:
FDM has been popularly used to multiplex calls in telephone networks. Frequency Division Multiplexing
System is used in the telephone system. FDM helps to transmit multiple phones calls over a single
transmission line or a single link. Frequency Division Multiplexing System is also used in Satellite
Communication system. FDM helps to transmit the multiple channels of data in satellite communication.
In our broadband connection system, FDM also used. The FDM system is used in Digital Subscriber Line

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or DSL Modems, which helps to transmit a huge amount of computer data for accessing the Internet
over a single transmission line.
APPLICATION OF TDM:
It used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) telephone lines. It is used in PSTN (public switched
telephone network). It is used for some telephone system. It is used in wire line telephone lines.
APPLICATION OF WDM:
The technology of WDM is widely used in Optical Transport Networks. The rapid growth of data service
demands a higher quality of the capacity of transmission equipment’s, network bandwidth and the
ability of multi-service transmission. This paper introduces the application of 1.6Tbit/s WDM Multi-
service Transmission Platform of fiber home Telecommunication Technologies Co., Ltd. (FT) in the
backbone transmission network of China Unicom in Jiangsu Province, and analyzes the key technology of
RAMAN/EDFA Fiber Amplification, GEthernet interface, Sub-data-rate Multiplexing, Data Wrapping and
Forward Error Correction (FEC) and administration of networks.
MULTIPLE ACCESS:
Following are the three types of multiple access techniques.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
APPLICATIONS OF FDMA:
In FDMA, all users share the satellite transponder or frequency channel simultaneously but each user
transmits at single frequency. FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal but it generally used
with analog signal. FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast to TDMA
and CDMA. Typical channel widths are 30 kHz, 200 kHz,1.25 MHz, and 5 MHz
APPLICATIONS OF TDMA:
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT) standard for portable phones.
APPLICATIONS OF CDMA:
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various signals to occupy a
single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology is commonly
used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems.