Vibration Basics

All machines, All Applications have one thing in common…

There are many applications and many types of industry that we may come
across. However, no matter how different or complex that they may appear
to be, we can take comfort in knowing that they all obey Newton’s Laws of
motion. Even non-self excited applications such as structures and
machines that involve linear motion rather than rotary motion obey the
same laws.

Special Notes for iPad Users

For iPad users, this course plays in the “Articulate mobile player app”,
available free from the App store.
The app offers a download option for offline learning, but please note that:

1. An on-line connection is required to use the links on the “resources”

tab
2. If you wish to be able to print your course completion certificate then
you need to be on-line when you take the end-of-course test
To continue, you can click the Home icon on the screen to return to the
Welcome page of the course.

Module 1: Basic physics

All machines, no matter what they are, obey the laws of physics.

Page 1:
The law that’s of most interest to us is Newton’s second law of physics,
which says that force equals mass times acceleration.

As a simple experiment here to illustrate this point, we have a machine, in

the form of a benchtop grinder, sitting on top of a set of bathroom scales.

1
 The grinder weighs about 5 Kg so we get a reading because the force of
gravity is pulling the grinder down onto the bathroom scales, giving us a
reading of its static mass.

No matter how well the machine is constructed there will inevitably be

some residual unbalance in the rotor. Even a gyroscope which is very finely
balanced will have some degree of residual unbalance.

The position of this rotor’s “heavy spot” is indicated by the red arrow. When
the rotor is at rest this unbalance has no effect.

When we switch on the motor the unbalance generates a centrifugal force,

which changes in direction as indicated here by the rotating arrow (or
vector).

Our bathroom scales are measuring force in just one place; the vertical
plane, and will respond to the effect of this centrifugal force.

When the centrifugal force acts in an upward direction the reading on the
scales will decrease, and when the centrifugal force acts in a downward
direction the force reading on the scales will increase.

If we were to plot the forces going into the foundation of our machine (as
indicated here by the bathroom scales) then as the vector rotates through
360 degrees we would generate a “sine wave”.

Page 2:
In the real world, of course, it’s impractical to install scales, or some kind of
force sensors under the feet of a machine in order to measure the effects of
these forces. This would be expensive and invasive.

A more practical way to study this forces and resulting motion is to use an
accelerometer, which we can position on top of the machine

This is a device which measures (as it’s name implies) acceleration. It

contains a piezo-electric crystal which creates a voltage as it moves up and
down. We can capture this signal by connecting the accelerometer to an
instrument.

2
 So if we look on our instrument at what happens as the vector rotates we
see a sinusoidal waveform representing the effect of the forces acting upon
the machine.

It is the FORCES acting upon a machine that are the cause of vibration.

Vibration is not a CAUSE of a problem, it is a SYMPTOM.

If there are any mechanical tolerances in the build of a machine that allow
movement then resulting movement will correspond to the amount and
direction of the force that is being applied.

If, for example, the machine is not bolted tightly to its foundation then as
the machine rotates the resulting motion can be measured using an
accelerometer. There is a direct relationship between the force that’s being
applied and the corresponding vibration that it generates.

To reduce the vibration on a machine the best approach is to reduce the

forces that generate it.

So if the machine is out of balance, then improving the balance condition

will reduce the forces, and reduce the vibration pro-rata.

The value of the vibration will be proportional to the amount of work that’s
being done by a machine. Logically a small, low-powered machine will
develop lower forces than a bigger, high-powered machine. In
consequence the generated vibration will be less. A bigger machine has
typically more power, and hence we would expect to see higher levels of
vibration.

Another thing that needs to be taken into account is load. The harder the
machine is working the more current it’s going to draw; there’s more work
being done so the levels can be expected to go up.

An analogy; driving a car on a flat road; when you start to go up hill you can
hear then engine working harder, and very often you can feel the vibration
levels in the vehicle increase.

