DC Motor

A motor is an electrical machine, which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy.
Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, its experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by
Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and whose magnitude is given by
F=BlI Newton
Where, F= force , newtons (N); B= flux density, webers per square meter (Wb/m2
or tesla, T); I = Current, A; l = length of conductor in magnetic field, meters (m)
The force exerted on the conductor is dependent upon three factors.
First a magnetic field must exist, then a conductor must be located in the magnetic
field, and finally current must flow in the conductor.
Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a DC generator and a DC
motor.
In fact the same DC machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a
motor.
DC motors are also like generators, shunt-wound and series-wound or compound-
wound.
 Working Principal of Operation of DC Motor
To operate a DC machine as a motor, with the field windings excited and the North
and South pole magnetic fields established in the air gap by the stator poles, a DC
current has to be passed through the armature terminals.
The DC current passing via the armature terminals, brushes and commutator causes
the armature conductors to have the current in such a manner that the conductors
coming under the North pole region carry current in one direction, say, inward
direction while the remaining conductors under South pole region carry current in
the opposite direction, say, outward direction as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Current carrying armature conductors cause additional magnetic field to be set up.
Interaction of this magnetic field with the main
magnetic field supplied by the stator poles cause Force
a force to be developed around the conductors.
The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s
Left-Hand rule.
Rotation
Under the North pole region, the main magnetic
field comes out of the pole and enters the
armature core.
The magnetic field set up by the inward current
carrying conductor is clock-wise. Force
 Hence the force developed is in the anti-clock-wise direction which can be
determined by applying Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule.
Under the South pole region, the direction of the main magnetic field is reversed
from the armature core towards the pole, and the direction of the magnetic field set
up by the outward current carrying conductor is also anti-clock-wise.
The direction of the force developed remains the same as the force under the North
pole region, anti-clockwise according to Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule.
Therefore, force developed in all the conductors is uni-directional.
These forces acting on the shaft give rise to
torque (Torque has been defined as the product Force
of the force multiplied by a distance measured
perpendicularly from the axis of the force to the
center of rotation ). Rotation
If the torque developed is more than the sum of
the frictional torque exerted by the moving parts
of the motor and the torque exerted by the load
on the shaft, if any, it will cause the motor rotate Force
in the anti-clockwise direction (using Fleming’s
Left-Hand Rule).
In case, clockwise direction is required, either the direction of the main field or the
direction of the current through the armature conductors is to be reversed.
 Back EMF or Counter EMF
When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotated and
hence cut the flux.
In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf is
induced in them those direction, as found by Fleming’s Right-hand
Rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage.
Because of its opposing direction, it is referred to as back emf or
counter emf Eb.
The work done in overcoming this opposition is converted into
mechanical energy developed in the armature.
The equivalent circuit of a motor is
shown in Fig. 29.6.
V has to drive Ia against the
opposition of Eb.
The power required to overcome this
opposition is EbIa.
The equation for V E
armature current Ia can Ia  b
be written as follows: Ra

where, Eb=(ZN/60)(P/A) volt,

and N is in rpm.

Back emf depends among other factors, upon the

armature speed.
If speed is high, Eb is large, hence armature current Ia, as
seen from the above equation, is small.
If the speed is less, then Eb is less, hence more current
flows which develops motor torque.
So, we find that Eb acts like a governor i.e. it makes a
motor self-regulating so that it draws as mush as current
as just necessary.
 Compare DC Generator with DC Motor

DC Generator DC Motor
DC generator converts the DC motor converts the
mechanical energy to the electrical energy to the
electrical energy. mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy supplied Electrical supplied by
by prime mover in its rotor applying the voltage in its
shaft. terminal.

It develops voltage which in It develops force (or torque)

turn produces a current flow which in turn produces
in an electrical circuit. mechanical rotation.
 DC Generator DC Motor
The direction of developed The direction of developed
voltage is obtained by force is obtained by applying
applying Fleming’s Right- Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule.
Hand Rule.

Backward force or magnetic Back emf or counter emf

drag opposes the rotation of opposes the supplied
prime mover. voltage.
The work done in The work done in
overcoming the opposition overcoming the opposition
of magnetic drag is of back emf is converted into
converted into electrical mechanical energy.
energy.
 Voltage Equation of a Motor
The voltage V applied across the motor armature has to
(a) Overcome the back emf Eb and
(b) Supply the armature ohmic drop IaRa.
So, V=Eb+IaRa
This is known as voltage equation of a motor.
Now multiplying both sides by Ia, we get VI  E I  I 2R
a ba a a
VIa: electrical input to the armature
EbIa: electrical equivalent of mechanical power delivered in the armature
Ia2Ra: Cu loss in armature
Hence out of the armature input, some is wasted in I2R loss and the rest is
converted into mechanical power within the armature.

Motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power

developed by the armature and to its input i.e.
  E Ia /VIa  E /V
b b
Obviously, higher the value Eb as compared to V,
higher the motor efficiency.
 Condition for Maximum Power
The gross mechanical power developed by a
Pm  E Ia VIa  Ia2Ra
motor is b
It is seen from the above equation that the electrical power converted
into mechanical power is equal to the product of the counter-emf and
the armature current.
This mechanical power must be used to overcome mechanical losses
inside the machine, including friction of the bearing and forcing of
the air through the machine for cooling purpose.
The remainder of the power is available to do work in outside of
motor.
In order to obtain the maximum power condition, differentiating both
sides with respect to Ia and equating the result to zero, we get

dPm d[VIa  Ia2Ra ] V  2Ia Ra  0

 0 Ia Ra  V
dIa dIa 2
 As, V  E  Ia Ra and Ia Ra  V So, E  V
b 2 b 2

Thus gross mechanical power developed, Pm, by a motor is

maximum when back emf is equal to, half the applied
voltage (Eb=V/2).
This condition is not realized in practice, because in that
case current would be much beyond the normal current of
the motor.
Moreover, half the input would waste in the form of heat
and taking other losses (mechanical and magnetic) into
consideration, the motor efficiency will be well below 50%.
 Torque
Torque means the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this
force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meter acted upon by a circumferential
force of F Newton which causes it to rotate at N rpm as shown in Fig.
29.11.
Then torque T=Fr Newton-meter (N-m)
Work done by this force in one revolution = Force  distance
Work done by this force in one revolution = F2r joule
Power developed = F2rN =(Fr)  2N joule/sec or watt
Now, 2N= angular velocity  in radian/second
and Fr= torque T.
So, Power developed, P = T  watt
Moreover, if N is in rpm, then =2N/60 rad/sec
So, P  2N T  2 NT  NT watt
60 60 9.55
 Armature Torque of a Motor (Ta)
For a rotating body, the relation among the developed power (P), the angular
velocity () and the torque (T) can be written as follows: T  P Newton, N

Let, Ta be the torque developed by the armature of a motor running at N rps. If Ta is
in N-m, the power developed, Pm= Ta =2NTa watt (i)
We also know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the
armature is, Pm=EbIa watt (ii)
E Ia 60Eb Ia
Equating (i) and (ii), we get, Ta  b (iii) Ta  (iii)
2N 2N

Since, E  ZN P we get I I Z P

Ta  a ZN P  a  0.159IaZ P N  m
b A 2N A 2 A A

Since Z, P and A are constant for a generator, we obtain

TaIa or Ta  K Ia where, K  0.159ZP / A

2 2
(a) In the case of a series motor,  is directly proportional to Ia
(before saturation) because field winding carry full armature
current. So TaIa2

(b) For shunt motor,  is practically constant, hence TaIa

If N is in rpm then Eq. (iii) is given by

E Ia 60E Ia E Ia
Ta  b  b  9.55 b Nm
2N / 60 2N N
 Shaft Torque (Tsh)
The whole of the armature torque, as calculated above, is not
available for doing useful work, because certain percentage of it is
required for supplying iron and friction losses in the motor.
The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as shaft
torque, Tsh.
It is so called because it is available at the shaft.
If Tsh is in N-m and N is in rps, the motor output is given by
Output in watt, P
Output , Po  Psh  Tsh   Tsh  2N watt So, T  sh N  m
sh 2N
If N is in rpm then
Output in watt, P 60 Output in watt, P Output in watt, P
T  sh  sh  9.55 sh Nm
sh 2N / 60 2 N N

The difference (Ta-Tsh) is known as lost torque [Tf] and is due to

iron and friction losses of the motor.
Example 29.6 A DC motor takes an armature current of 110 A at
480 V. The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 ohm. The machine has
6-poles and the armature is lap-connected with 864 conductors. The
flux per pole is 0.05Wb. Calculate (i) the speed, and (ii) the gross
torque developed by the armature.

Solution: Eb=480-1100.2=458 V, =0.05 Wb, Z=864

Now, E  ZN P or 458  0.05864 N 6

b 60 A 60 6

So, N  45860  636 rpm

0.05864

Ta  0.159IaZ P  0.1591100.05864 6  756.3 N  m

A 6
Example 29.7 A 250V, 4 poles, wave wound DC motor has 782
conductors on its armature; it has armature and series field resistance
of 0.75 ohm. The motor takes a current of 40A. Estimate its speed
and gross torque developed if it has flux per pole of 25 mWb.

