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Science Skills Guide

ScienceSkill 1 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
WHMIS Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
ScienceSkill 2 Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Making Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Stating an Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Making a Prediction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Identifying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Designing a Fair Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Forming a Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
A Process for Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
ScienceSkill 3 Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Identifying the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Identifying Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Planning and Constructing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A Process for Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
ScienceSkill 4 Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Identifying the Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Gathering Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Making a Decision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
A Process for Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
ScienceSkill 5 Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results with Graphs . . . . . . . 485
Drawing a Line Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Constructing a Bar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Constructing a Circle Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Graphing on a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
ScienceSkill 6 Scientific Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Making a Scientific Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Drawing to Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
ScienceSkill 7 Estimating and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Measuring Length and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Measuring Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Measuring Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Measuring Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Measuring Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
ScienceSkill 8 Using Models in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
ScienceSkill 9 Using a Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
ScienceSkill 10 Using Your Textbook as a Study Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using Your Textbook to Read for Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using Your Textbook Visuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using the Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using the Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
ScienceSkill 11 Units of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
The Metric System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

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Science Skill 1

Safety
Safety Symbols
The following safety symbols are used in BC
Science 8 to alert you to possible dangers. Be
sure you understand each symbol used in an
activity or investigation before you begin.
Disposal Alert
This symbol appears when care must be taken
to dispose of materials properly.
Thermal Safety
This symbol appears as a reminder to use
caution when handling hot objects.
Sharp Object Safety
This symbol appears when a danger of cuts
or punctures caused by the use of sharp
objects exists.
Electrical Safety
This symbol appears when care should be
taken when using electrical equipment.
Skin Protection Safety
This symbol appears when use of caustic
chemicals might irritate the skin or when
contact with micro-organisms might
transmit infection.
Clothing Protection Safety
A lab apron should be worn when this
symbol appears.
Fire Safety
This symbol appears when care should
be taken around open flames.
Eye Safety
This symbol appears when a danger to the
eyes exists. Safety goggles should be worn
when this symbol appears.
Instant Practice—Safety Symbols
Find four of the BC Science 8 safety symbols
in activities or investigations in this
textbook. Record the page number and the
title of the investigation or activity in which
you found the symbol. What are the possible
dangers in the activity or investigation you
have identified that relate to each symbol?
WHMIS Symbols
Look carefully at the WHMIS (Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System)
safety symbols shown here. The WHMIS
symbols are used throughout Canada to
identify dangerous materials used in all
workplaces, including schools.
Make certain you understand what these
symbols mean. When you see these symbols on
containers in your classroom, at home, or in a
workplace, use safety precautions.
Compressed Gas Flammable and
Combustible Material
Oxidizing Material Corrosive Material
Poisonous and Infectious Poisonous and Infectious
Material Causing Immediate Material Causing Other
and Serious Toxic Effects Toxic Effects
Biohazardous Infectious Dangerously Reactive
Material Material
Instant Practice—WHMIS
Find any two WHMIS symbols on
containers in your school, or ask your
parent or guardian to look for WHMIS
symbols in a workplace. Record the name
of the substance on which the symbols are
used, and where you or your parent or
guardian saw the containers stored. What
dangers are associated with the substance in
each container?

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Science Skill 2

Scientific Inquiry
The rain has stopped and the Sun is out. You notice that a puddle has disappeared from the
sidewalk. What happened to that puddle of water that was here a while ago? You could probably
quickly answer that question, but how would you prove your answer? You would need to make
observations and record data.

Making Observations
First, you might observe what happens to some other puddles. You would watch them closely
until they disappeared and record what you observed.
One observation you might make is, “The puddle is almost all gone.” If you did, you would
be making a qualitative observation, an observation in which numbers are not used. A little later,
you might also say, “It took five hours for the puddle to disappear completely.” You have made a
quantitative observation, an observation that uses numbers.

Beginning your observations of water puddles Concluding your observations of water puddles

Instant Practice—Making Qualitative and Quantitative Observations

In your notebook, copy the observations below. Beside each, write “Qual” if you think it is a
qualitative observation and “Quan” if you think it is a quantitative observation.

(a) Food colouring made (d) The liquid boiled

the water blue. in 5 min.
Adding 3 mL of food The liquid took only
colouring turned a few minutes to boil.
250 mL of water blue.

