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Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Age constraints on the tectonothermal evolution of the Selwyn Zone,

Eastern Fold Belt, Mount Isa Inlier
M.J. Rubenach a,∗ , D.R.W. Foster a , P.M. Evins a , K.L. Blake b , C.M. Fanning c
a pmd*CRC, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia
b pmd*CRC, Advanced Analytical Centre, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia
c pmd*CRC, Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia

Received 16 September 2006; accepted 13 August 2007

Abstract
The Selwyn Zone is characterized by multiple ductile deformation and metamorphic events. There is general consensus that early in the Isan
Orogeny there were both extensional and thrust events that produced bedding-parallel foliation (Sbp ). We propose that these were followed by
the D1 event that resulted in a regional steep east–west foliation, and that the Snake Creek Anticline and the dominant S2a regional foliation
formed as upright north–south structures. Local overturning of D2 structures was due to subsequent localized deformation (D2b ) that resulted in
structures with flat-lying axial planes. D3 and D4 produced steep upright folds and crenulations with north–northwest and northeast trending axial
surfaces. Metamorphism, largely controlled by the emplacement of mafic rocks, is dominantly low pressure, but the P–T–t path is complex. Early
growth of cordierite (M1 ) followed by andalusite, was succeeded by a clockwise medium pressure loop of ca. 500–600 MPa in the northern Snake
Creek Anticline, as indicated by early D2a kyanite growth. The metamorphic peak during D2 was around 580 ◦ C and 400 MPa at the sillimanite
isograd and reached a maximum of around 670 ◦ C and 400–500 MPa in the migmatitic sillimanite K-feldspar zone at the Cannington and Osborne
mines. Previous age determinations for the metamorphic peak of ∼1580–1600 Ma are confirmed with new electron microprobe dating of monazite,
whereas an age grouping of 1600–1630 Ma may represent the D1 (M2 ) event. Additional ages in the range 1640–1680 Ma are recorded in albitites
from the Soldiers Cap Group, and it is suggested that they formed by infiltration of hydrothermal fluids during extension and the emplacement of
mafic sills. This is supported by SHRIMP dating of zircon from a trondhjemite lens in a largely mafic sill complex in the Snake Creek Anticline that
provided an age of 1686 ± 8 Ma, also indicating that at least part of the Soldiers Cap Group is older than previously indicated. A zircon SHRIMP
age of 1527 ± 4 Ma was obtained for a sample of albitized Saxby Granite. This age also represents the D4 (M6 ) event, and is the timing of the
extensive brecciation and albitization of calc-silicate rocks of the Corella Formation in the Selwyn Zone.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Mount Isa Inlier; Metamorphism; Monazite ages; Albitization

1. Introduction resulting from relatively high values of heat-forming elements

Constraining the tectonothermal history of an orogenic belt
requires the construction of a robust geochronological frame-
work for all significant deformation, metamorphic and intrusive
events that affect the belt. This is particularly crucial for low-
pressure metamorphic belts as a diverse range of models have
been proposed to explain high thermal anomalies in the mid-
dle to upper crust. Such models include advective heat transfer
from igneous intrusions (e.g., De Yoreo et al., 1991), mantle
delamination (e.g., Loosveld and Etheridge, 1990), self-heating
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 47814526.
E-mail address: Michael.Rubenach@jcu.edu.au (M.J. Rubenach).
(e.g., McLaren et al., 1999), and crustal thinning resulting from
extension (Wickham and Oxburgh, 1985; Sandiford and Powell,
1986). As many low-pressure belts show a prolonged history, it
is also important to determine the interrelationships between
ductile deformation, intrusive and metamorphic events using
structural and microstructural criteria (e.g., Bell and Rubenach,
1983).
The Mount Isa Inlier is significant not only as a predomi-
nantly low-pressure orogenic region, but also with regard to the
diversity and abundance of metasomatic lithologies (Rubenach,
1992; Oliver, 1995; Huang and Rubenach, 1995; de Jong and
Williams, 1995; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002; Mark et al.,
2004), and generous endowment of base-metal mineralization,
including a number of world-class deposits (Oliver et al., 1998;

0301-9268/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.08.014
82 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Fig. 1. Metamorphic zones, Eastern Succession, Mount Isa Inlier, modified from Foster and Rubenach (2006). Also shown are locations of generalized north–south
and east–west FIA’s (foliation intersection axes within porphyroblasts), determined by Mares (1998), Sayab (2005a,b, 2006), and Kim and Bell (2005). Dated samples
(other than those on Fig. 2) are as follows: 299 and 890, Osborne Mine; 96-60, Fairmile; 482, Guilded Rose.

Oliver et al., this volume; Williams, 1998). The Eastern Fold Belt
(Fig. 1) was the focus of a considerable body of research within
the Predictive Mineral Discovery Cooperative Research Cen-
tre (pmd*CRC), with the aim of understanding the ore genesis
within the context of the overall tectonothermal and metasomatic
evolution of the belt.
Earlier studies had demonstrated a protracted metamorphic
and metasomatic history of the Eastern Fold Belt (Reinhardt,
1992a,b; Oliver et al., 1991, 1998; de Jong and Williams,
1995; Rubenach and Barker, 1998; Foster, 2003; Foster and
Rubenach, 2006), but certain details of the structural evolution
(particularly the relative importance of thin skinned tecton-
ics during D2 versus the effects of post-D2 deformation in
explaining broad features of the geometry) are controversial
(e.g., O’Dea et al., 1997; Giles et al., 2006a; Sayab, 2005a,
2006). Given such structural controversies and the variety of
thermal models proposed for the Mount Isa Inlier, it is essen-
tial that P–T–t paths are well established and that, in addition
to the metamorphic peak, the ages of all significant meta-
morphic and metasomatic events are well constrained. In this
paper we examine the tectonothermal and metasomatic histo-
ries of the Selwyn Zone (Fig. 1) from the perspective of field
studies, metamorphic and metasomatic timing using traditional
porphyroblast/matrix relationships, and age determinations (zir-
con dating of granitic rocks using SHRIMP, monazite dating
of metamorphic rocks using SHRIMP and electron micro-
probe techniques). The abundance of pelitic rocks, metamorphic
grade variations, generally good exposure, and the abundance
of metasomatic rocks and mineralization combine to make the
Selwyn Zone central to resolving controversies concerning the
tectonothermal and metasomatic histories of the Mount Isa
Inlier. Most of the new data presented in this paper were collected
under the auspices of the pmd*CRC. Although some thermo-
dynamic modelling is included, detailed metamorphic studies
and consideration of metasomatic processes and fluid origins
using geochemical and stable isotope data will be presented
elsewhere.
Mineral abbreviations in this paper are after Kretz (1983);
Ab, albite; And, andalusite; Bt, biotite; Cd, cordierite; Ged,
gedrite; Crn, corundum; Grt, garnet; Kfs, K-feldspar; Ky, kyan-
ite; Mnz, monazite; Ms, muscovite; Qtz, quartz; Sill, sillimanite;
St, staurolite.
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
1.1. Regional geology
The Mount Isa Inlier consists mainly of late Palaeoprotero-
zoic to early Mesoproterozoic rocks, with metamorphic grades
ranging from sub-greenschist to upper amphibolite facies. It
is typically subdivided into three north–south trending tec-
tonic zones, the Eastern Fold Belt, the Kalkadoon-Leichhardt
Belt, and the Western Fold Belt (Fig. 1). A minor portion
of the exposed sequences consists of basement rocks that
were deformed in the Barramundi Orogeny (∼1870–1890 Ma:
Blake, 1987; Etheridge et al., 1987). The overlying sedimen-
tary and volcanic rocks are traditionally divided into three cover
sequences that are interpreted as forming in intracontinental rift
basins (Blake and Stewart, 1992), perhaps in a far-field back-arc
setting (Giles et al., 2002). However, more recent work indi-
cates a more complex depositional pattern (e.g., Page et al.,
2000; Southgate et al., 2000). Deposition of sedimentary and
volcanic rocks in all belts was terminated by the Isan Orogeny,
encompassing multiple deformation and metamorphic events in
the range of ∼1610–1500 Ma (Blake and Stewart, 1992; Page
and Sun, 1998).
The Eastern Fold Belt can be subdivided into the Mary Kath-
leen, Malbon, and Selwyn zones (e.g., MacCready, 2006). This
paper is mainly focussed on the Selwyn Zone, but comparisons
will be made with the other two. A revised chronostratigraphy
of the Eastern Fold Belt is considered by Foster and Austin
(this volume) and only cursory details are presented in this
paper. In the Selwyn Zone, units comprising cover sequence
two include the Double Crossing Metamorphics, the Argylla
Formation, and the Corella Formation, deposited in the range
1762–1742 Ma. Largely the result of a problematic age determi-
nation, the Corella Formation has been referred to as the Doherty
Formation in part of the Selwyn Zone. This problem is summa-
rized in Foster and Austin (this volume), and in this paper we are
using the term Corella Formation to incorporate units mapped as
Corella or Doherty. The Soldiers Cap Group (published deposi-
tional ages between 1677 and 1654 Ma, Page and Sun, 1998), has
the largest outcrop area of units comprising cover sequence 3 in
the Selwyn Zone. The Young Australia Group in the western part
of the Selwyn Zone (Foster and Austin, this volume) is believed
to be a lateral equivalent of the Soldiers Cap Group. Other cover
sequence 3 units in the Selwyn Zone include the Tommy Creek
Beds with depositional ages in the range 1618–1625 Ma and the
Marimo Slate of <1610 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998).
The Isan Orogeny in the Selwyn Zone encompasses a number
of ductile deformation events, with most published metamor-
phic peak ages (around “D2 ”) in the range 1595–1575 Ma
(Page and Sun, 1998; Giles and Nutman, 2002; Gauthier et al.,
2001; Hand and Rubatto, 2002). Plutonic rocks emplaced dur-
ing the later part of the Isan Orogeny include a small group
of ∼1545–1552 Ma granites and tonalites in the southeast of
the Selwyn Zone, and the more extensive Williams and Naraku
Batholiths (emplaced between 1493–1536 Ma; Page and Sun,
1998; Mark, 1999; Mark et al., 2005). The southeast group
and some of the earlier plutons of the Williams Batholith are
deformed, presumably during post-peak ductile events (Page
and Sun, 1998; Mark et al., 1999).
83
2. Deformation history
2.1. Ductile events
Consideration of the literature concerned with the structural
history of the Mount Isa Inlier is made difficult as publications
commonly uses different structural nomenclature and present a
diverse range of interpretations concerning the history of events
and the processes involved. Table 1 sets out the sequence of
events related to the Isan Orogeny proposed for the Selwyn Zone
by some of the authors referred to in the text.
Prior to the Isan Orogeny, localized tectonism also occurred
at ∼1740 Ma at the end of cover sequence 2 deposition, and
was accompanied by intrusion of numerous granite plutons in
the Wonga Belt, Mary Kathleen Zone (Holcombe et al., 1991;
Pearson et al., 1992). In the Selwyn Zone, the Double Crossing
Metamorphics were metamorphosed and intruded by the Gin
Creek Granite at ∼1740 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998), but otherwise
the extent of the Wonga event in pre-Soldiers Cap sequences of
the Selwyn Zone is unknown.
Bell (1983, 1991) described a sequence of D1 , D2 , and D3
ductile deformation events for the Isan Orogeny in the Mount
Isa Inlier based on work in the Western Fold Belt. He argued
that east–west oriented structures (folds, thrusts) formed in D1 ,
that the north–south folds and intense steeply dipping regional
foliation formed in D2 , and that D3 produced folds and crenu-
lations with steeply dipping axial planes striking mainly NNW.
Subsequently Bell and Hickey (1998) described folds with shal-
lowly dipping axial planes that formed between D2 and D3 ,
and proposed that their deformation history extended across
the Mount Isa Inlier. Many workers have criticized the struc-
tural sequence of Bell (1983, 1991), particularly its applicability
elsewhere in the inlier (Connors et al., 1992; Stewart, 1992;
O’Dea et al., 1997; Betts et al., 1998; Lister et al., 1999). Oth-
ers (e.g., Reinhardt, 1992b; Adshead-Bell, 1998; Rubenach and
Barker, 1998) argued that local structural histories in the Eastern
Fold Belt appear to be very similar to the sequence of ductile
deformation events in the Mount Isa area.
In many areas in the Eastern Fold Belt the earliest foliation
attributed to the Isan Orogeny is sub-parallel to bedding (Jaques
et al., 1982; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002; Adshead-Bell,
1998; Giles et al., 2006b). As recumbent folds are rare and sig-
nificant zones of overturned stratigraphy cannot be related to the
bedding-parallel foliation, it may be extensional in origin (Giles
et al., 2006b). However, in other areas early tectonic fabrics have
Table 1
Correlation of deformation events for the Selwyn Zone as proposed in this paper
with those of some other authors
This paper Rubenach and Giles et al. O’Dea et Adshead-Bell
Lewthwaite (2003) (2006a) al. (2006) (1998)
Dbp D1 D1 D1 D1
D1 D2 D2
D2a D3 D2 D2 D2
D2b D4 D3
D3 D5 D3 D3 D4
D4 D6 D5
84 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