The reason why we do all of this is to detect machine faults. We have

already mentioned unbalance. If your machine is faulty then we can use

3
 vibration to detect that fault. If you are in the business of manufacturing
machines then you can use vibration as a reflection of the quality of the
machine before shipping it to your customer.

Then, after machine is installed at the customer’s site you can observe how
the vibration deteriorates with time, and that’s called “machinery condition
monitoring” or “predictive maintenance”.

Module 2: Terminology

We need now to look at the units of vibration measurement and other

associated terminology.

Describing Amplitude
So mechanical structures, when excited, will tend to vibrate with sinusoidal
motion. So to understand vibration we need to understand the quantifying
parameters of sine waves. In the previous module our “machine structure”
was a bench grinder sitting on top of a set of bathroom scales. Like all
machines that structure had mass (m) and stiffness (k), which can be
represented by means of the mass-spring system shown here.

The motion of the mass from one extreme of displacement to the other
extreme, and then back to the start point is referred to as one cycle of
motion.

The time T taken to achieve that cycle is referred to as the period of the
motion. In machinery terms this is typically a very small value, and difficult
to relate to other aspects of the machine’s operation.

Instead we consider the number of cycles that are achieved in a given time,
which we refer to as the frequency of the vibration.

Vibration instruments commonly display the frequency of vibration in terms

of cycles per second, also known as Hertz (HZ).

Thus far we have considered data in the “time domain”.

4
 The amplitude and frequency of a vibration can also be expressed in a
graphical form as we see here.

The amplitude (in this example the vibration displacement) is plotted on the
Y axis against the frequency on the axis.

This display is called a vibration spectrum. This way of looking at data can
also be referred to as the “frequency domain”. We will return to this topic in
more detail in the “diagnostics” module.

The displacement is constantly changing as the mass vibrates. In

machinery terms it is usually measured in “microns” (1 micron =0.001mm)
or in “mils” (1 mili-inch = 0.001 inch).

Often when people talk of the amount of vibration they use the term
“amplitude”, by which they usually mean the total distance through which
the mass moves (i.e. the displacement from one extreme of motion to the
other). This is more correctly termed the “peak to peak” displacement.

This is one measure of vibration “amplitude” (or amount) but, as we shall

now see, there are others. The terms “amplitude” and “displacement” are
NOT synonymous.

The mass must move with some velocity. In machinery terms velocity is
usually measured in mm/sec or in/sec.

The velocity must also be constantly changing as the mass vibrates. At the
extremes of motion the velocity must momentarily be zero, as the mass
changes direction. The velocity will achieve it’s maximum or peak value as
the mass passes through the “neutral” position, i.e. when the displacement
is zero.

Velocity is another measure of vibration amplitude.

The acceleration of the mass must also be constantly changing as the

mass vibrates. At the point where displacement is zero the acceleration
must also be zero, since the mass has accelerated to it’s peak value and
then starts to decelerate again. The acceleration will be at it’s maximum

5
 value at the extremes of motion, as the mass accelerates away from zero
velocity.

So we could express the value (or amount of vibration) in terms of

• Displacement (The distance through which the mass moves)

• Velocity (The speed at which the mass moves)

• Acceleration (The rate at which the velocity changes)

Note then: that the word “amplitude” is not a parameter in its own right. It is
possible to have an;

amplitude of displacement,

amplitude of velocity,

amplitude of acceleration.

Therefore “Amplitude” should not be used as a substitute for the word

“displacement”. Any one of these three parameters can be used as a
measurement of vibration amplitude.

Conversions: Acceleration to Velocity & Displacement

For a sinusoidal motion there is a mathematical relationship between the
three amplitude parameters. Given one, and knowing the frequency of
oscillation, then it’s easy to calculate the others.

If we use an accelerometer sensor then we directly measure the

acceleration level. Dividing that figure by 2piF gives us the velocity of the
vibration. If we take the acceleration level and divide by 4 pi squared F
squared the we get the displacement value.