Solution: We know that E  ZN P

b 60 A

E V  Ia Ra  250  400.75  220V

b
3
220  2510 782N 4
60 2

So, N  22060 2  337.6 rpm

25103782 4

Ta  0.159IaZ P  0.159 40 25103782 4  248.676 N  m

A 2
Example 29.9 Determine develop torque and shaft torque of 220V, 4
pole series motor with 800 conductors wave-connected supplying a
load of 8.2 KW by taking 45A from the mains. The flux per pole is
25 mWb and its armature circuit resistance is 0.6 ohm.

Solution: Develop torque or gross torque is the same thing as

armature torque E V  I R  220  450.6 193V
b a a

N 193 2  4.825 rps

25103800 4

Ta  0.159IaZ P  0.159 45 25103800 4  286.2 N  m

A 2

2NT  output or 2  4.825T  8200

sh sh

So, T  8200  270.5 N  m

sh 2  4.825
Example: A 75 kW, 500 V dc shunt motor has 4 poles and wave
connected armature winding with 492 conductors. The flux per pole
is 0.04 Wb and the full-load efficiency 91%. The armature
resistance is 0.08 ohm and the shunt field resistance 200 ohm.
Calculate for full load (i) the speed, (ii) the develop torque, and (iii)
shaft torque.
Solution: Pi  Po /  75103 / 0.91 82417.582 W
I L  Pi /V 82417.582 / 500 164.835 A Ish V / Rsh  500 / 200  2.5 A
Ia  I L  Ish 164.835 2.5 162.35 A
Eb V  Ia Ra  500 (162.3350.08)  487.013V
60Eb A 60487.013 2
N   742.398
Z P 0.04492 4
EbIa 60487.013162.335
Ta   1016.921 N  m
2N / 60 23.14742.398
60Po 60Psh 6075103
So, Tsh     964.708 N  m
2N 2N 2 742.398
 Speed of a DC Motor
We have already known know that E  ZN P (i)
b 60 A
E V  Ia Ra
b
(ii) From (i) and (ii) ZN P V  Ia Ra (iii)
60 A

V  Ia Ra 60 A
So, from (iii) N   rpm (iv)
 ZP
E 60 A
From (i), N  b  (v)
 ZP
E
or, N  K b (vi) where, K  60 A
 ZP
It is shows that speed is directly proportional to back emf (Eb) and
inversely proportional to the flux () or
E
N b (vii)

Let, N1 = speed in the first case; Ia1 = armature current in the
first case; 1 = flux/pole in the first case
N2, Ia2, and 2 = corresponding quantities in the 2nd case.
Then using the relation (vii), we get
E For Series Motor  Ia
N  b1 (viii)
1  N E I
1
where, E V  I Ra 1  b1 a2 (xi)
b1 a1 N E Ia1
E 2 b2
N  b2 (ix)
2  For shunt motor
2
where, E V  I Ra The flux is almost constant for
b2 a2 all speed. That means   
1 2
From Eqs. (viii) and (ix), we obtain
N E
N E 
1  b1 (xii)
1  b1 2 (x) N E
N E 1
2 b2
2 b2
 Speed regulation

The term speed regulation refers to the change in speed of a

motor with change in applied load torque, other conditions
maintaining constant.
The speed regulation defined as the change in speed when
the load on the motor is reduced from the rated value to
zero, expressed as per cent of the rated load speed.

N N
%Speed regulation  NL FL 100
N
FL
 Torque and Speed of a Motor
E
It has been seen earlier that TaIa (a) N b (b)

It is seen from above that increase in flux would decrease the speed
but increase the armature torque. It cannot be so because torque
always tends to produce motion. If torque increases, motor speed
must increase. The apparent inconsistency between the above two
equations can be reconciled in the following way:

Suppose that the flux of a motor is decreased by decreasing the field

current. Then, following sequence of events takes place:
(a) Back emf Eb (=N/K) drops instantly (the speed remains constant
because of inertia of the heavy armature).
(b) Due to decrease in Eb, Ia is increased because Ia=(V-Eb)/Ra.
Moreover, a small reduction in flux produces a proportionately large
increase in armature current.
(c) Hence, in equation, a small decreased in  is more than counterbalance by a
large increase in Ia with the result that there is a net increase in Ta.
(d) This increase in Ta produces an increase in motor speed.
It is seen from above that with the applied voltage V held constant, motor speed
varies inversely as the flux.
However, it is possible to increase flux and, at the same time, increase the speed
provided Ia is held constant as is actually done in a DC servomotor.