been related to crustal shortening (Loosveld, 1989; Hill et al., as the Mitakoodi Culmination and the Hampden Synform along
1992; Mares, 1998; Betts et al., 2000; O’Dea et al., 2006). Thus the boundary of the Malbon and Selwyn zones, (Fig. 1), with
some authors argue for a mid-crustal fold–thrust complex (thin- thrusting from the west to northwest (Betts et al., 2000, 2006;
skinned tectonics) to explain the earlier structures in such areas O’Dea et al., 2006).

Fig. 2. Map of the Snake Creek Anticline, showing isograds, areas of intense albitization in the Llewellyn Creek Formation, and locations of dated samples. Note
the east–west trending D1 folds on the north side of the Snake Creek Anticline.
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
Fig. 3. Corella Formation calc-silicate rocks, west of the Cloncurry Fault, showing overprinting folds. Note the F2b folds that show shallowly dipping axial planes.
Workers from James Cook University have proposed that
a major north–south shortening event produced widespread
east–west oriented folds with steeply dipping axial planes in
the Eastern Fold Belt (Reinhardt, 1992a,b; Adshead-Bell, 1998;
Mares, 1998; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002). These struc-
tures are well preserved in greenschist to lower amphibolite
facies rocks north of the Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2), but
in many other areas of higher metamorphic grade, overprinting
by strong north–south foliations have made field recognition
difficult (Reinhardt, 1992a; Adshead-Bell, 1998; Rubenach and
Lewthwaite, 2002; Lewthwaite, 2000; Sayab, 2005a). East–west
trending folds, overprinted by north–south structures (Fig. 3), are
also quite abundant in unbrecciated Corella Formation west of
the Cloncurry Fault in the Snake Creek area, and along with folds
of similar orientation in the adjacent Mount Norna Quartzite are
interpreted as forming in the Isan Orogeny rather than the earlier
Wonga event. Similar east–west structures occur in some areas
in the Corella Formation and in the White Blow Formation in
the Mary Kathleen Zone (e.g., Sayab, 2005a).
The most intense foliation in the Eastern Fold Belt is com-
monly referred to as S2 . To many workers it formed in the D2
event, axial planar to upright folds of north–south orientation
(e.g., Reinhardt, 1992a,b; Adshead-Bell, 1998; Rubenach and
Barker, 1998; Sayab, 2005b, 2006). However, two vastly dif-
ferent interpretations have been proposed to explain overturned
85
folds with an intense axial plane foliation:
1. They have all formed in the above-mentioned thin-skinned
thrusting event as proposed for the Mitakoodi Culmina-
tion (Loosveld, 1989; Hill et al., 1992; Betts et al., 2000;
MacCready, 2006; O’Dea et al., 2006). In this model steep
S2 foliations are interpreted as being the result of rotation
during subsequent events.
2. They formed as upright north–south trending structures that
were subsequently locally overturned by F3 folds that pro-
duced shallowly dipping axial plane structures with top to
the west senses of shear (Adshead-Bell, 1998; Mares, 1998;
Rubenach and Barker, 1998; Lewthwaite, 2000; Rubenach
and Lewthwaite, 2002; Sayab, 2005b, 2006).
The two models are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but
individual authors generally refer to only one of them and ignore
the other when discussing the Eastern Fold Belt, especially for
key areas such as the Snake Creek Anticline (compare Rubenach
and Lewthwaite, 2002; Giles et al., 2006a).
In this paper we propose the following ductile deformation
history in the Eastern fold belt:
Dbp . A bedding-parallel foliation is the earliest recognized. At
least one event produced a flat foliation sub-parallel with bed-
86 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
ding in rocks throughout most of the Selwyn Zone. We interpret
this as being mainly extensional. However, rare recumbent
folds with E–W axes overprinted by N–S F2 folds are also
present (e.g., in the Snake Creek Anticline), and these may
represent pre-D2 thrusting. It is therefore possible that the
bedding-parallel foliation in some locations could be a combi-
nation of extensional and thrusting events.
D1 . E–W folds with steep axial surfaces are best preserved
in the area north of the Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2). Giles
et al. (2006a) interpret both the N–S Snake Creek Anticline
and the E–W folds as being associated with the one thrusting
event, but on metamorphic and structural grounds, particularly
the widespread occurrence of the E–W folds, we believe they
represent separate events. Further evidence of this event is pro-
vided by foliations preserved in porphyroblasts throughout the
EFB (e.g., Reinhardt, 1992b, in the Rosebud Syncline, Mary
Kathleen area; Mares, 1998, in the Fairmile area; Adshead-
Bell, 1998, in the Selwyn Ranges area; Sayab, 2005a, 2006, in
the Snake Creek and White Blow areas).
D2a . This event produced N–S folds with mainly steep axial
planes. The most intense foliation in the region is S2a .
D2b . Small-scale folds formed in this event are relatively
uncommon (Fig. 3); they have N–S axes, shallow axial planes,
and show top-to-the west sense of shear. Crenulations are more
common but localized. This event is discussed in Rubenach and
Barker (1998), Mares (1998), Adshead-Bell (1998), Rubenach
and Lewthwaite (2002), and Sayab (2005a, 2006), with many of
these authors designating it as D3 . The peak of metamorphism
occurred around late D2a to D2b .
D3 . This event, recognized by all workers, produced NNW-
trending folds, with steep axial surfaces. It produced
crenulations and/or resulted in reactivation or re-use of S2a .
D4 . This event resulted in NE-trending folds with steep axial
surfaces, and crenulations and/or reactivation of S2a . D4 struc-
tures are relatively uncommon in the Selwyn Zone, but can
be recognized over much of the Snake Creek Anticline. As is
discussed below this event was probably synchronous with the
intrusion of the Saxby Granite and the formation of breccias
and albitization in the Corella Formation.
The structural history of the Selwyn Ranges, as discussed
in Adshead-Bell (2000) is similar to that outlined above. Sayab
(2005b) and Mares (1998) describe a similar sequence of events
in the Snake Creek Anticline and Fairmile areas respectively,
however on the basis of porphyroblast inclusion trails these
authors present evidence for extra events with shallowly dipping
axial surfaces, between D1b and D2a , and between D3 and D4 .
2.2. Cloncurry Fault and Cloncurry Overthrust
The use of the terms “Cloncurry Fault” and “Cloncurry Over-
thrust” is reviewed in Giles et al. (2006a) and Blenkinsop et al.
(this volume). The Cloncurry Fault (Figs. 1 and 2) is a steeply
dipping brittle fault, in part marking the boundary of the Corella
Formation and the Soldiers Cap Group but more commonly lying
within the Corella Formation. In contrast, the Cloncurry Over-
thrust is a mylonitic or strongly sheared zone at the contact
between these units. A brittle fault marks the boundary between
the Mount Norna Quartzite and the Corella formation in the
Snake Creek area (Fig. 2).
3. Metamorphism in the Selwyn Zone
Metamorphism in the Mount Isa Inlier is reviewed in Foster
and Rubenach (2006), and the isograd map of the Eastern Fold
Belt (Fig. 1) is adapted from this study. In pelitic rocks of amphi-
bolite facies, andalusite, sillimanite and sillimanite/K-feldspar
zones occupy the largest areas, with a narrow garnet zone. Stau-
rolite, garnet, cordierite, kyanite and gedrite also occur locally
in andalusite and the lowermost sillimanite zones. Although ear-
lier workers suggested that the isograds and metamorphic peak
in the Selwyn Zone related to the D1 event (Jaques et al., 1982;
Ryburn et al., 1988) most metamorphic studies in the Eastern
Fold Belt recognized multiple metamorphic events, with the
peak temperature synchronous with D2 (Reinhardt, 1992a,b;
Oliver et al., 1991; Loosveld, 1989; Rubenach and Barker,
1998; Sayab, 2005a, 2006; Giles et al., 2006b). Because of the
widespread evidence for prograde progression from andalusite
to sillimanite and the occurrence of late-stage kyanite, Reinhardt
(1992a,b) proposed an anticlockwise P–T–t path for the Mary
Kathleen area. In the Selwyn Zone, however, local occurrences
of kyanite indicate a more complex P–T–t path (Rubenach and
Lewthwaite, 2002), and evidence is presented in Sayab (2006)
that the P–T–t path in the Snake Creek Anticline extended
through medium pressures (up to 600 MPa) prior to decompres-
sion and andalusite/sillimanite metamorphism.
The Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2) is a key area in the Sel-
wyn Zone and has been the subject of a number of structural
and metamorphic studies (Jaques et al., 1982; Loosveld, 1989;
Rubenach and Barker, 1998; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002;
Rubenach, 2005; Sayab, 2005a, 2006; Giles et al., 2006a). Fig. 4
is our interpreted metamorphic timing, modified from Rubenach
and Lewthwaite (2002) and Rubenach (2005), while Fig. 5,
showing three andalusite growth events, illustrates the poly-
metamorphic history of the Selwyn Zone. Note that Rubenach
and Lewthwaite (2002) and Rubenach (2005) recognized at least
two deformation/metamorphic events prior to the dominant foli-
ation and consequently called the latter S3 (Table 1). However
in this study the deformation/metamorphic events are labelled
so as to be consistent with field observations together with the
most common usage of D1 and D2 in previous studies. Detailed
studies of inclusion trails in porphyroblasts, particularly using
FIA (foliation intersection axes) techniques suggest a deforma-
tion history more complex than indicated by field observations
alone (Bell and Hickey, 1998; Mares, 1998; Kim and Bell,
2005; Sayab, 2005a). Note that in Fig. 4 we have listed both
deformation and metamorphic events (M), and included ages
interpreted from the monazite dating as discussed below. From
inclusion trail geometry we have interpreted that porphyrob-
lasts commonly grew early in particular deformation events (Bell
and Hayward, 1991), however because of ambiguities in inter-
preting microstructures some porphyroblasts could have grown
anywhere between early in an event to early in the following
event (Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002). We have illustrated
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107 87