However, you need not be concerned about the mathematics involved.

Most analysers and vibration meters will do the maths for you! You simply
tell the instrument what type of sensor you are using, what parameter you
want to see on the Y axis, and the instrument will do the arithmetic. All you
need to do is hit the required switch.

6
 In practical terms this also means that using one transducer, such as an
accelerometer, can be used to measure all three parameters. However,
even though this is a very basic introduction to vibration, one thing that you
need to be aware of is the effect that doing this arithmetic has on the
signal.

Seismic vibration
In previous displays we saw how the signal varied against time. When we
look at the signal in that way we speak of the “time domain”.

The display shows the vibration velocity level on the vertical axis, plotted
against the vibration frequency on the horizontal axis. This is commonly
referred to as a vibration “spectrum”. Some people also refer to this as a
vibration “signature”. When we view the signal in this way we speak of the
“frequency domain”. We will return to this way of looking at vibration data
in more detail when we reach the “diagnostics” module.

For now, we see a vibration velocity reading, taken from a stationary

machine. Note that, even though the machine is not running, the instrument
is suggesting that a vibration level of 2.16mm/sec is present.

We see that all of the indicated vibration occurs at the bottom of the
frequency range. This is likely “ground-borne” vibration.

In the real world it’s common that vibration from other sources, for example
adjacent machinery, or even traffic moving along a nearby road, or trains
moving along a nearby track, is transmitted through the ground and is
detected on by the sensor on the stationary machine. This “seismic”
vibration (as it is sometimes known) tends to be always present, and is
typically low frequency in nature.

Ski slope
If a high amplitude of vibration velocity low frequency is observed, then the
most common reason is an amplification of the data caused by the process
of integration from acceleration to velocity.

7
 The spectrum shown here depicts the vibration acceleration as measured
directly by the accelerometer sensor.

To convert the spectrum from g versus frequency to mm/s versus

frequency, we divide each value of g in the spectrum by 2 x PI x F. (As
explained earlier).

On the left of the spectrum “f” is a low number.

Divide a low number into a bigger number and you get an even larger
number! So when we look at the same signal in terms of the calculated
velocity level it appears that the low frequency peak is much larger.

This effect is exacerbated if we divide the acceleration values by 4 x PI x F

squared to view the vibration in terms of its displacement.

The effect is commonly referred to as the “ski slope”.

Causes of low frequency signals in the vibration spectrum are;

a) It is a real signal i.e. low frequency vibration is actually present.

b) It is a false signal, caused by instrumentation faults e.g.. poor

screening, poor contacts, incorrect selection of an appropriate transducer.

c) Electrical noise generated by the sensors in-built electronics. This is

sometimes referred to as “ICP noise” (ICP = Integrated circuit piezoelectric
sensor”.

Item C is the most common. Some accelerometers will emit a signal at 1

Hz or below which is due to the ICP circuitry. When converting from
acceleration to velocity this signal gets amplified and values of 360mm/s (or
even higher) may be observed on the y axis. To combat this you can install
a low frequency filter (the DI-2200 doesn’t have one though – the PL302
does).

Filter 10Hz to 1kHz

The ISO committees responsible for compiling machinery vibration
standards are obviously aware of this issue, and most specify that readings

8
 below 10 Hz should be disregarded. (Be aware, though, that some
standards specify 2Hz.) The electronics of most modern vibration
instruments therefore typically offer appropriate switchable filters.

Low frequency sensors

To study real low frequency vibration it is necessary to use a special
accelerometer which is designed for the purpose and which does not emit
ICP noise at low frequency. (For example SKF sensors shown here)

Module 3: Parameters and detectors

Describing Amplitude
In the previous module we learned that there are three measures of
vibration amplitude

• Displacement (The distance through which the mass moves)

• Velocity (The speed at which the mass moves)

• Acceleration (The rate at which the velocity changes)

We also saw that each of these parameters varies sinusoidally during each
cycle of vibration. So how can we express the “value” of a signal that is
constantly changing?