(b) The water became (e) The mass of this solid is

warmer. 5 g more than that one.
The water’s temperature This solid is heavier
increased by 5°C. than that one.

(c) We needed just over (f) He drinks eight glasses

a dozen floor tiles for of water each day.
our model room. He drinks 2 L of water
We needed 14 floor tiles each day.
for our model room.

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You probably already know that evaporation Identifying Variables

is the reason that the puddles are disappearing,
but there are still lots of questions you can ask
about evaporation. Although the two puddles
were the same size, one evaporated much
more quickly than the other one did. Your
quantitative observations tell you that one
evaporated in 4 h, whereas the other one took
5 h. Your qualitative observations tell you that
the one that evaporated more quickly was in the
Sun. The one that evaporated more slowly was
in the shade. You make the same observations
about another pair of puddles. You now have a
question to ask: Does water always evaporate
more quickly in the Sun than in the shade?
Stating an Hypothesis
Now you are ready to make an hypothesis, a
statement about an idea that you can test, based
on your observations. Your test will involve
comparing two things to find the relationship
between them. You know that the Sun is a
source of thermal energy, so you might use that
knowledge to make this hypothesis: Evaporation
from natural pools of water is faster for pools in
sunlight than for pools in shade.
Making a Prediction
As you prepare to make your observations, you
can make a prediction, a forecast about what
you expect to observe. In this case, you might
predict that pools A, B, and C will dry up
more quickly than pools X, Y, and Z.
“But wait a minute,” you think, as you look
again at your recorded observations. “There
was a strong breeze blowing today. What effect
might that have had?” The breeze is one factor
that could affect evaporation. The Sun is
another factor that could affect evaporation.
Scientists think about every possible factor that
could affect tests they conduct. These factors
are called variables. It is always important to
test only one variable at a time.
You need to control your variables. This
means that you change only one at a time. The
variable that you change is called the
manipulated variable. In this case, the
manipulated variable is the condition under
which you observe the puddle (one variable
would be adding thermal energy; another
would be moving air across it).
According to your hypothesis, adding
thermal energy will change the time it takes for
the puddle to evaporate. The time in this case is
called the responding variable.
Often, experiments have a control. This is
a test that you carry out with no variables, so
that you can observe whether your
manipulated variable does indeed cause a
change. Look at the illustration below to see
some examples of variables.
(a) Find the best filter for muddy water
two layers of four layers of
cheesecloth
cheesecloth
manipulated
variable
(filter)
control responding
(no manipulated variable
variable) (clarity of water)
(b) Find the best plant food for plant-growth
responding
variable
(growth)

manipulated
variable
(plant food)
control plant plant
(no manipulated food A food B
variable)
( )D h f id i ff d i i ?

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Designing a Fair Test

Instant Practice—Doing a Fair Test
If you consider more than one variable in a
1. With a partner, examine the following
test, you are not conducting a fair test (one
illustration. In your notebook, write the
that is valid and unbiased), and your results
letters of the “puddles” you would not
will not tell you anything useful. You will not
use to set up a fair test. Explain why you
know whether the breeze or the Sun made the
would not use them.
water evaporate.

As you have been reading, a question may have

occurred to you: How is it possible to do a fair
test on puddles? How can you be sure that
they are the same size? In situations such as
this one, scientists often use models. A model
can be a mental picture, a diagram, a working
model, or even a mathematical expression. To
make sure your test is fair, you can prepare
model “puddles” that you know are all exactly
the same. Science Skill 8 gives you more
information on using models.
2. Now, you can carry out your
experiment. How many times will you
do it in order to be sure that you have
truly tested your hypothesis?
3. What kinds of errors can creep into a
test such as the one described above?
Use your sense of humour, and work
with a partner to draw some sketches
that illustrate some errors. (Make sure
they are errors that could actually
occur!)