Fig. 4. Porphyroblast timing (metamorphic events M) and metasomatism relative to deformation events (D), primarily generalised from the Snake Creek Anticline,
but relevant to the rest of the Selwyn zone. Dbp refers to an event that produced a bedding parallel foliation. Note that the metamorphic events overlap but are not
necessarily coincident with deformation events, as explained in the text. Proposed age ranges are also given. Albite metasomatism includes an early event, restricted
to the Soldiers Cap Group, and a late event that mainly affected the breccias in the Corella Formation, but also includes some veins in the Soldiers Cap Group.

this in Fig. 4 by positioning the metamorphic events so they
overlap with, but commence at ages younger than the start of
the deformation events.
Significant differences between this study and recently pub-
lished work are as follows:
1. We disagree with the isograd pattern of Giles et al. (2006a)
(Fig. 8) for the western limb of the Snake Creek Anticline.
They interpret the staurolite, andalusite and sillimanite iso-
grads as being folded around the anticline, but we have
mapped the isograds as transecting the stratigraphy on the
western and north-western sides of the anticline (Fig. 2), find-
ing andalusite and/or sillimanite in over 25 localities in the
Mount Norna Quartzite as far west as the Cloncurry Fault.
The index minerals defining the isograds grew in a number of
events, and our field, microstructural and age data do not sup-
port the metamorphic model of Giles et al. (2006a) (Fig. 9)
that proposes that the isograds were folded by an evolving
nappe (see Section 7).
2. Some aspects of porphyroblast timing and the P–T–t path
as discussed in Sayab (2006) are rejected in this study. In
particular we find overwhelming microstructural evidence,
together with monazite dating discussed below, that the
majority of cordierite porphyroblasts in the Snake Creek
Anticline grew early, generally prior to the growth of
andalusite, garnet and staurolite, whereas Sayab (2006)
argues that most cordierite formed relatively late. Fresh
cordierite is typically preserved only in muscovite-free rocks
or within large andalusite porphyroblasts, otherwise it has
been replaced by andalusite, biotite and quartz (Fig. 6). In
some examples of pseudomorphed cordierite, kyanite and
more rarely sillimanite preceded andalusite growth (Fig. 8).
88 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Fig. 5. Photomicrograph of a vertical EW oriented thin section of a biotite-rich schist, showing three stages of andalusite growth. The photo is near the margin of
a large andalusite porphyroblast, the majority of which is to the right and below the field of view. And 1 comprises most of the porphyroblast, and shows complex
inclusion trails, probably S1 and S2a . And 2 preserves a strong foliation, probably S2b , here curving around the edge of And 1 but is flat-lying adjacent to And 1 to
the right of the field of view. The foliation in And 3, probably S3 , truncates that in And 2. Plane polarized light, length of field 5.6 mm.

In the Selwyn Ranges area, Adshead-Bell (1998) also found
that most cordierite grew prior to andalusite. Cordierite
that grew late in the metamorphic history, including several
examples documented by Sayab (2006), is relatively rare in
schists of the Selwyn Zone. Such late cordierite was prob-
ably associated with the emplacement of the Williams and
Naraku batholiths as it is also found in some of the thermal
aureoles.
3. The more recent finding of abundant albite inclusions in
cordierite indicates that albitization occurred prior to or pos-
sibly synchronous with cordierite growth, i.e. earlier than
syn-D2 as was proposed in Rubenach and Barker (1998) and

Fig. 6. Sample 855, porphyroblast-rich albitite. Cordierite, with quite fine-grained inclusions of albite, quartz and ilmenite showing a poorly defined foliation, is
enclosed in a large andalusite porphyroblast, and has been partly replaced by biotite and fibrous andalusite. The matrix (not shown here) consists of albite, biotite,
quartz and sillimanite, and shows a strong S2a foliation. Plane polarized light, length 5.6 mm.
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107 89

Fig. 7. Pseudosection calculated in MnNCKFMASH using THERMOCALC-v.3.21 (Holland and Powell, 1998) for a bulk rock XRF chemical analysis of sample
52.2, showing interpreted P–T–t path. P is the Pattison triple point (e.g., Pattison, 1992; Pattison et al., 1999) for the aluminosilicate polymorphs, whereas H is the
Holdaway (1971) triple point. In this paper we prefer the Pattison triple point over the Holdaway triple point. T is degrees Celsius, and P in Kbars. (1) Growth of
andalusite. (2) Growth of garnet and staurolite early in D2a . (3) Growth of kyanite during D2a . (4) Partial replacement of kyanite and staurolite by andalusite. The
path at 4 is interpreted to be isobaric rather than isothermal as south of the 52.2 locality andalusite is replaced by sillimanite in late D2a and D2b . Monazite grains in
the matrix and in kyanite provided ages of ∼1580 Ma (see text).

Rubenach and Lewthwaite (2002). Weak foliations, generally
bedding parallel, are preserved in cordierite and early-growth
andalusite, and these are interpreted as relating to Dbp .
A detailed study involving calculated phase diagrams and
P–T–t paths will be presented elsewhere, but a summary of meta-
morphic conditions for the Snake Creek Anticline is given below.
Fig. 7 shows a pseudosection and interpreted P–T–t path for
schist sample 52.2, collected from the Mount Norna Quartzite
on the northwest of the Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2), Pho-
tomicrographs of this sample, which consists of quartz, biotite,
kyanite, andalusite and garnet, are shown in Rubenach and
Lewthwaite (2002) (Fig. 7) and Sayab (2006; his Fig. 6. However
the sillimanite labelled on this figure is kyanite). In sample 52.2,
kyanite that has probably replaced earlier andalusite has in turn
been partly replaced by andalusite. Staurolite has also been
partly relaced by andalusite. The microstructures in this sam-
ple suggest that all the minerals overgrew the matrix foliation,
interpreted as S2 by Rubenach and Lewthwaite (2002). How-
ever recent work has found that the dominant foliation in the
Mount Norna Formation in the northern part of the Snake Creek
Anticline is commonly S1 , with S2a occurring as a crenulation
cleavage. In a nearby sample (920.2, Fig. 8) it was found that
kyanite has overgrown such a crenulation cleavage, indicating
that it grew at least synchronous with D2 . The pseudosection
calculated for 52.2 indicates a pressure of at least 500 MPa for
the growth of kyanite, and over 600 MPa for the garnet field, the
latter being consistent with calculations based on garnet cores in
nearby samples (Sayab, 2006). Garnet in the samples has largely
been replaced by micas and quartz as a result of decompression.
Decompression also resulted in partial replacement of kyanite
by andalusite. Although the reaction of staurolite to andalusite
could also have been achieved during compression, the change
from andalusite to sillimanite along the isograd to the south was
more likely to have resulted from a subsequent near-isobaric
increase in temperature.
Fig. 9, a photomicrograph of a sample, collected near 490.4
(Fig. 2), illustrates another key relationship in determining
P–T–t paths. It shows cordierite replaced by biotite, quartz and
andalusite, but with inclusions of both kyanite and silliman-
ite in the andalusite immediately in contact with the replaced
cordierite. The matrix contains abundant fibrolite, interpreted as
having grown after andalusite. Because of the kyanite and silli-
manite inclusions, the P–T–t path is interpreted as having passed
close to the aluminosilicate triple point, at around 400–500 MPa,
prior to growth of the host andalusite and the matrix fibrolite.
90 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Fig. 8. Sample 920.2. The main foliation is probably S1 and the crenulation cleavage S2a . Kyanite, with an arm extending into the quartz-rich microlithon on the right
of the porphyroblast, has overgrown S2a , A garnet porphyroblast has been largely replaced by muscovite and biotite, and partly weathered to iron oxyhydroxides
(dark material). Elsewhere in the same sample staurolite is partly replaced by andalusite. Plane polarized light, length 5.6 mm.

Fig. 10 is our interpreted composite P–T–t path for the Snake
Creek Anticline, based on timing and reaction microstructures
and calculated pseudosections for key samples. As well as an
interpreted prograde path up to the regional peak in D2 for rocks
around the sillimanite isograd (1–4) it also shows a prograde
path (5) for schists at the northeast contact of the Saxby Granite
(around sample 773, Fig. 2), where intrusion-related sillimanite,
andalusite and microcline have overgrown D2 -related assem-
blages. Intrusion-related andalusite has also grown synchronous
with steep NNE (D4 ) crenulations, thus timing the granite in
relation to the deformation history.
As shown in Fig. 1, pelitic rocks in the Eastern Fold Belt
show a progression from andalusite through sillimanite to
sillimanite/K-feldspar zones, the latter two commonly contain-