Signal Level Descriptors – Peak to Peak

1. The total signal value, from one extreme to the other extreme is called
“peak to peak” (Pk-Pk). If the peak to peak amplitude is not constant (i.e
changing with time) we usually record the value when it was at its biggest
/ maximum.

Signal Level Descriptors – Peak

2. The signal value from point of rest / reference position to one side only is
the peak value (Pk.)

Signal Level Descriptors – RMS

9
 3. Most ISO and European standards will require you to measure the
signal’s “root mean squared” value (r.m.s.). The RMS value is the most
commonly used way of expressing the value. It’s a way of “averaging”
the signal, so let’s take a little time to understand it in more detail.

The r.m.s. process

The r.m.s. value is calculated by taking a series of amplitude
measurements over a period of time. (For example 1024 measurements
over 400 milliseconds.) The simple average, or mean value of these
measurements would be zero, because for half of the cycle the values are
positive, and for the other half of the cycle they are negative.

Square each value and then take the average (or mean). When the
negative values are squared they become positive values.

Take the square root of the mean value and that gives the r.m.s.

The signal is measured over a period of time, and so the r.m.s. value is
proportional to the amount work being done by the machine or to the
amount of fault energy.

Note that “Average” measurements are often preferred by the gas turbine
industry, and this is simply 0.9 of the r.m.s.

Signal Level Descriptors – Peak

So there are four ways of measuring the amplitude values:

1. Peak to peak

2. Peak

3. RMS

4. Average (Mean)

This becomes important when we wish to compare vibration data with

some published standard, or if we wish to compare vibration data taken
with different instruments. In such circumstances it is obviously important to
compare like with like.

10
 In fact if we assume that the motion is sinusoidal then there is a simple
arithmetic relationship between all four quantifiers. For example, the peak
value is root 2 times the r.m.s.

Overall vibration level

So far we have considered vibration as a simple, sinusoidal motion
occuring at only one frequency. Vibration from real machinery is usually
more complex, involving motion resulting from a combination of forces,
associated with different machinery faults.
Consider the machine train shown here. If the accelerometer is placed at
(say) the gearbox input bearing then what is being sensed? The vibration at
that point will represent the total effect of all of the forces present in the
machine, as transmitted to that point.

There will undoubtedly be some vibration present due to unbalance in the

drive motor. It may not represent a problem but it will be present. This
vibration results from the centrifugal force induced by the unbalance. The
frequency of that vibration will therefore equate to the rotating speed of the
motor. (i.e. if the motor is rotating at 1500 rpm then the vibration frequency
will be 1500 cpm or 25Hz).

There will probably be some vibration resulting from misalignment in the

coupling. Again, this may not represent a problem but it will still be present.
Vibration resulting from misalignment will logically occur at a frequency
relating to the rpm of the offending shaft. Depending upon the nature and
severity of the condition it may occur at various multiples (harmonics) of the
shaft speed. For the purpose of this exercise let us imagine that the
vibration occurs at two times shaft speed frequency.

There is likely to be some vibration present at a result of the meshing

action of the gears. The gear mesh frequency is the number of teeth on the
gear multiplied by it’s RPM so this will be higher frequency than the other
vibration components considered so far.

There may well be other vibration components present but for the purpose
of this exercise these will be ignored.

11
 The total vibration sensed at the gearbox input bearing will be the total of
the various components present..

Adding together vibrations of differing amplitudes at different frequencies

does not result in a new, simple, sinusoidal waveform.

The combination of these different vibration sources results in a more

complex time waveform, the characteristics of which will be dictated by the
individual vibrations present. This total vibration is referred to as “Overall”
vibration, sometimes called “Broadband” vibration.