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Forming a Conclusion A Process for Scientific Inquiry

Many investigations are much more complex One model of the scientific inquiry process is
than the one described here, and there are shown in the concept map below.
many more possibilities for error. That is why
it is so important to keep careful qualitative The Scientific Inquiry Process
and quantitative observations.
After you have collected all your data, you observations and curiosity
stimulate questions
are ready to analyze it and draw a conclusion.
A conclusion is a statement that indicates
identify the problem
whether your results support or do not support
your hypothesis. If you had hypothesized that
gather information
the addition of thermal energy would have no
effect on the evaporation of water, your results
form an hypothesis or
would not support your hypothesis. An make a prediction
hypothesis gives you a place to start and helps
you design your experiment. If your results do perform an experiment/
investigation
not support your hypothesis, you use what you
have learned in the experiment to come up
revise prediction analyze data repeat several
with a new hypothesis to test. or hypothesis times
Scientists often set up experiments without
knowing what will happen. Sometimes they draw conclusions

deliberately set out to prove that something

will not happen. prediction or hypothesis prediction or hypothesis
not supported supported
Eventually, when a hypothesis has
been thoroughly tested and nearly all communicate results
scientists agree that the results support the
hypothesis, it becomes a theory.

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Science Skill 3
Technological Problem Solving
“Technology”—what does that word make you
think of? Do you think of complicated
electronic equipment? Do you think of the
latest-model cars? Do you think of space
exploration? Well, all of those have to do with
technology, but think about this: Have you
ever used a pencil to flip something out of a
tight spot where your fingers could not reach?
Have you ever used a stone to hammer bases
or goal posts into the ground?
These, too, are examples of technology.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge,
as well as everyday experience, to solve practical
problems. You may not know why your pencil
works as a lever or the physics behind levers, but
your everyday experiences tell you how to use a
lever successfully. Often, science has a part in
technology, but not always.
Identifying the Problem
When you used that pencil to move the small
item you could not reach, you did so because
you needed to move that item. In other words,
you had identified a problem that needed to be
solved. Clearly identifying a problem is a good
first step in finding a solution. In the case of the
lever, the solution was right before your eyes, but
finding a solution is not always quite so simple.
480 MHR • Science Skill 3
Your school is soon to close for a 16-day
winter holiday. Your science class has a hamster
whose life stages the class observes. Student
volunteers will take the hamster home and care
for it over the holiday. However, there is a
three-day period when no one will be available
to feed the hamster. Leaving extra food in the
cage is not an option because the hamster will
eat it all at once. What kinds of devices could
you invent to solve this problem?
First, you need to identify the exact nature
of the problem you have to solve. You could
state it as follows:
The hamster must receive food and water
on a regular basis so that it remains healthy
over a certain period and has no
opportunity to overeat.
Identifying Criteria
Now, how will you be able to assess how well
your device works? You cannot invent a device
successfully unless you know what criteria
(standards) it must meet.
In this case, you could use the following as
your criteria:
1. Device must feed and water the hamster.
2. Hamster must be thriving at the end of the
three-day period.
3. Hamster must not appear to be “overstuffed.”
How could you come up with such a
device? On your own, you might not. If you
work with a team, however, each of you will
have useful ideas to contribute.
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Planning and Constructing
You will probably come up with something
great. Like all other scientists, though, you will
want to make use of information and devices
that others have developed. Do some research
and share your findings with your group. Can
you modify someone else’s idea? With your
group, brainstorm some possible designs. How
would they work? What materials would they
require? How difficult would they be to build?
How many parts are there that could stop
working during the three-day period? Make a
clear, labelled drawing of each design, with an
explanation of how it would work.
Examine all of your suggested designs
carefully. Which do you think would work best?
Why? Be prepared to share your choice and your
reasons with your group. Listen carefully to what
others have to say. Do you still feel yours is the
best choice, or do you want to change your
mind? When the group votes on the design that
will be built, be prepared to co-operate fully,
even if the group’s choice is not your choice.
Get your teacher’s approval of the drawing
of the design your group wants to build. Then
gather your materials and build a prototype (a
You might find, too, that your invention
always seems to fail in a particular way. Perhaps
it always leaks at a certain point where two
parts are joined. Perhaps the food and water
are not kept separate. Perhaps you notice a
more efficient way to design your device as
you watch it operate. Make any adjustments
and test them so that your device works in the
best and most efficient way possible.
Evaluating
When you are satisfied with your device, you
can demonstrate it and observe those
constructed by other groups. Evaluate each
design in terms of how well it meets the design
criteria. Think about the ideas other groups
used and why they work better than (or not as
well as) yours. What would you do differently
if you were to redesign this device?
A Process for Technological
Problem Solving
The problem-solving model you have just used
is shown here.
Solving a Technological Problem

model) of your design. Experiment with your Identify the problem.