Fig. 9. Sample 865. To the left, inside a large andalusite porphyroblast, is a former cordierite grain, now replaced by biotite and quartz. Kyanite and small sillimanite
prisms occur as inclusions in the andalusite close to the cordierite pseudomorph. Plane polarized light, length of photo 2.8 mm.
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
Fig. 10. Composite P–T–t path for the Snake Creek Anticline. H and P
are the Holdaway (1971) and Pattison et al. (1999) aluminosilicate triple
points. T is in degrees Celsius, P in Kbars. The path was largely deter-
mined from calculated psuedosections of around 10 schist samples (Rubenach,
unpublished data). The dashed line A-B represents the 0.55 Mg/(Mg + Fe)
isopleth of Pattison et al. (2002) for biotite involved in the reaction of
cordierite + muscovite = andalusite + biotite. (1) Early growth of cordierite. (2)
Growth of andalusite (D1 ). (3) Growth of kyanite. (4) Growth of andalusite
and sillimanite during D2a and D2b . (5) Growth of andalusite, sillimanite and
microcline at the contact of the Saxby Granite at 1527 Ma (localized growth of
andalusite, staurolite and garnet occurred away from the contact).
ing abundant migmatites and pegmatites (e.g., Mark et al.,
1998). The highest known metamorphic grades occur in the
southeast at the Osborne and Cannington Mines, where pelitic
rocks are typically migmatitic sillimanite/K-feldspar gneisses.
Metamorphic olivine and orthopyroxene occur in an ultramafic
lens at Osborne, but orthopyroxene is absent from amphibo-
lites in areas of highest metamorphic grades. Temperatures
of between 630–690 ◦ C at pressures of between 400–600 MPa
have been estimated for the peak metamorphic conditions at
the Cannington and Osborne mines (Mark et al., 1998; Kim
and Bell, 2005), with temperatures of ca. 670–700 ◦ C calcu-
lated for amphibolites from the Osborne mine (Foster, this
volume).
Calcareous units, principally the Corella Formation and its
correlatives, contain marble and calc-silicate rocks (former
dolomitic shale and siltstone), the latter commonly bearing
scapolite. Biotite and clinopyroxene zones (Fig. 1) are the most
recognizable in rocks that contain “rock-buffered” or low vari-
ance regional metamorphic assemblages. For example, unaltered
calc-silicate rocks juxtaposed against andalusite and silliman-
ite zone rocks along the Cloncurry Fault in the Snake Creek
area contain biotite zone (greenschist facies) assemblages that
include muscovite, biotite, calcite, quartz, scapolite, microcline
and accessory rutile. The juxtaposition of different grades indi-
cates that some of the movement on the fault in the Snake Creek
area took place after the metamorphic peak.
91
3.1. Metasomatic rocks
3.1.1. Albitites and associated biotite-rich schists
Albitites occur sporadically throughout the Soldiers Cap
Group, but are best developed in the Snake Creek Anticline
and the Osborne Mine (Adshead, 1995; Rubenach and Barker,
1998; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002; Rubenach, 2005). They
formed in schists and metapsammites by addition of Na and
removal of K. They are spatially related to gabbro and dolerite
bodies (now amphibolite) and/or local shear zones. In the Snake
Creek Anticline biotite-rich schists commonly formed adja-
cent to albitites (Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002). That these
albitites formed early in the deformation/metamorphism of the
region was suggested by Rubenach (2005), and is confirmed by
dating discussed in this paper. Sporadic albitite veins that tran-
sect the foliation also occur throughout the Soldiers Cap Group,
and are probably related to the late alteration associated with
igneous intrusions. Late albitization is particularly abundant in
the Corella Formation.
3.1.2. Brecciation and hydrothermal alteration, Corella
Formation
The majority of outcrops of Corella Formation in the Selwyn
Zone have been brecciated and/or hydrothermally altered (de
Jong and Williams, 1995; Mark et al., 1999). Although some of
the brecciation occurred during ductile deformation (Marshall,
2003), most breccias formed after the metamorphic peak and
are probably related to the emplacement of the Williams and
Naraku Batholiths (Mark, 1998; Mark et al., 1999; Mark and
Foster, 2000; Oliver et al., 2004; Oliver et al., this volume).
The relationships between the regional alteration and breccias
and the iron oxide-copper-gold deposits (IOCG’s) of the Eastern
Succession is discussed in Williams et al. (1999, 2001), Pollard
et al. (1998), Pollard (2001) and Oliver et al. (2004, this volume).
Common hydrothermal and breccia assemblages in the
Selwyn zone include albite, amphiboles (tremolite, actino-
lite, ferrohastingsite, rare magnesioriebeckite), quartz, calcite,
biotite, magnetite, and hematite. Although hydrothermally
altered calc-silicate rocks and marble are the dominant clasts in
the breccias, clasts of granite, gabbro and dolerite occur locally,
and in the Snake Creek area clasts of foliated quartzite, schist and
amphibolite occur in some locations close to the Cloncurry Fault.
Breccia dykes and pipes with calc-silicate and igneous clasts cut
the Soldiers Cap Group, and partly surround some granite stocks
that have intruded the Mount Norna Formation close to the Clon-
curry Fault (Oliver et al., 2004) and calc-silicate breccia dykes
with some igneous clasts locally cut granite and gabbro stocks
(Fig. 2). These observations indicate that the majority of the
hydrothermal breccias are post-D2 and that they are genetically
related to the emplacement of the igneous rocks.
4. Previous age determinations of metamorphic rocks
Most researchers in the Mount Isa Inlier have accepted the
existence of polyphase metamorphism, with the temperature
peak occurring around the D2 event. In this paper we suggest that
the temperature peaked around D2a and D2b . Table 2 summa-
92 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Table 2
Previously published age dates, Eastern Fold Belt
Sample Location Lithology Method Age Ma Reference

92220.8004 35 km N of Cannington Gneiss U–Pb, zircon 1584 ± 17 Page and Sun (1998)
Rosebud Crd-Ath U–Pb, Mnz 1570 Hand and Rubatto (2002)
Syncline Gneiss 1540 rim
Crd-And 1570
” Schist ” 1510 rim ”
” Grt schist Nd–Sm, Grt 1570 ”
Tommy Creek Grt-St schist ” 1585, 1575 ”
CAD159 Cannington Migmatitic gneiss U–Pb Mnz 1585 ± 5 Giles and Nutman (2002)
DGC96.3 ” Pegmatite ” 1585 ± 4 ”
DGC96.2 Middle Creek Anticline Meta-psammite ” 1599 ± 10 corrected ”
” ” ” ” 1630 ± 7 uncorrected ”
Osborne Mine Albitized calc-silicate U–Pb titanite 1595 ± 6 Gauthier et al. (2001)
” Albitite at pegmatite contact ” ” ”

rizes published age determinations of assemblages interpreted
as forming in the metamorphic peak across the inlier, and shows
good correspondence between the various techniques, namely
U–Pb ages for zircon and monazites using the SHRIMP, U–Pb
ages for monazite using TIMS, U–Pb ages for titanite using
TIMS, and Nd–Sm ages for garnet using TIMS. Most of the
ages range between 1570 and 1600 Ma, with the oldest from
the Selwyn Zone. The majority of published Ar–Ar ages for
hornblende, muscovite and biotite (Spikings et al., 2001) are
younger than 1500 Ma, suggesting most areas did not finally
cool below 500 ◦ C until 70–90 Ma after the peak temperature.
However, some Ar–Ar ages for hornblende and biotite from
the Eastern Fold Belt are in the range 1540–1595 Ma (Perkins
and Wyborn, 1998; Baker et al., 2001; Spikings et al., 2001),
suggesting some areas cooled through the closure temperatures
relatively early. Such pre-1500 Ar–Ar ages could be in part a
function of distances to plutonic rocks comprising the Williams
Batholith, Naraku Batholith and Maramungee Suite of granites
that intruded over the period 1500–1550 Ma. However, no such
granites have been located in the Mary Kathleen Zone where
titanite ages in the range 1526–1555 Ma have been recorded
(Oliver et al., 2004).
5. U–Pb geochronology analytical procedures and
results
an unfoliated leucogranite now consisting of albite, quartz and
biotite.
5.1.1. SHRIMP results for trondhjemite sample 536
The zircons from this sample are mostly blocky to equant
fragments of grains, with less common euhedral whole crystals
with pyramidal terminations. The grains have abundant dark to
opaque inclusions, and most are cracked or have metamict areas.
The CL images show a dominantly zoned magmatic internal
structure. However as many of the grains are fragments, it is
difficult to identify any particular core/rim relationships. The
zircons are considered to be simple zoned igneous grains.
Twenty analyses have been obtained from this sample
(Table 3). The U and Th contents are not particularly high. They
range from ∼120 to 770 ppm U and ∼40 to ∼380 ppm Th with
Th/U ratios between 0.33 and 0.75; i.e. a range that is normal
for an igneous zircon.
On a standard Wetherill concordia plot (Fig. 11), it can be seen
that many of the analyses are near to concordant, with 14 anal-
yses being less than ∼5% discordant. The discordant analyses
do not form a simple Pb loss discordia that intersects the origin.
Rather the discordia line has an upper intercept at 1686 ± 8 Ma
and lower intercept at ∼530 Ma. A consequence of this non-

5.1. SHRIMP analyses of zircons

Zircons for SHRIMP analysis were separated by standard

heavy liquid and magnetic procedures followed by hand picking.
They were mounted in epoxy resin discs with standards, polished
and then gold plated before being analysed on the SHRIMP II
ion microprobe at the Australian National University. Two sam-
ples were analysed. Sample 536 is a trondhjemite from a lens
within a sill complex of gabbro, dolerite and trondhjemite that
has been folded by the Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2). It con-
sists mainly of plagioclase and quartz, with minor altered biotite
or hornblende, and is undeformed. Sample 795 is an albitized
granite from the north-west corner of the Saxby Granite pluton
that intruded the southern part of the Snake Creek anticline. It is Fig. 11. Concordia plot of SHRIMP data, trondhjemite sample 536.
Table 3
SHRIMP data, trondhjemite sample 536

Grain. spot U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U 206 Pb* (ppm) 204 Pb/206 Pb f206 % Radiogenic ratios ρ Age (Ma) %Disc.

M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

206 Pb/238 U ± 207 Pb/235 U ± 207 Pb/206 Pb ± 206 Pb/238 U ± 207 Pb/206 Pb ±
1.1 209 122 0.58 53 0.000075 0.12 0.2948 0.0034 4.201 0.055 0.1034 0.0007 0.876 1665 17 1686 12 1
2.1 246 146 0.59 60 0.000094 0.15 0.2842 0.0032 4.001 0.051 0.1021 0.0006 0.869 1613 16 1662 12 3
3.1 275 165 0.60 70 0.000044 0.07 0.2946 0.0033 4.179 0.051 0.1029 0.0005 0.902 1664 16 1677 10 1
4.1 505 377 0.75 127 0.000044 0.07 0.2936 0.0031 4.175 0.047 0.1031 0.0004 0.937 1659 16 1681 7 1
5.1 281 177 0.63 71 0.000096 0.15 0.2933 0.0033 4.173 0.052 0.1032 0.0006 0.885 1658 16 1682 11 1
6.1 605 409 0.68 141 0.000086 0.14 0.2705 0.0028 3.809 0.043 0.1021 0.0004 0.925 1543 14 1663 8 7
7.1 240 151 0.63 51 0.000630 1.00 0.2427 0.0027 3.369 0.065 0.1007 0.0016 0.587 1401 14 1637 29 14
8.1 116 38 0.33 27 0.000092 0.14 0.2671 0.0033 3.813 0.060 0.1035 0.0010 0.785 1526 17 1688 18 10
9.1 385 244 0.63 97 0.000019 0.03 0.2944 0.0032 4.169 0.049 0.1027 0.0005 0.911 1663 16 1674 9 1
10.1 299 134 0.45 72 0.000229 0.36 0.2797 0.0031 3.916 0.053 0.1015 0.0008 0.814 1590 15 1652 15 4
11.1 427 305 0.71 107 0.000056 0.09 0.2905 0.0031 4.125 0.051 0.1030 0.0006 0.875 1644 16 1679 11 2
12.1 193 94 0.49 45 0.000217 0.34 0.2722 0.0031 3.809 0.056 0.1015 0.0009 0.787 1552 16 1651 17 6
13.1 166 85 0.51 42 – <0.01 0.2910 0.0035 4.180 0.066 0.1042 0.0011 0.762 1646 18 1700 19 3
14.1 770 132 0.17 163 0.000137 0.22 0.2459 0.0026 3.341 0.038 0.0985 0.0005 0.912 1417 13 1597 9 11
15.1 333 181 0.54 80 0.000007 0.01 0.2808 0.0030 3.988 0.047 0.1030 0.0005 0.926 1595 15 1679 8 5
16.1 311 186 0.60 79 0.000043 0.07 0.2958 0.0032 4.186 0.050 0.1027 0.0005 0.916 1670 16 1673 9 0
17.1 415 291 0.70 105 0.000055 0.09 0.2958 0.0032 4.206 0.050 0.1031 0.0005 0.913 1670 16 1681 9 1
18.1 182 92 0.51 47 0.000082 0.13 0.3018 0.0035 4.309 0.056 0.1036 0.0006 0.890 1700 19 1689 11 −1
19.1 132 44 0.33 29 0.000502 0.79 0.2562 0.0031 3.618 0.070 0.1024 0.0015 0.627 1470 16 1669 28 12
20.1 322 197 0.61 82 0.000039 0.06 0.2973 0.0032 4.210 0.050 0.1027 0.0005 0.919 1678 16 1674 9 0

Notes: (1) Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. (2) f206 % denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. (3) Correction for common Pb made using the measured 204 Pb/206 Pb ratio. (4) For %Disc., 0% denotes a
concordant analysis.