This overall vibration can still be expressed in terms of its

• Peak value

• Peak to peak value

• RMS value

• Average (mean) value

Benefit of overall severity measurement = simplicity

A lot of “condition monitoring” activity relies on periodic (or continuous)
measurements of the overall vibration level. Indeed, ISO standard 10816-3
defines areas of vibration severity according to overall levels of vibration
velocity.

This approach to condition monitoring has the advantage that it can be

applied with relatively simple, inexpensive instruments and systems, and it
works on the basis that, if the total vibration does not change, then it’s a
reasonable assumption that the individual vibration components have
stayed the same. So when the total vibration increases then these basic
measurements give warning of an impending problem, but typically lack the
ability to identify the particular component of vibration that has deteriorated.
This requires instrumentation that provides information regarding the
individual vibration frequency components that are present. We shall
discuss this in more detail later in this course.

12
 What to measure?
We learned earlier that we can express the value (or amount of vibration) in
terms of

• Displacement (The distance through which the mass moves)

• Velocity (The speed at which the mass moves)

• Acceleration (The rate at which the velocity changes)

So which of these parameters should we use when attempting to monitor

change in machinery condition?

ISO standards are available to guide you in this but if you don’t have
guidance from a standard then you’ll need to choose your own, so consider
the following.

We also learned that there is a mathematical relationship between the

three parameters.

Velocity varies with the frequency, whilst acceleration varies with the
square of the frequency.

A-V-D relationship
Here we see the relationship between the three parameters expressed
graphically.

For a constant displacement we can see the resulting velocity and

acceleration levels at various frequencies.

High frequencies – Destructive forces

It’s evident that, at high frequencies, relatively low levels of displacement
can result in high levels of acceleration, because acceleration is a function
of displacement and the square of the frequency.

Newton’s law tells us that Force = Mass x acceleration. This means that, at
high frequencies, even moderate excursions can result in the generation of
very destructive forces.

13
 Therefore, if we are measuring high speed machinery or machines which
can generate high frequency vibrations (>10kHz) then acceleration is a
meaningful parameter to measure.

Low frequencies – Stress failures

Conversely, at low frequency even relatively high levels of displacement
will result in low levels of acceleration. Here the problem is not one of force,
but rather one of stress. Components may suffer degradation as a result of
stresses induced by deflecting them through too great a distance. So where
low frequency vibrations (below 10Hz) are of concern displacement is a
meaningful parameter to measure.

Mechanical fatigue
Fatigue failures occur when components are subjected to repetitive, cyclic
stresses. The time taken to reach failure is typically a function of the
deflection that occurs (i.e. displacement) and the rate at which the
deflections occur (the frequency). As we saw a few moments ago, velocity
is a function of displacement and frequency, so for general machinery use,
where fatigue failures are of concern, velocity is a meaningful parameter to
measure.

Module 4: Impulsive signals

Demo - Peak, RMS & dealing with impulsive signals
Impulsive signals result from impacts.

As an example, consider what happens if we use a screwdriver handle to

tap this bench grinder as we collect vibration data using an accelerometer
mounted on one of the bearings, as shown.

Demo - Peak, RMS & dealing with impulsive signals

Here we see the resulting time waveform.

14
 During the time taken to collect this data the machine was struck twice with
the screwdriver handle. We can see the two spikes in the signal that
resulted.

The effect of these two spikes on the RMS level of the signal will be very
small, as a result of the “averaging” that occurs in calculating the RMS
value.

Dealing with impulsive signals

Now think about bearings.

Bearings are precision components, designed to have a long service life.

When bearings become damaged, usually as a result of some underlying

problem such as lubrication faults, misalignment, excessive loads etc. they
do generate impulsive signals.

These result from impacts which occur as (for example) raceway defects
are over-rolled by the bearing elements.

Dealing with impulsive signals

Impulsive signals are also generated by the rolling action that occurs
between damaged or broken gear teeth.

Selection of amplitude descriptor

Consider this signal’s time waveform. It exhibits some tall peaks due to
short duration impacts – could these be the result of bearing defects?