design to answer some questions you might have
about it. For example, should the food and water Decide on design criteria.
be provided at the same time? Until you try it .

out, you may be unsure if it is possible (or even a Plan and construct:
good idea) for your invention to deliver both at • Make a sketch.
• Draw a complete plan.
the same time. Keep careful, objective records of • Build a model.

each of your tests and of any changes you make Revise Revise
to your design. the design Evaluate the plan. the
criteria. plan.

The design The product or technique The plan had

criteria were not is an excellent solution obvious
satisfactory. to the problem. flaws.

Use the product Patent the product or

or technique. technique for possible
mass production.

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Science Skill 4

Societal Decision Making

Suppose you are part of an enthusiastic mixed
hockey team that practises at an arena
belonging to a town a few kilometres away.
The town council is in the middle of budget
discussions, and one of the items under
discussion is the salting of roads. The council is
prepared to expand the salting program so that
roads in your area will be salted in winter. You
“What do you mean, damage the
and your teammates are delighted. This will
environment?” you ask. “Surely it is important
make your trip to the arena easier—and always
to make our roads safer.”
possible. There are days now when you just
cannot get there because the roads are too icy.
Gathering Information
“It is,” answers your friend, “but is there some
way we can make the roads safer without doing
so much harm to the plants at roadsides and to
the drinking water in springs and wells? I was
going to check the Internet to find information
about these questions I have written down.”
“Whew,” you say. “There is an awful lot to
Identifying the Issue think about here. Let us see what we can find
out from the Internet.”
Soon after hearing the news about the road-
“Well, we found a lot of information, but I
salting, you go to your friend’s house. You find
am still not completely convinced that salting the
your friend sitting in front of the computer,
roads could cause a problem with our water,”
composing a letter to the town council. In it,
you say. “What sorts of things do we need to
your friend is asking that the salting program not
find out in order to answer that question?”
be expanded to your area. You cannot believe
“We could do an investigation,” your
your eyes, but as you begin discussing the letter,
friend suggests. “Then I could use the results
you start to see your friend’s point of view.
in my letter to the town council.”

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Title:
Investigation STS 1 Effect of Road Salt on Water Systems
Question:
Does the addition of salt to soil affect the
surrounding water?
Manipulated Variable:
– salt
Responding Variable:
– amount of salt in water
Hypothesis:
– Water near soils that contain salt will also contain salt.
Prediction:
– If we add salt to soil, any water that drains through
that soil will contain salt.
Procedure
1.
“I guess road salt does get into the water
system,” you admit after completing your
investigation. “But we added quite a lot of salt.
I wonder if any salt stays in the soil—maybe
we could add less salt so that much less would
get into the water, and our roads would still be
safe for driving.
Let us do some more research in the
library and on the Internet, and see if we can
find out how salt leaches through soil. Maybe
we can also see what alternatives there are. We
could look for something about using less salt
on the roads—or even no salt.”
When you have all of the data that your
scientific studies can provide, your decision will
still involve some very human and personal
elements. People have strong feelings about
the social and environmental issues that affect
them. Something that seems obvious to you
might not be so obvious to another person.
Even your scientific data might not change that
person’s mind. If you are going to encourage a
group to make what you consider a good
decision, you have to find ways to persuade the
group to think as you do.
After all the data are in, and after all the
persuading is done, it is time to take some
action. The seemingly small actions done by
you and your friends can have a snowball
effect. You are very keen to show your sense of
responsibility and community spirit by getting
your ideas across to town council when one of
your friends makes you stop and think. “I have
noticed you putting a lot of salt out on your
sidewalk,” says your friend. “You could use a
bit of time and muscle power to chip away the
ice, but that is not the choice you make.” You
realize your friend is right—it is not up to the
town council or any other group to act
responsibly; it is up to you and your friends.
How easy is it for you to give up an
undemanding way of doing a task in order to
make an environmentally responsible decision?
Making a Decision
Issues rarely have easy answers. Those who are
affected have differing, valid points of view. It
is easier for you to act as an individual, but if
you can persuade a group to act, you will have
greater influence. In the issue discussed here,
you might write a letter to town council. As a
compromise, you might suggest a combination
of salt and sand on the roads. Your scientific
study can provide you with appropriate
statistics. As a group, you could attend a town
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council meeting or sign a petition to make