93
94 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
zero lower intercept is that any weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb
age calculation will be biased to the younger side. A weighted
mean of the 14 analyses that are ∼5% discordant or less, gives
1678 ± 5 Ma. That for those analyses that are less than ∼3%
discordant gives 1680 ± 6 Ma.
From the present data-set, the best estimate for the crystalli-
sation age of these zoned magmatic zircons is 1686 ± 8 Ma,
that derived from the upper intercept with the concordia of the
regression line fitted to all 20 analyses.
5.1.2. SHRIMP results for sample 795
The zircons from this sample are equant to elongate, euhe-
dral grains, many with pyramidal terminations. The grains are
however extremely altered, cracked and with most having dark
areas that are metamict. The CL images reveal a dominantly
simple zoned igneous internal structure, where the structure has
not been affected by strong cracking and metamictisation.
Nineteen areas have been analysed (Table 4). The U and Th
contents are considered to be only moderate to high given the
cracked and metamict nature of the zircon grains; ranging from
∼130 to ∼1480 ppm U and ∼55 to ∼1435 ppm Th with Th/U
ratios between ∼0.10 and ∼1.20.
The analysis of grain 8 is ∼55% discordant and the area
analysed interpreted to have lost significant radiogenic Pb. The
analyses of grains 6 and 16 are also discordant, ∼8 and ∼7%
respectively and these also have lost radiogenic Pb. The analy-
sis of grain 11 is reversely discordant and considered to reflect
anomalous sputtering of Pb over U due to the metamict nature
of this apparently clear grain. The remaining 15 analyses plot
close to or within analytical uncertainty of Concordia (Fig. 12).
A weighted mean of the 207 Pb/206 Pb ages has no excess scat-
ter giving 1527 ± 4 Ma and provides the best estimate for the
crystallisation age of the zoned, better preserved areas of zircon
(Fig. 13).
5.2. Superprobe analyses of monazite
Monazites from albitites and schists were analysed with a
JEOL JXA-8200 Superprobe at the Advanced Analytical Cen-
tre (AAC) at James Cook University. The analytical setup is
Fig. 12. Concordia plot of SHRIMP data, albitized Saxby Granite sample 795.
Fig. 13. Weighted mean plot of SHRIMP data, albitized Saxby Granite sample
795.
presented in Table 5. Background positions were chosen to min-
imize curvature and peak overlaps based on wavelength scans
from eight monazites of known and varied composition. Pol-
ished carbon-coated samples were analysed with a 1 to 5 micron
diameter beam at 15 kv and 200 nA.
For each analysis, phi-rho-z matrix corrections were applied
to the measured intensities of the full major and trace elements
analysed. Interference corrections of Th and Y on Pb M␣ and Th
on U M␤ were applied as in Pyle et al. (2002) Monazite from
Manangotry, Madagascar (545 ± 2 Ma; Paquette et al., 1984)
was analysed as an internal age standard three times before and
after the analytical session.
Dates were calculated for each analytical spot using the
matrix and interference-corrected concentrations of Pb, U, and
Th by solving the monazite age equation of Montel et al. (1996).
The statistical precision on each point was determined via count-
ing statistics, by calculating the relative standard deviation of
the net peak count rate of the unknown (as outlined in Pyle
et al., 2005). The concentration errors were then propagated
through the age equation, via the Monte Carlo type simula-
tion of Lisowiec (2006). Once single point dates and errors
were determined at a 2σ level, data was grouped separately
by grain, textural setting, relative intragrain BSE (backscat-
ter electron) intensity, and intragrain location (core, rim, etc.).
Weighted average dates of each intragrain group were calculated
and any groupings (i.e. light versus dark BSE or high Y versus
low Y) yielding disparate dates within 95% confidence errors
were highlighted as possible geological events. Once all realis-
tic age groups for each grain were known, age groups between
grains in similar textural settings (i.e. andalusite inclusions) were
formed, and dates from the individual analyses comprising these
groups were weighted and averaged to reduce errors on the age
of the geological event recorded in a single sample. Finally, the
individual ages from geological events common to more than
one sample were combined, weighted, and averaged to further
reduce error and present a chronology of events for the area
(Tables 6 and 7). Probability distribution histograms from sin-
gle analyses were constructed (Isoplot 3.0: Ludwig, 2004) to
identify these geological events among the monazite age popula-
Table 4
SHRIMP data, albitized Saxby Granite sample 795

Grain. spot U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U 206 Pb* (ppm) 204 Pb/206 Pb f206 % Radiogenic ratios ρ Age (Ma)

M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

206 Pb/238 U ± 207 Pb/235 U 207 Pb/206 Pb ± 206 Pb/238 U ± 207 Pb/206 Pb ±

1.1 437 644 1.47 96 0.000044 0.07 0.2546 0.0027 3.333 0.037 0.0949 0.0004 0.940 1462 14 1527 7
2.1 706 59 0.08 158 0.000094 0.15 0.2606 0.0027 3.427 0.037 0.0954 0.0004 0.942 1493 14 1536 7
3.1 163 141 0.87 39 0.000031 0.05 0.2753 0.0031 3.609 0.045 0.0951 0.0006 0.887 1568 16 1530 11
4.1 326 266 0.82 75 0.000011 0.02 0.2674 0.0028 3.503 0.040 0.0950 0.0004 0.921 1527 14 1529 8
5.1 279 244 0.88 66 0.000042 0.07 0.2753 0.0031 3.604 0.045 0.0949 0.0006 0.883 1568 15 1527 11
6.1 871 649 0.75 177 0.000044 0.07 0.2361 0.0025 3.028 0.035 0.0930 0.0005 0.893 1366 13 1488 10
7.1 833 1011 1.21 196 0.000006 0.01 0.2734 0.0030 3.559 0.041 0.0944 0.0004 0.947 1558 15 1516 7
8.1 1479 683 0.46 133 0.000310 0.51 0.1042 0.0011 1.273 0.017 0.0886 0.0007 0.790 639 6 1395 16
9.1 1077 548 0.51 242 0.000020 0.03 0.2614 0.0027 3.418 0.036 0.0948 0.0003 0.963 1497 14 1525 5
10.1 1388 381 0.27 309 0.000034 0.06 0.2593 0.0026 3.398 0.036 0.0950 0.0002 0.972 1486 14 1529 5
11.1 1206 1435 1.19 349 0.000043 0.07 0.3361 0.0034 4.558 0.048 0.0984 0.0002 0.975 1868 17 1593 4
12.1 284 223 0.78 65 0.000074 0.12 0.2653 0.0032 3.462 0.047 0.0946 0.0006 0.899 1517 16 1521 11
13.1 371 415 1.12 86 0.000053 0.09 0.2707 0.0032 3.510 0.044 0.0940 0.0005 0.924 1544 16 1509 9
14.1 130 104 0.80 29 0.000216 0.35 0.2629 0.0031 3.407 0.061 0.0940 0.0013 0.663 1505 16 1508 26
15.1 637 65 0.10 147 0.000120 0.19 0.2685 0.0034 3.512 0.060 0.0948 0.0011 0.740 1533 17 1525 22
16.1 559 579 1.04 116 0.000026 0.04 0.2413 0.0026 3.100 0.035 0.0932 0.0004 0.937 1393 13 1492 7
17.1 524 505 0.96 125 0.000024 0.04 0.2779 0.0029 3.665 0.041 0.0957 0.0003 0.946 1581 15 1541 7
18.1 841 941 1.12 199 0.000027 0.04 0.2757 0.0028 3.607 0.039 0.0949 0.0003 0.959 1570 14 1526 6
19.1 553 53 0.10 130 0.000032 0.05 0.2728 0.0029 3.567 0.040 0.0948 0.0004 0.942 1555 14 1525 7

Notes: (1) Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. (2) f206 % denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. (3) Correction for common Pb made using the measured 204 Pb/206 Pb ratio. (4) For % Disc., 0% denotes
a concordant analysis.

95
96 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Table 5
Analytical setup for superprobe analyses of monazite
Element and peak Standard Crystal −spectrometer Background −/+ (mm) Count time (s) peak/Bckgrd

PK␣ 3 CePO TAP-1 3/4 20/10

4
PbM␣ 1 PbSiO PETJ-2a 4/6 180/90
3
DyL␤ 3 DyPO LIFH-3a 1/4 40/20
4
UM␤ 1U PETJ-4 3.5/2.5 180/90
ThM␣ 2 ThO PETJ-5 2.5/3 90/45
2
YL␣ 3 YPO TAP-1 1.25/2 90/45
4
GdL␤ 3 GdPO LIFH-3a 1/1 40/20
4
CaK␣ 1 CaSiO PETJ-5 1.6/1.6 20/10
3
SiK␣ 1 PbSiO TAP-1 5/3 20/10
3
SmL␤ 3 SmPO LIFH-3a 1/1 40/20
4
SK␣ 1 BaSO PETJ-5a 6/4 30/15
4
NdL␤ 3 NdPO LIFH-3a 1/1 10/5
4
PrL␤ 3 PrPO LIFH-3a 1/1 20/10
4
CeL␣ 3 CePO LIFH-3a 3.2/3.2 10/5
4
LaL␣ 3 LaPO LIFH-3a 1.6/1.6 10/5
4

(1) Astimex, (2 Taylor, (3) Pb-free synthetic from Pyle (Rennselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA).
a Sealed Xe detectors.