If we use an RMS amplitude descriptor to arrive at an “overall value” for this

signal then the effect is to average the individual values and reduce the
measured level to a much lower calculated value. Individual peaks would
have to grow massively before they had an impact on the RMS value.

Selecting a Peak or Peak-to-Peak detector would still not capture the data
correctly, as instruments calculate these two descriptors from the RMS
value (See module 3: Pk =1.414* RMS) (Pk-Pk = 2 *Peak)

15
 Note that some instruments, such as the SKF Microlog, offer a true peak
detector which would be the correct selection for studying this type of data.

Enveloping technique (Demodulation)

To detect bearing damage in its early stages a technique is needed that
can detect the small impulsive signals that are generated when impacts
occur between microscopic flaws in bearing elements. This vibration is
typically very small in comparison with general machinery vibration
resulting from misalignment or unbalance.

So it becomes evident that simply monitoring the RMS vibration level is

inadequate for this task. Whilst this is effective for detection of common
machinery faults such as unbalance, misalignment and looseness it cannot
be relied on to give early warning of impending bearing problems.

Development of SKF’s implementation of Enveloping (demodulation) was

carried out in a practical research environment. No other condition
monitoring company has real bearing test facilities such as those of SKF in
the Netherlands, India & China. SKF uses the technology of enveloping in
their own factories. It was first used in the 1960’s as a quality tool.

Band-pass filtering
Let’s take a look at how enveloping works. The illustration here shows a
time domain signal (acceleration) , resulting from low frequency shaft
related vibration.

In the illustration at lower left we now see the effect of the impulsive signals
resulting from a bearing defect.

The first stage of the process involves band-pass filtering of the time
domain signal using a band pass filter that centers on the region of high
frequency energy. The figure on the right above shows the filtered output
in the time domain. The filtering process results in a series of spiky bursts
of energy, which are the impacts from the rolling elements hitting the defect
as the bearing rotates.

16
 Key to SKF’s implementation of enveloping (gE) was standardizing on 4
band pass filter values across all SKF instruments:

ENV1: 5 Hz - 100 Hz

ENV2: 50 Hz - 1 kHz

ENV3: 500 Hz - 10 kHz

ENV4: 5 kHz - 40 kHz

Standardized Band-pass filters

The next stage of the process is to pass this filtered time signal through an
enveloper in order to extract the repetition rate of the spiky bursts of
energy. Historically, the enveloper is an electronic circuit that demodulates
or rectifies the signal. In today’s vibration data analysis equipment, this
process is done using digital signal processing (DSP) enveloping
algorithms.

The result of passing the signal through the enveloper is shown here in the
time domain. Units of measurement applied to the enveloped signal are gE
(i.e. gs of envelope). It provides a “figure of merit” that can be used to
reliably monitor change in the condition of bearings and gears. Enveloping
can also be applied as an diagnostic tool, and we shall return to this in the
“diagnostics” module.

Alarm limit calculation

SKF software is available to aid correct filter selection, and to suggest
appropriate tolerances.

Module 5: Taking Data

Where to measure
The keys to a successful vibration-based condition monitoring program is
consistency in measurement location and in trandsucer mounting method.

Let’s begin by selecting our measurement locations. Vibration readings are

usually taken at the bearing housings. This is logical because vibration is

17
 generated by forces that result from the rotating parts of the machine, and
these make contact with the machine structure at the bearings.

On this machine there are four bearings; two on the drive motor and two
supporting the fan impeller. Enveloped acceleration readings are to assess
change in bearing condition, so again it is logical to take measurements at
the bearing housings. Where machines include a gearbox, then enveloped
acceleration signals generated by gear meshing will also be detectable at
the housings of the supporting shaft bearings.

Measurement planes
General machinery problems such as unbalance, misalignment and
looseness will generate vibration in a radial direction.

Tab 1:
Due to gravity, most machine structures are stiffer in the vertical plane, and
so the horizontal plane of measurements is often (but not always) the most
responsive to changes.