your views known. Instant Practice—Making Societal
Over time, you can assess the effects of Decisions
your actions: Are there fewer accidents on the 1. Describe two ways in which each of the
salted/sanded roads? Does less salt end up in following technological developments
the water than when more salt alone is used? has affected society positively:
(a) dam building
A Process for Societal Decision (b) production of supertankers
Making (c) mass production of the automobile
(d) mass production of computers
As you reached your decision, you went
(e) harnessing nuclear reactions
through various stages. Now you can think
2. Now describe two ways in which each of
about how well each stage worked and how
the above technologies has affected or
well you feel you completed each stage. If you
might affect society negatively.
look back over these pages, you will see that
3. How would you evaluate whether each
we have indeed developed a process that can
of the technologies in question 1 is
be used for decision making.
“good” or “bad” for society?
Examine the flowchart below. You can see
4. For each of the technologies in question
that you used every step in this process. As
1, record ideas you have on the kinds of
with science inquiry and technological problem
scientific knowledge that were necessary
solving, having a process to use helps you to
for its development.
focus your thinking and stay on track.
5. An issue has two or more possible
solutions, and a decision must be made
A Process for Societal Decision Making in favour of one solution over the
Identify the Issue others. In weighing the advantages and
disadvantages of the solutions, is it
Errors of judgment may have been made at any
of these steps in the decision-making process.

Gather Relevant Information important to take into account:

(a) Who benefits from the solution?
Identify All the Alternatives (b) Who is affected by the costs or
disadvantages?
Weigh Each Alternative by (c) Who proposes a solution?
Clarifying its Consequences
Why or why not?
Make a Decision
6. As a class, discuss the possible shortage
of fresh water. Identify possible solutions
Evaluate the Decision
and consider the benefits and risks of
each solution. Do the solutions involve
The decision is the One or more of the steps the use of technology? Do we have
best alternative based in the decision-making enough scientific knowledge to assess
on risks/benefits and, process were faulty.
thus, probable No action should be taken the risks attached to each solution? Is
consequences. and the process should
be repeated to ensure there a simple answer? Is there a
that the faulty steps are solution that does not interfere with
eliminated and replaced by
improved thinking. the environment at all? If so, is it a
Take Action/Communicate the Decision realistic solution?