tions and highlight relative abundances of analyses representing
geological events in each sample or group of samples.
The precise reactions that produced monazite in rocks from
the Selwyn Zone are unknown, as other phases rich in rare earths
were not observed in thin sections of greenschist facies equiva-
lents of the rocks analysed. Discounting those occurring along
cracks, monazite inclusions in porphyroblasts may have grown
at the same time as their hosts, or alternatively grew in previ-
ous events. In areas subjected to multiple metamorphic growth
events, monazite grains included in porphyroblasts therefore
should provide younger age limits for porphyroblast growth, and
ideally younger limits for each of a succession of events where
multiple porphyroblast growth events are distinguishable (e.g.,
andalusite in Fig. 5). Monazite in a schist matrix may provide
the age of formation of the dominant foliation, but may also
be inherited from older events, potentially the same events as
recorded in porphyroblasts. Monazite in metasedimentary rocks
may also possess detrital cores that preserve sediment source
ages.
5.2.1. Results for superprobe analyses of monazite
The results for the monazite analyses are summarized in
the following groups: muscovite schists, albitites, transitional
albitites, biotite schists, and a single sample of K-feldspar-rich
gneiss (Tables 6 and 7; Fig. 14).
Pooling all of the data, most of the monazite ages show a
spread from 1530 Ma to 1690 Ma, with a significant peak in the
range 1570–1600 Ma and another at 1630–1660 Ma. The for-
mer is consistent with published data for the metamorphic peak
(Table 2), and we propose that 1630–1690 Ma ages are related
to the widespread metasomatism (albitization and formation of
biotite-rich schists).
The muscovite schists (eight samples) show no obvious evi-
dence of metasomatism. They consist of muscovite, quartz
and biotite with varying combinations of andalusite, garnet,
staurolite, chloritoid and kyanite. The samples are from the
Snake Creek Anticline, with the exception of 482, a garnet-
chloritoid schist from the Guilded Rose area near Cloncurry
(Lewthwaite, 2000), and 96–90, a garnet schist from Fairmile
(Mares, 1998). Analyses are from the matrix unless otherwise
specified. Ignoring whether the monazite grains occur in the
matrix or as inclusions in porphyroblasts two main age groups
can be distinguished, one at ∼1630–1650 Ma and a second at
∼1570–1600 Ma. A tight group at 1470 Ma from a single mon-
azite in sample 482 was almost certainly the result of a late
hydrothermal event. The 1570–1600 Ma group is consistent with
SHRIMP monazite and zircon ages for published results for the
presumed metamorphic peak in the Selwyn Zone (Table 2). In
muscovite schists, the youngest monazite age preserved within
andalusite is 1586 ± 25 Ma (sample 442, growth zone 1), within
garnet it is 1570 ± 26 Ma (sample 436), and within kyanite it is
1578 ± 18 Ma (sample 52), all of which are in the range of the
metamorphic peak (M3 /M4 , Fig. 4). However the majority of
monazite inclusions in porphyroblasts provided ages older than
1600 Ma with a cluster at 1630–1640 Ma. The D1 (M2 ) age is
tentatively placed in the range 1600–1630 Ma (Fig. 4).
The albitite samples (Table 7) consist of albite with relatively
minor quartz and biotite. They some also contain porphyrob-
lasts such as cordierite, andalusite, garnet, staurolite, gedrite
and kyanite. In comparison with the muscovite schists, mon-
azite grains in albitites, in both porphyroblast inclusions and
in the matrix, provide a greater proportion of ages older than
1600 Ma (Table 7, Fig. 14). It is suggested that ages older
than 1630 Ma may represent the period of albitization. It is
also possible that some ages greater than 1600 Ma are mixed
albitization/metamorphic ages. As discussed above, cordierite
(M1 event, Fig. 4) was the first porphyroblastic phase to grow
in many albitites from Snake Creek, with andalusite and in
some samples garnet, staurolite and kyanite growing later. The
youngest monazite included in cordierite is 1614 ± 24 Ma (sam-
ple 490.4), while in staurolite it is 1605 ± 7 Ma (sample 284),
while monazite inclusions in andalusite and garnet provided
older ages. In addition, an age of 1580 Ma (peak metamorphic
age) is recorded in a number of monazite grains in the matrix
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
of sample 299.4. Several monazite grains in sample 400.17
record ages of over 1700 Ma, these being almost certainly detri-
tal ages as they are older than the depositional age of the Soldiers
Cap Group.
The two “transitional albitite” samples are intermediate
between more typical albitites and biotite-rich schists. In addi-
tion to albite and biotite they contain andalusite, pseudomorphed
cordierite, and, in the case of sample 430.4, minor muscovite.
Most of the monazite ages are older than 1600 Ma, with the
youngest monazite preserved in a porphyroblast (andalusite in
sample 430.4) being 1586 ± 22 Ma.
The biotite-rich schist samples consist of biotite, albite,
quartz, staurolite and garnet. Monazite ages are dominantly
less than 1600 Ma, with the youngest within staurolite at
1568 ± 8 Ma and within garnet at 1549 ± 3 Ma. The ages are
Table 6
Summary of age determinations for monazite grains analysed by superprobe
97
consistent with inclusion trails in porphyroblasts, which sug-
gest that they grew relatively late (M5 , M6 events). The
K-feldspar gneiss sample, 767, is a metasomatic rock consisting
of microcline, quartz, albite, pseudomorphed cordierite, biotite,
andalusite, sillimanite and corundum. A matrix monazite pro-
vided a group of ages 1586 Ma (i.e. peak of metamorphism),
with a single point analysis at 1637 Ma.
5.3. SHRIMP monazite results
The same polished thin section of the transitional albitite
sample 519.10 as used for microprobe analyses was gold plated
and analysed on the SHRIMP. Only grains of sizes 30 microns
or greater were analysed. The results are presented in Table 8,
together with a Wetherill plot (Fig. 15) and a probability plot
98 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Table 6 (Continued )
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107 99

Table 6 (Continued )

Fig. 14. Summary of monazite ages. The samples are grouped into the major rock types. The thickness of the each box reflects the number of grouped spot analyses,
and whether the monazite grain was located in the matrix or within a porphyroblast. Single lines represent ungrouped single analyses, and refer to matrix monazite
grains unless otherwise labelled. Compared with other rock types the albitites and transitional albitites record significantly more older ages.
100 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

Table 6 (Continued )

Grouping of ages was done mainly on the basis of geochemistry. Individual monazite grains in a sample are designated m1, m2, etc., whereas individual spots in a
monazite grain are designated 1, 2, etc. Monazite inclusions in porphyroblasts are indicated as such, otherwise the grains are from the matrix.

Table 7
List of sample numbers, locations, lithologies, compositions and grouped ages
Sample Location Rock type Composition Ages (∼, in Ma)

536 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Trondhjemite Qtz, Pl 1686 (SHRIMP, Zrn)

795 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitized granite Qtz, Pl 1527 (SHRIMP, Zrn)
773.3 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, And, Sil 1635, 1600, 1585, 1675
52.2 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Bt, And, Ky, St Grt, Ms 1575
507 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, And 1640, 1600
442.1 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, St, Grt 1590, 1630
446 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, St, Grt (And) 1580
408.3 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, Grt, St,(And) 1550
96-60 Fairmile, Fig. 1 Schist Qtz, Ms, Bt, Gt 1635, 1560
482 Guilded Rose, Fig. 1 Schist Qtz, Ms, Gt, Ctd, Chl 1480
430.4 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Transitional albitite Qtz, Ms, And, Bt, Ab, (Crd) 1615, 1640 1590
519.1 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Transitional albitite And, Ab, Qtz, Ms, Bt, (Crd) 1640, 1660, 1595
519.1 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Transitional albitite And, Ab, Qtz, Ms, Bt, (Cd) 1606, 1632, 1656 (SHRIMP Mnz)
490.4 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitite Ab, Crd, Bt 1650, 1680, 1630, 1610, 1580
Ky-ab Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitite Ab, Ky, Bt, Qtz 1680, 1645, 1710
855 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitite Ab, Crd, And, Bt Sil, Qtz, Chl, St 1680, 1650, 1610
400.17 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitite Ab, Bt, St, Grt, Qtz 1690, 1650, >1750
284.1 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Albitite Ab, St, Ged, Grt, Qtz 1640, 1605, 1670
299.4 Osborne Mine, Fig. 1 Albitite Ab, Bt, Grt, Crd Sil 1580, 1640
890.1 Osborne Mine, Fig. 1 Albitite Qtz, Bt, Ab, Sil, Ms, (And) 1640, 1675
725.2 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Biotite-rich schist Bt, Qtz, St, And, Grt 1590, 1555, 1480
722.3 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Biotite-rich schist Bt, St, Qtz, And, Grt 1615, 1590
767.1 Snake Creek, Fig. 2 Gneiss Mc, Bt, Qtz, Ab, And, Sil, Crn, (Crd) 1590
 Table 8
SHRIMP data for monazite, schist sample 519
Grain. spot U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U 206
Pb* (ppm) 204
Pb/206 Pb f206 % Total ratios Radiogenic ratios ρ Age (Ma)
238
U/206 Pb ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/235 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± % Disc.
2.1 1522 50,251 33.0 407 0.000050 0.08 3.215 0.039 0.1012 0.0004 0.3108 0.0038 4.309 0.056 0.1006 0.0005 0.936 1745 19 1634 8 −7
2.2 2140 47,253 22.1 537 0.000045 0.07 3.421 0.040 0.0997 0.0004 0.2921 0.0034 3.989 0.050 0.0991 0.0004 0.945 1652 17 1606 8 −3
1.1 1450 48,433 33.4 356 0.000028 0.04 3.496 0.042 0.0998 0.0003 0.2859 0.0034 3.919 0.050 0.0994 0.0004 0.954 1621 17 1613 7 −1
4.1 2853 30,310 10.6 704 0.000019 0.03 3.481 0.038 0.0993 0.0002 0.2872 0.0031 3.920 0.044 0.0990 0.0002 0.975 1627 16 1606 5 −1
9.1 708 47,460 67.0 188 0.000170 0.27 3.235 0.045 0.1021 0.0008 0.3083 0.0043 4.239 0.071 0.0997 0.0009 0.828 1732 21 1619 17 −7
9.2 3177 29,817 9.4 799 0.000002 0.00 3.417 0.038 0.0986 0.0002 0.2927 0.0032 3.978 0.045 0.0986 0.0002 0.977 1655 16 1597 4 −4
7.1 940 26,781 28.5 243 0.000082 0.13 3.320 0.042 0.1032 0.0004 0.3008 0.0038 4.233 0.057 0.1021 0.0005 0.931 1695 19 1662 9 −2
8.1 3345 36,155 10.8 862 0.000024 0.04 3.332 0.036 0.0999 0.0003 0.3000 0.0032 4.120 0.046 0.0996 0.0003 0.960 1691 16 1617 6 −5