Ideally, enveloped acceleration readings should be taken in the bearing’s

load zone. However, in most cases this is not possible, and the
compromise is to take the readings in the horizontal plane.

Tab 2:
However, when looseness develops, especially in the machine’s mounting,
this often causes a vibration increase in the vertical plane.

It’s common practice, therefore, to take measurements in both horizontal

and vertical directions.

Tab 3:
Misalignment conditions, on the other hand, also generate thrusting forces,
and so tend to cause a vibration increase in an axial direction. When you
take axial measurements be sure that the instrument’s tip is held firmly
against a suitable surface, such as the bearing housing or some other
machine face.

18
 Where a machine employs thrust bearings these are taking load in the axial
direction, and therefore measurements of enveloped acceleration should
also be taken in the axial plane.

Mounting the sensor

Many portable instrument systems provide an accelerometer that has a
magnetic head with which to temporarily attach it to the machine. Properly
used this does provide better consistency of data than is obtained by hand-
holding the sensor against the target surface.

Remember though that one of the faults that can be detected by vibration
monitoring is looseness. If the sensor is loosely mounted on the machine
then we shouldn’t be surprised if that fault is detected! Make sure that the
magnetic head sits firmly on the target surface. If that surface is curved
then rotate the magnet so that it does not rock.

Where it is necessary to hand-hold the sensor then hold it with a firm even
pressure against the machine surface. Don’t press so hard as to dampen
out the vibration that you are trying to measure, especially on light , flexibly
mounted machinery.

Recording the data

Many modern data collection instruments store readings as they are
collected, and then transfer the data to a host software system for storage,
analysis and reporting.

In the absence of such a package it is important to have a disciplined

approach to record keeping. Condition monitoring is essentially about
detecting change in condition, so good record keeping is vital.

Evaluating collected data

It is important to have an action plan in place to investigate suspect
conditions as they arise, and to instigate timely investigation and corrective
activity.

19
 There are three principal ways of evaluation collected data. The first is the
use of published standards.

ISO 10816-3 is probably the most widely used standard for general
machinery monitoring. It classifies machines according to size and
foundation type, and suggests tolerances in terms of vibration velocity.
Machinery manufacturers are also often able to provide information
regarding the vibratory behaviour of their machinery.

Evaluating collected data

The use of graphical trend charts makes it easier to observe significant
changes, irrespective of indicated alarms. Trend charts also allow the rate
of deterioration to be assesses and to guide in the prioritization of further
action. Software supplied with modern data collection systems usually
makes it very easy to produce these graphical reports, and to even
generate alarms based on the rate of change and other statistical analyses
of the collected data.

In this simple example we can see that the vibration velocity reading is well
in excess of the higher alarm threshold suggested by ISO10816-3.
Furthermore we can see that when the machine was checked a month
earlier, the reading had, in fact, exceeded the first level of alarm, and that it
has been generally deteriorating over a period of two or three months. This
illustrates the importance of having an action plan in place, to ensure that
out of limit conditions are recognized and investigated in a timely manner,
otherwise the effort expended in monitoring the machine will have been
wasted.

Evaluating collected data

The trend for the Enveloped Acceleration data from the same
measurement location shows that, despite the significant increase in
vibration velocity, there is no indication at this time that the bearing
condition has been adversely affected by the as yet undiagnosed
mechanical problem which has caused the increase in vibration velocity.
Timely investigative and corrective action now might afford the opportunity

20
 to protect the bearing from damage, and thereby avoid need for bearing
replacement.

Evaluating collected data

The third method is to compare data with readings collected from similar
machines operating under similar conditions. Such comparisons can help
reinforce opinions based on the use of tolerances and trend data.

Module 6: Diagnostics
Vibration frequency
Each and every rotating component will produce forces and vibration that
relates to the frequency at which it operates i.e. its rotating speed.