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Science Skill 5
Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results with Graphs
In your investigations, you will collect
information, often in numerical form. To
analyze and report the information, you will
need a clear, concise way to organize and
communicate the data.
A graph is the most visual way to present
data. A graph can help you to see patterns and
relationships among the data. The type of
graph you choose depends on the type of data
you have and how you want to present it. You
will be using line graphs, bar graphs, and circle
graphs (pie charts).
Drawing a Line Graph
A line graph is used to show the relationship
between two variables. The following example
will demonstrate how to draw a line graph
from a data table.
Example
Suppose you have conducted a survey to find
out how many students in your school are
recycling drink containers. Out of 65 students
that you surveyed, 28 are recycling. To find
out if more recycling bins would encourage
students to recycle cans and bottles, you place
temporary recycling bins at three other
locations in the school. Assume that, in a
follow-up survey, you obtained the data
shown Table 1. Compare the steps in the
procedure with the graph on the next page to
learn how to make a line graph to display your
findings.
Table 1 Students Using Recycling Bins
Number of students
Number of bins using recycling bins
1 28
2 36
3 48
4 62
1. With a ruler, draw an x-axis and a y-axis
on a piece of graph paper. (The horizontal
line is the x-axis, and the vertical line is
the y-axis.)
2. To label the axes, write “Number of
recycling bins” along the x-axis and
“Number of students using recycling
bins” along the y-axis.
3. Now you have to decide what scale to
use. You are working with two numbers
(number of students, and number of
bins). You need to show how many
students use the existing bin, and how
many would recycle if there were a
second, a third, and a fourth bin. The
scale on the x-axis will go from 0 to 4.
There are 65 students, so you might want
to use intervals of 5 for the y-axis. That
means that every space on your y-axis
represents 5 students. Make a mark at
major intervals on your scale, as shown in
the graph on the next page.
4. On the x-axis, you want to make sure you
will be able to read your graph when it is
complete, so make sure your intervals are
large enough.
5. To plot your graph, gently move a pencil
up the y-axis until you reach a point
just below 30 (you are representing
28 students). Now move along the line on
the graph paper until you reach the
vertical line that represents the first
recycling bin. Place a dot at this point
(1 bin, 28 students). Repeat this process
until you have plotted all of the data for
the four bins. Now, draw a line from one
dot to the next.
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6. If it is possible, draw a line that connects
all of the points on your graph. This
might not be possible. Scientific
investigations often involve quantities that
change smoothly. On a graph, this means
that you should draw a smooth curve (or
straight line) that has the general shape
outlined by the points. This is called a
line of best fit. Such a best fit line often
passes through many of the points, but
sometimes it goes between them. Think of
the dots on your graph as clues about
where the perfect smooth curve (or
straight line) should go. A line of best fit
shows the trend of the data. It can be
extended beyond the first and last points
to indicate what might happen.
7. Give your graph a title. Based on these
data, what is the relationship between the
number of students using recycling bins
and the number of recycling bins?
Graph of Student Use of
Recycling Bins
70
60
Number of students
using recycling bins
50
40
30
20
10
0 Example
1 2 3 4
Number of
recycling bins
486 MHR • Science Skill 5
Instant Practice—Drawing a Line
Graph
Make a line graph using the following data
on the development of a fetus. The first
column represents the time since
conception, in months. Plot these values
along the x-axis. The second column is the
average length of a fetus at that stage of
development. Plot these values along the
y-axis. Be sure to include units. Give your
graph a title.
Table 2 Development of a Fetus
Time since Average
conception (months) length (cm)
1 0.6
2 3.0
3 7.5
4 18.0
5 27.0
6 31.0
7 37.0
8 43.0
9 50.0
Constructing a Bar Graph
Bar graphs help you to compare a numerical
quantity with some other category, at a glance.
The second category may or may not be a
numerical quantity. It could be places, items,
organisms, or groups, for example.
To learn how to make a bar graph to display
the data in Table 3, examine the
corresponding graph in the column next to the
table as you read the steps below. The data
show the number of days of fog recorded
during one year, at one weather station in each
of the provinces and territories.
BCS_G8_BM 5/5/06 2:43 PM Page 487

Table 3 Average Number of Days of Fog per Year in Canadian Average Number of Days of Fog per Year in
Provinces and Territories (prior to April 1, 1999) Canadian Provinces and Territories before April 1, 1999
Province Number of days of fog
250
Newfoundland 206
200

Average Number
Prince Edward Island 47

of Days of Fog
New Brunswick 106 150
Nova Scotia 127
100
Québec 85
Ontario 76 50
Manitoba 48
Saskatchewan 37
Newfoundland Manitoba
Alberta 39
Prince Edward Island Saskatchewan
British Columbia 226 New Brunswick Alberta
Yukon Territory 61 Nova Scotia British Columbia
Northwest Territories 196 Québec Yukon Territory
Ontario Northwest Territories