M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107

3.1 780 46,919 60.1 210 0.000056 0.09 3.200 0.042 0.1026 0.0005 0.3123 0.0041 4.386 0.064 0.1019 0.0006 0.902 1752 20 1659 12 −6
5.1 879 32,048 36.4 221 0.000073 0.12 3.422 0.043 0.1022 0.0004 0.2919 0.0037 4.075 0.056 0.1012 0.0005 0.919 1651 18 1647 10 0
6.1 904 27,126 30.0 222 0.000070 0.11 3.492 0.043 0.1017 0.0004 0.2860 0.0035 3.973 0.052 0.1007 0.0004 0.940 1622 18 1638 8 1
6.2 2908 26,012 8.9 696 0.000016 0.03 3.590 0.039 0.1004 0.0004 0.2785 0.0030 3.845 0.045 0.1001 0.0004 0.937 1584 15 1627 8 3
Notes: (1) Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. (2) f206 % denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. (3) Correction for common Pb made using the measured 204 Pb/206 Pb ratio. (4) For % Disc., 0% denotes a concordant analysis.
age groups.
Fig. 16. Probability plot of SHRIMP data, schist sample 519, with interpreted

mafic sills in the Mount Norna Quartzite are of a similar age and
outcrop concerned is of a different unit. It is likely that other
Norna Quartzite is either from a younger intrusive rock or the
Foster and Austin (this volume) the 1654 Ma date for the Mount
second population of younger sills in the latter, or, as discussed in
nificantly older than the Mount Norna Quartzite and there is a
and Sun, 1998). Either the Llewellyn Creek Formation is sig-
Quartzite, but this has a published age of 1654 ± 4 Ma (Page
that it intrudes. Similar dolerite sills intrude the Mount Norna
and an upper limit for the age of the Llewellyn Creek Formation
ple 536 (1686 ± 8 Ma) provides the age for the sill as a whole,
mixing and mingling relationships with gabbro, the age of sam-

6.1. Ages of igneous rocks

6. Significance of age determinations

analyses in the range 1591–1640 Ma.

are 1631 ± 11, 1642 ± 18, and 1659 ± 7 Ma with single point
1632 ± 5, and 1656 ± 7 Ma, whereas the superprobe groupings
possible groups from the SHRIMP probability plot are 1606 ± 3,
a smaller grainsize population, the data show good agreement –
(Fig. 16). In spite of the fact that the superprobe analyses include

Fig. 15. Wetherill plot of SHRIMP data for monazite, schist sample 519.
As the trondhjemite lenses in the sill complex show magma