Time domain analysis – often tells us very little

When we view the overall vibration in the time domain it is usually very
difficult to identify the individual components.

Vibration frequency analysis – clarifies the picture

However, when we view the signal in the frequency domain the picture
becomes much clearer.

We briefly saw this view of the data earlier, in the “terminology” module.
The process by which modern digital instruments generate this view of the
signal is called “fast fourier transform” (FFT). For this reason people often
refer to the spectrum plot, or time domain plot as an “FFT”.

Baseline technique
If we observe an amplitude increase at a frequency then we know that the
forces have increased and we can diagnose which component inside the
machine is at fault.

A common way of using this data is to use the “baseline” technique.

The “baseline” is the spectrum from a machine in acceptable condition.

21
 When the monitoring process indicates that significant change has
occurred, a new spectrum is prepared, and compared with the baseline.

It’s the differences that tell the story. In this example we can clearly see
that it is the high frequency vibration from the gearmesh that has increased.

Frequency Analysis – an Alterative View

The gearbox output drives into the “driven” machine, which could be fan or
pump, so there will be forces due to the residual unbalance of the driven
rotor. Plus, if it is a fan or pump the number then add forces at the number
of blades times the rotor speed.

The rotors of the motor, gearbox and driven machine will all be supported
by at rolling element bearings all generating forces at which the rolling
elements spin.

In short, every single moving component will generate forces at the speed
of their motion to result in multiple excitation frequencies. The time domain
trace for a complex waveform is difficult to interpret……

The “FFT” as a fundamental tool

However with the aid of a spectrum analyser, we can break the complex
waveform back into its constituent sine waves. As was explained earlier,
the process by which modern digital instruments perform this analysis is
called “fast fourier transform” (FFT). For this reason people often refer to
the resulting display as an “FFT”.

There is no “black art” to interpreting a spectrum. Armed with the

knowledge of the rotating components that make up the machine and
knowing their rotational speed tells us where to look in the spectrum for an
increase in vibration due to a developing fault.

22
 Enveloping as a diagnostic tool
The impulsive signals generated by bearing faults are repetitive and
predictable.

For example, the frequency with which a rolling element passes over a
defect in the outer raceway is simply a function of bearing geometry and
shaft speed.

Each bearing component has a unique defect frequency, which enables a

specialist to pinpoint damage.

The following defect frequencies can be calculated:

• BPFO, ball/roller pass frequency outer ring raceway(s) [Hz]

• BPFI, ball/roller pass frequency inner ring raceway(s) [Hz]
• BSF, ball/roller spin frequency [Hz]
• FTF, cage frequency (fundamental train frequency)[Hz]

A program to calculate bearing defect frequencies and thereby pinpoint

damage is available online at www.skf.com/bearings.

Enveloped signals in the frequency domain

We can also view enveloped signals in the frequency domain.

Earlier we looked at an enveloped signal in the time domain. This clearly

shows the regular repetition of the impulses with respect to time. We can
see that there is an impulse every X seconds.

If we view that signal now in the frequency domain we can now see the
repetition rate of the impulses, i.e. the number of impulses per sec, or
impulses per minute.

This makes it easier to relate the signals to the expected fault frequencies,
and their various harmonics.

In the case of bearings, of course, we are not often concerned with whether
the fault is (for example) on the inner raceway or outer raceway. However,
the ability to be so specific aids confidence in decision making, especially if

23
 the decision to take a machine out of service has significant operational
implications.

This is also useful when the readings come from a gearbox. It becomes
possible to discriminate between a bearing fault and a gear problem.

Gearbox r.m.s velocity spectrum versus enveloped

acceleration spectrum
To illustrate the power of enveloping to detect gear mesh signals:

The upper trace shows the 10kHz velocity spectrum from a crane gearbox.
It is almost impossible to see the gear mesh frequency.

The lower trace shows the 1kHz enveloped acceleration spectrum from the
same gearbox. The gear mesh frequency is prominent along with
harmonics.

24