It is imperative that the field circuit of the motor never be opened while power is
applied to the motor.
If the field circuit is opened, the flux will drop to practically zero.
In this situation the speed would increase to an extremely high value.
The centrifugal force created at the high speed may cause the windings to be pulled
out of the slots or may cause the copper commutator segments to buckle, resulting
in damage to the motor.
Proper use of overload devices would protect the motor.
Since the reduced flux reduces the counter-emf, a large current would be drawn by
the motor.
This excessive current would operate the overload device, disconnect the motor
from the supply, and thus protect the motor.
 Power Stages of DC Motor
The various stages of energy transformation in a motor and also the
various losses occurring in it are shown in the following flow
diagram.

The losses taking place in the motor are same as in generator.

These are (i) Copper losses, (ii) Magnetic Losses, and (iii) Mechanical Losses.
The condition for maximum power developed by the motor is, IaRa=V/2=Eb
The condition for maximum efficiency is that armature Cu losses are equal to
constant losses (This derivation has been done in the DC generator part).
It is seen that A-B=copper loses
and B-C=iron and friction losses

Electrical efficiency e  B
A

Mechanical efficiency m  C
B

Overall or commercial efficiency c cc  C

A
 DC Motor Characteristics
The characteristic curves of a motor are those curves which show the
relationships between the following quantities.
(1) Torque and armature current i.e. Ta/Ia characteristic. It is
known as electrical characteristic.
(2) Speed and armature current i.e. N/Ia characteristic.
(3) Speed and torque i.e. N/Ta characteristic. It is also known as
mechanical characteristic. It can be found from (1) and (2) above.

While discussing motor characteristics, the following two relations

should always be kept in mind:
E
TaIa (a) N b (b)

 Characteristics of Series Motors
Torque and armature current (Ta/Ia characteristic or electrical
characteristic):
In this case of series motor, Ia up to the point of magnetic saturation.
Hence before saturation Ta Ia and Ta Ia2.
At light loads, Ia and hence  is small.
But as Ia increases, Ta increases as the square of the current.
Hence, Ta/Ia curve is parabola as shown in Fig. 29.14.

After saturation,  is almost independent of Ia

hence only.
So the characteristic becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque Tsh is less than armature torque
due to stray losses. It is shown dotted in the
figure.
Speed and armature current (N/Ia characteristic):
Variations of speed can be deduced from the formula: NEb/ or NEb/ Ia.
Change in Eb, for various load currents is small and hence may be neglected for the
time being.
With increased Ia,  also increases. Hence, speed varies inversely as armature
current as shown in Fig. 29.15.
When load is heavy, Ia is large, hence, speed is low.
But when load current and hence Ia falls to a small value, speed becomes
dangerously high.

Hence, a series motor should never be

started without some mechanical (not
belt-driven) load on it otherwise it may
develop excessive speed and get
damaged due to heavy centrifugal forces
so produced.
It should be noted that series motor is a
variable speed motor.
Speed and torque (N/Ta characteristic or mechanical
characteristic):
It is found from above that when speed is high, torque is
low and vice-versa.
The relation between two is as shown in Fig. 29.16.
 Characteristics of Shunt Motors
Torque and armature current (Ta/Ia characteristic or electrical
characteristic):
Assuming  to be practically constant, so we find that TaIa.
The electrical characteristic as shown in Fig. 29.17, is practically a
straight line through the origin. Shaft torque is shown dotted.

Shaft torque is shown

dotted.
Since a heavy starting load
will need a heavy starting
current, shunt motor should
never be started on (heavy)
load.
Speed and armature current (N/Ia characteristic):
If  is assumed constant, then NEb.
As Eb is also practically constant, speed is, for most purpose, constant
as shown in Fig. 29.18.
But strictly speaking, both Eb and  decrease with increasing load.
However, Eb decreases slightly more than  so that on the whole,
there is some decrease in speed.

Hence, the actual speed curve is

slightly drooping as shown by the
dotted line in Fig. 29. 18.
But, for all practical purpose, shunt
motor is taken as a constant speed
motor.
Speed and torque (N/Ta characteristic or mechanical characteristic):
It is found from above two characteristic curves and is shown in Fig.
29.19.
 Compound Motors Characteristics
These motors have both series and shunt fields winding.

If series excitation helps the shunt excitation

(as shown in Fig. 29.20a) i.e. series flux is
in the same direction; then the motor is said
to be cumulative compound.

If on the other hand, series field

oppose the shunt field (as shown in
Fig. 29.20b), then the motor is said to
be differentially compound.
 N
Series
Cum. Comp.
Shunt
Diff. Comp.

Speed
Rated
The characteristics of
0 Ia
such motors lies in Fig. 29.21(a)
between those of
shunt and series
Torque

motors as shown in
Series
Fig. 29.21. Cum. Comp.
Shunt
Diff. Comp.

Speed
0
Fig. 29.21(b) Rated
Ia
 END
OF
DC
MOTOR