101
102 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
mafic igneous activity extended at to at least 1658 Ma with the
deposition of the Toole Creek Volcanics (Page and Sun, 1998).
In terms of depositional history and tectonothermal evolution
there are many similarities between the Willyama Supergroup of
the Broken Hill region and the Eastern Fold Belt, and in a recent
study Giles and Nutman (2004) indicate that mafic igneous activ-
ity peaked at 1670–1690 Ma. Albitites are also abundant in the
Willyama Supergroup.
The age for the Saxby Granite sample 795 (1527 ± 4 Ma) is
consistent with published ages of between 1520 and 1536 Ma
for other bodies of Saxby Granite and Mount Angelay Granite
further south (Mark et al., this volume). Evidence of mixing and
mingling with dolerite is quite abundant in these granites, and
there are numerous smaller individual stocks of granite (gener-
ally albitized), gabbro and dolerite along the Cloncurry Fault in
the Snake Creek area. Because of intimate relationships between
these intrusives and the albitized breccias (Fig. 2), the breccia-
tion and associated hydrothermal activity must be ca. 1527 Ma.
This age overlaps with ages of between ca. 1500 and 1538 Ma
for pre-ore and ore-related alteration and veining at the Ernest
Henry Cu–Au deposit (Mark et al., 2006b). As some bodies of
granite cut across the Cloncurry Fault, significant movement on
the latter did not occur after 1527 Ma in the Snake Creek area.
However, Pollard et al. (1998) observed that the fault cuts a more
southerly body of Saxby Granite, which has a U–Pb zircon age
of 1520 ± 8 Ma.
A further significant aspect of the Saxby Granite date is that
it places constraints on the age of the NNE-trending D4 event.
This granite is not foliated, but other bodies of Saxby Granite
(1520–1536 Ma) are weakly foliated, suggesting they proba-
bly intruded before D4 . In the northeast corner of the Saxby
Granite in the Snake Creek area, sillimanite and locally micro-
cline is found in schists only within a few metres of the granite
contact. In a schist sample collected less than 1 metre from
the granite contact, such sillimanite is intimately intergrown
with andalusite 3 (i.e. third growth stage of this porphyroblast),
which has also overgrown NNE crenulations, implying that the
granite intruded during or before the formation of D4 crenula-
tions. It is suggested that the granite intruded during D4 and
that deformation had ceased prior to final solidification. In an
outcrop of Mount Norna Quartzite on the western limb of the
Snake Creek Anticline about 1 km south of the sillimanite iso-
grad, andalusite has overgrown NNE (D4 -related) crenulations
in schist within 20 cm of the contact with a breccia pipe con-
taining albitized calc-silicate rocks. No other andalusite occurs
in schists in this vicinity, and it is proposed that fluids from
the pipe removed potassium from the muscovite in the contact
schist and that the andalusite grew during or after D4 (M5 ),
further supporting our hypothesis of overlapping timing of brec-
ciation/late albitization, emplacement of the Saxby Granite, D4
and M5 .
In summary, the 1527 Ma date for the Saxby Granite also
marks the timing of the brecciation and late albitization, is the
minimum age for movement on the Cloncurry fault in the Snake
Creek area, and flags the timing of D4 , which corresponds to the
last known porphyroblast growth event in the Isan Orogeny in
the Selwyn Zone.
6.2. Significance of monazite ages
The ca. 1570–1600 Ma monazite ages for the muscovite
schists, biotite-rich schists, K-feldspar gneiss and transitional
albitites are consistent with previous work of Page and Sun
(1998), Gauthier et al. (2001), Giles and Nutman (2002), and
Hand and Rubatto (2002), all of whom indicated that they had
probably dated the metamorphic peak of the Isan Orogeny in
the Eastern Fold Belt. The monazite grains in this group occur
in the matrix and in kyanite, garnet, and in late andalusite por-
phyroblasts. However, a group of 1630–1650 Ma ages is also
recorded in these rocks, from monazite grains in the matrix,
and as inclusions in andalusite and cordierite. This is consis-
tent with microstructural observations that cordierite and early
andalusite commonly have overgrown a bedding parallel folia-
tion or a poorly preserved foliation. In the case of cordierite, the
earliest porphyroblastic phase, the inclusions are commonly fine
grained (Fig. 6), whereas early-growth andalusite commonly
preserves coarser quartz and small poorly oriented biotite por-
phyroblasts (Fig. 5). Cordierite grew in the M1 event during
or after albitization and probably after the Dbp event, possibly
corresponding to the ∼1630–1650 Ma monazite growth. The
youngest monazite age recorded in cordierite is 1614 ± 24 Ma,
and for early growth andalusite it is 1586 ± 25 Ma. Note that
monazite inclusions should provide younger age limits for por-
phyroblastic growth. Monazite in porphyroblasts or in the matrix
may have grown in events earlier than the porphyroblast growth
or the final equilibration of the matrix.
In contrast to the schists, albitites from Snake Creek and the
Osborne Mine record many ages in the range 1640–1690 Ma, the
likely age of the earlier albitization event. Rubenach and Barker
(1998) and Rubenach and Lewthwaite (2002) proposed that this
albitization was synchronous with the main north–south defor-
mation event (D2a this paper), mainly on the basis that some
albitites occur along north–south shear zones and that early por-
phyroblasts did not contain albite inclusions. Subsequently we
have observed albite inclusions in cordierite and early andalusite
from several localities, suggesting that at least some albitiza-
tion was pre-D2 . The latter observations are consistent with the
albitite ages. Because the non-metasomatic muscovite schists
do not record the 1640–1690 Ma ages, it is suggested that the
hydrothermal fluids that produced the albitization also resulted
in monazite growth. Details of the geochemical changes during
albitization and isotope studies related to fluid sources will be
published elsewhere.
Early albitites in the Soldiers Cap Group in the Snake
Creek area show a clear spatial relationship with the gab-
bro/dolerite/trondhjemite sill complex, in addition to occurring
along shear zones and north–south lenses in the centre of the anti-
cline (Rubenach and Barker, 1998; Rubenach and Lewthwaite,
2002). Recent mapping has shown that most of the lenticular
areas are probably steep pipes that have been deformed dur-
ing D2 and other ductile events. On the basis of the association
with the sill complex, and the overlap of the 1640–1690 mon-
azite ages with the intrusion of the sill complex (1686 ± 8 Ma),
it is suggested that fluid flow was focussed along the igneous
contacts, similar to the model proposed for the development
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
of adinoles (fine grained albitites) around dolerite dykes near
Dublin, Ireland (Angus and Kanaris-Sotiriou, 1995).
It is interesting that the older group of monazites have not
been found in the biotite-rich schists, which are metasomatic
rocks that are spatially associated with and believed to be genet-
ically related to the albitites (Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002;
Rubenach, 2005). In contrast, the transitional albitites, which
compositionally lie in the gradation from albitites to biotite-rich
schists, show a 1620–1630 Ma grouping as well as younger ages.
It is possible that early monazite grains in biotite-rich schist
samples may have been destroyed in reactions that produced
relatively late garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts in these rocks.
Monazite grains as young as 1550 Ma occur in the matrix
and a garnet porphyroblast in muscovite and biotite-rich schists.
This is consistent with the microstructural arguments that por-
phyroblast growth continued at least as far as the D4 event,
which, as discussed above, was probably synchronous with the
emplacement of the Saxby Granite at 1527 Ma. The age of the D3
event in the Selwyn Zone is uncertain, but it possibly occurred
at ∼1540–1550 Ma, the age of the thermal event that corre-
sponded with the intrusion of the Maramungee granites (Page
and Sun, 1998) and Ar–Ar ages of amphiboles at the Eloise
and Osborne mines (Baker et al., 2001; Perkins and Wyborn,
1998).
7. Discussion and conclusions
7.1. Implications of deformation/metamorphism history
and P–T–t path
Our data concerning porphyroblast timing support con-
clusions of Adshead-Bell (2000), Rubenach and Lewthwaite
(2002), Rubenach (2005) and Foster and Rubenach (2006) for
multiple metamorphic growth events and for the relatively early
growth of cordierite in the Snake Creek Anticline and the Sel-
wyn Ranges areas. Such low-pressure metamorphism implies
that significant crustal shortening did not take place in any early
thrusting in these areas. However we propose that the D1 event
that produced steep east–west trending structures was not con-
fined to the north of the Snake Creek Anticline (as suggested by
Giles et al., 2006b) but was a significant regional event through-
out the Eastern Fold Belt. In higher grade rocks of the Soldiers
Cap Group, the overprinting by subsequent events has made
it difficult to recognize D1 -related structures in the field, but
they are well-preserved in porphyroblasts (e.g., Mares, 1998;
Adshead-Bell, 1998, 2000; Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002;
Sayab, 2005a,b, 2006). Significant east–west structures of simi-
lar ages have also been documented from the Georgetown Block
(Cihan et al., 2006).
Our P–T–t model for rocks around the sillimanite isograd
shows a quite complex path (Fig. 10). By late D1 to early
D2 , the early low-pressure event was followed in some schists
in the Snake Creek Anticline by growth of garnet, staurolite
and kyanite at ca. 500–600 MPa, supporting the conclusions
of Sayab (2006) based on garnet inclusion trails and THER-
MOCALC modelling of garnet core compositions. This implies
major crustal thickening had taken place by early D2a , the event
103
that produced the Snake Creek Anticline and the intense, steep
north–south foliation (S2a ). On the basis of porphyroblast inclu-
sion trails and THERMOCALC modelling we propose that the
metamorphic growth under medium pressure conditions was
followed by andalusite and sillimanite growth, implying decom-
pression to ∼400 MPa. Andalusite and sillimanite, representing
peak metamorphic conditions at the sillimanite isograd, have
overgrown both S2a and the following shallowly dipping folia-
tion, S2b . Although late-D2a growth cannot be discounted, we
suggest that D2b may have been the more significant period of
growth. To explain the decompression that followed the early
D2a kyanite growth, we suggest that the D2b event was prob-
ably extensional, in agreement with the conclusions made on
structural grounds by Bell and Hickey (1998) and Adshead-
Bell (1998). The progression from andalusite to sillimanite was
essentially isobaric.
Development of andalusite, staurolite, garnet and minor
cordierite implies low-pressure metamorphic conditions contin-
ued during the D3 and D4 events, the latter being synchronous
with the emplacement of a Saxby Granite pluton at 1527 Ma.
7.2. Igneous intrusions and albitization events
Our findings support the view that the two major metasomatic
events in the Selwyn Zone were associated with igneous intru-
sions. The 1686 ± 8 Ma age for the trondhjemite body within
the largely mafic sill complex in the Snake Creek Anticline
implies that the host Llewellyn Creek Formation, and probably
the overlying Mount Norna Quartzite, are older than previously
indicated. It is suggested that the sills were emplaced during a
period of extension that also produced the bedding-parallel foli-
ation Sbp . In contrast to adjacent “non-metasomatized” schists,
albitites in the Soldiers cap Group from the Snake Creek Anti-
cline and Osborne Mine provided an early group of monazite
ages in the range 1640–1690 Ma. It is possible that the younger
ages in this group are mixed. The albitites show a strong spa-
tial relationship with mafic sills, in addition to occurring as
(now-deformed) pipe-like bodies in the core of the Snake Creek
Anticline. It is suggested that fluids related to albitization were
focussed along igneous contacts, analogous to the Irish examples
described by Angus and Kanaris-Sotiriou (1995). Other albitites
in the core of the Snake Creek Anticline are in part associated
with shear zones (Rubenach and Lewthwaite, 2002; Rubenach,
2005) and it is suggested that the latter could have been minor
faults associated with extension that were subsequently reacti-
vated during D2a .
As indicated in a number of studies, there is a close asso-
ciation in the Selwyn Zone between the Na–Ca metasomatized
breccias in the Corella Formation and the granites and gabbros
of the Williams and Naraku batholiths (Mark et al., 2004; Oliver
et al., 2004). Most of the granites, which show magma mix-
ing/mingling relationships with mafic intrusions, were emplaced
in the range 1490–1536 Ma, and there are clear map-scale
(Fig. 2) and outcrop-scale examples demonstrating a genetic
relationship between the igneous rocks and the giant brec-
cia/metasomatic systems. The 1527 ± 4 Ma age of the albitized
Saxby granite sample from the Snake Creek Anticline is in the
104 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
range of previously published age data relating to the younger
albitization (Oliver et al., 2004; this volume).
7.3. Metamorphism and igneous activity
Our monazite age data support previously published work
indicating that the metamorphic peak (late D2a , D2b ) occurred
around 1580–1600 Ma. We also found ages in the range
1600–1630 Ma, and suggest that these may reflect the D1 event,
thus extending the time period for the commencement of the Isan
Orogeny in the Eastern Fold Belt. We also obtained imprecise
ages between 1500 and 1550 Ma that correspond to the post-peak
metamorphic growth events. In particular, the 1527 Ma Saxby
Granite intrusion was contemporaneous with andalusite and
localized sillimanite and microcline growth during the regional
D4 event, which produced steep north–east trending folds and
crenulations.
There are close similarities between the metamorphic ages
and P–T–t paths of the Selwyn Zone and the Robertson River
Metamorphics in the Georgetown Block, which is situated to
the northeast of the Mount Isa Inlier. Cihan et al. (2006) record
that an early metamorphism at 300–400 MPa at 1655 Ma was
followed by medium-pressure metamorphism (600–700 MPa)
between 1625 Ma and 1586 Ma, followed in turn by low-
pressure metamorphism from 1542 Ma to 1512 Ma.
A number of models have been proposed for particular areas
in the Mount Isa inlier to explain the thermal anomalies cor-
responding to metamorphic events. The similarities in ages of
the metamorphic peak across the inlier (e.g., Hand and Rubatto,
2002) and the overall similarities in P–T–t paths for the Sel-
wyn Zone and the Robertson River Metamorphics have regional
rather than local tectonothermal implications. Likewise, the pro-
longed nature of the metamorphism from at least 1630 Ma to at
least 1527 Ma requires explanation.
The mantle delamination model of Loosveld and Etheridge
(1990) could explain low-pressure metamorphism in a single
event, but would fail to explain the prolonged metamorphism
in the Isan Orogeny. Self-heating resulting from relatively high
values of heat producing elements (McLaren et al., 1999) would
result in long-lived thermal anomalies, but would not explain the
near contemporaneity of the metamorphic peak, as the granite
batholiths, possessing the highest values of heat producing ele-
ments, have significantly different emplacement ages across the
inlier (Foster and Rubenach, 2000). Nevertheless elevated values
of heat-producing elements are probably an important factor in
the overall thermal budget. To explain the metamorphism in the
Snake Creek Anticline, Giles et al. (2006b) proposed a model of
inheritance of elevated geothermal gradients from lithospheric
thinning and sediment loading during subsequent crustal short-
ening, but that by itself does not explain the prolonged thermal
anomaly or the widespread synchronous nature of the meta-
morphic peak across the inlier. Again, such inheritance from
periods of crustal thinning and basin formation may play a minor
role.
We propose that widespread emplacement of mafic rocks
throughout the history of development of the Mount Isa oro-
gen (e.g., Blake, 1987) is a critical factor in the tectonothermal
history. Such advective heating by magmas has been proposed
for low-pressure metamorphic belts elsewhere (e.g., De Yoreo
et al., 1991; McFarlane and Pattison, 2000). In the Mount
Isa Inlier, mafic rocks, regardless of age, are predominantly
high-Fe tholeiites. They are therefore unlikely to be direct
mantle melts but instead the magmas must have resided and
fractionated in the lower crust, producing a significant lower
crustal thermal anomaly. In the Selwyn Zone, dated periods
of mafic igneous activity include the Snake Creek sill com-
plex (1686 Ma), the Toole Creek Volcanics (1658 Ma), and the
gabbros that were emplaced with the Williams and Naraku
batholiths (1490–1536 Ma). In addition, a dolerite dyke swarm
was emplaced into the core of the Snake Creek Anticline (Fig. 2),
probably during D2 , The ages of numerous other bodies of meta-
morphosed mafic rocks in the region are uncertain, but there is
clear evidence of the emplacement of mafic rocks just before
and throughout the Isan Orogeny.
Migmatites and pegmatites are abundant throughout the
upper sillimanite and sillimanite/K-feldspar zones of the Sel-
wyn Zone. A sample of pegmatite-related metasomatic rock
and one of an albitized gneiss from the Osborne Mine each gave
U–Pb titanite ages of 1595 Ma (Gauthier et al., 2001), supporting
the structural observations that the pegmatites and migmatites
formed around the peak of metamorphism. We propose that
mafic rocks emplaced into the lower crust resulted in significant
partial melting at the peak of metamorphism, and later during the
formation of the Maramungee Granites (1545–1547 Ma) and the
Williams and Naraku batholiths. Around the metamorphic peak
when intense ductile deformation was taking place, crustal ana-
texis produced only pegmatites and small bodies of granite. It is
suggested that the rise of pegmatites and small bodies of granites
up to the level of the sillimanite zone resulted in overlying closely
spaced low-pressure isograds via conduction, analogous to the
model proposed by Miyazaki (2004) for the Higo Metamorphic
Complex in Japan. Blenkinsop et al. (this volume) discuss the
significance of the elevated gravity anomalies and the “Clon-
curry worm” in the Selwyn Zone. A likely explanation of the
elevated gravity data is the presence of large quantities of deeper
crustal mafic/ultramafic cumulates, this being consistent with
our proposed model for metamorphism in the Selwyn Zone.
7.4. Implications for exploration
Research concerning the tectonothermal evolution of the Sel-
wyn Zone provides a framework for studies directed at the
genesis of ore deposits in the Eastern Fold Belt (e.g., Oliver
et al., this volume). However, it is probably not a coincidence
that the most significant Cu–Au deposits of the Eastern Fold Belt
are situated along the Cloncurry/Osborne zone of amphibolite
facies metamorphism. Their localization is probably controlled
by structures (Blenkinsop et al., this volume), although fluids
associated with the mafic rocks (fluids directly derived from the
magmas and/or circulated by magmatic heat engines) may have
been an essential ingredient in the ore genesis (Oliver et al., this
volume). Many of the Fe-oxide Cu–Au deposits are spatially
associated with zones of albitization that generally predate ore
deposition (e.g., Mark et al., 2006a). This association with alkali
 M.J. Rubenach et al. / Precambrian Research 163 (2008) 81–107
(sodic and/or potassic) alteration is a feature of most IOCG dis-
tricts worldwide (e.g., Williams et al., 2005). The combined
EPMA monazite and SHRIMP data along with the field and
microstructural timing criteria presented in this paper, demon-
strate the temporal span of albitization events in the Selwyn
Zone, and highlight probable genetic relationships with both
older mafic intrusions (e.g., the ∼1686 Ma Snake Creek sill), and
younger felsic intrusions (e.g., the 1527 Saxby Granite). It is now
known that the IOCG deposits in the Eastern Succession include
ore depositional events (and/or major ore remobilisation) that
extend from at least ∼1600 Ma, (e.g., Osborne, Gauthier et al.,
2001) down to as young as ∼1500 Ma, although the majority
appear to overlap with the emplacement of the main Williams
and Naraku Batholiths (e.g., Perkins and Wyborn, 1998; Mark et
al., 2006b). If regional albitization and the emplacement of mafic
rocks are of genetic significance with respect to IOCG deposits
in the Eastern Fold Belt, then the data presented here (and the
geochronology of the Osborne deposit) suggest their formation
need not be restricted to the ∼1550–1500 Ma timeframe.
Acknowledgements
The Predictive Mineral Discovery Cooperative Research
Centre supported publication of the printed colour figures. The
authors would like to thank the following pmd*CRC colleagues
for numerous fruitful discussions: Tim Baker, Tom Blenkinsop,
James Cleverley, Bin Fu, Cameron Huddlestone Holmes, Roger
Mustard, Nick Oliver, and Pat Williams. Similarly, students
supervised by the first author are gratefully acknowledged: Kris
Butera (PhD in progress), Mohammad Sayab (PhD completed),
and Richard Hingst (Hons. thesis, 2002).
Tim Bell and Bill Collins (non-CRC colleagues) are thanked
for numerous stimulating discussions. Geologists from Osborne
Mines, in particular Frank Tullemans, are acknowledged for
their assistance and discussions, both before and during the
CRC. Some earlier work on gneisses, migmatites and albitites
was done for Osborne Mines in collaboration with Gregg Mor-
rison. Drs D. Pattison and P. Gow are acknowledged for their
helpful reviews.
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