1. Draw your x-axis and y-axis on a sheet of

graph paper. Label the x-axis with the
Instant Practice—Drawing a
names of the provinces and territories and
Bar Graph
the y-axis with the average number of days
of fog. Construct a bar graph to display the
2. Look at the data carefully in order to select data in Table 4 showing the average
an appropriate scale. Write the scale of your heart rates of adult animals in several
y-axis on the lines. different species.
3. Decide on a width for the bars that will be Table 4 Heart Rate and Species
large enough to make the graph easy to Heart rate
read. Leave the same amount of space Species (beats per min)
between each bar. codfish (in water at 18˚C) 30
iguana (in hot sun) 90
4. Using Newfoundland and 206 as the first
duck (resting) 240
pair of data, move along the x-axis the
dog (resting) 100
width of your first bar, then go up the human (resting) 70
y-axis to 206. Use a pencil and ruler to elephant (resting) 30
draw in the first bar lightly. Repeat this white rat (resting) 350
process for the other pairs of data.
5. When you have drawn all of the bars, you
might want to colour them so that each
one stands out. If you have no colours, you
Constructing a Circle Graph
could use cross-hatching, dots, or diagonal
lines to distinguish one bar from another. A circle graph (sometimes called a pie chart)
If you are comparing two or more uses a circle divided into sections (pieces of
manipulated variables that you have plotted pie) to show the data. Each section represents
on the x-axis, you will need to make a a percent of the whole. All sections together
legend or key to explain the meaning of represent all (100%) of the data.
the colours. Write a title for your graph.

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Example 4. Draw a straight line from the centre to the

To learn how to make a circle graph from the edge of the circle. Use your protractor to
data in Table 5, study the corresponding circle measure 32° from this line. Make a mark,
graph on the right as you read the following then use your mark to draw a second line
steps. 32° from the first line.

Table 5 Birds Breeding in Canada 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for the remaining types
Number Percent Degrees in of birds.
Type of bird of species of total “piece of pie”
ducks 36 9.0 32
Species of Birds Breeding in Canada
birds of prey 19 4.8 17
shorebirds 71 17.7 64 owls
owls 14 3.5 13 shorebirds birds of prey
perching birds 180 45.0 162
other 80 20.0 72

ducks
1. Use a mathematical compass to make a
perching birds
large circle on a piece of paper. Make a dot
in the centre of the circle. other

2. Determine the percent of the total number

of species that each type of bird represents
by using the following formula.
Number of species within the type
Percent of total  Total number of species  100%
Instant Practice—Drawing a
Circle Graph
For example, the percent of all species of Make a circle graph using the following data
birds that are ducks is: on the elements in Earth’s crust. Notice
that the data are given in percent.
Percent that  36 species of ducks
 100%  9.0%
400 species Table 6 Percent of Elements in Earth’s Crust
are ducks
Percent of
Element Earth’s crust (%)
3. To determine the degrees in the “piece of aluminum 8.0
pie” that represents each type of bird, use calcium 2.4
the following formula. iron 6.0
magnesium 4.0
Degrees in Percent for a type of bird
 100%
 360° oxygen 46.0
“piece of pie” potassium 2.3
silicon 28.0
Round your answer to the nearest whole sodium 2.1
number. For example, the “piece of pie” other 1.0
for ducks is:
9.0%
Degrees for ducks  100%
 360°  32.4° or 32°

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Graphing on a Computer
Computers are a great tool for graph
preparation for the following reasons:
1. Data need only be entered once. As many
graphs as you need can then be prepared
without any more data entry.
2. Once the data are entered, you can use the
computer to manipulate them. You can
change the scale, zoom in on important
parts of the graph, graph different parts of
the data in different ways, and so on—all
without doing any calculations!
3. Computers prepare graphs far more quickly
than people working carefully.
4. Computers can be hooked up to sensors
(thermometers, timers, and such) so you
do not need to read instruments and enter
data by hand, with all the resulting
possibilities for error. The computer can
display the readings on a graph as data are
collected (in “real” time) so you can
quickly get a picture of how your
experiment is going.
5. Errors can be corrected much more easily
when working with a computer. Just
change the incorrect number and print
again. Imagine the time and effort involved
if you had to redo your graph by hand.
6. Computer graphs can be easily inserted
into written lab reports, magazine articles,
or Internet pages. It is possible to scan
hand-drawn graphs into a computer, but it
isn’t easy to do it well, and the resulting
files are very large.
7. Once data have been entered into a
computer, the computer can determine a
line of best fit and a mathematical equation
that describes the line. This helps scientists
to discover patterns in their data and make
predictions to test their inferences in a very
precise manner.
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Science Skill 6

Scientific Drawing
Have you ever used a drawing to explain Making a Scientific Drawing
something that was too difficult to explain in
Follow these steps to make a good scientific
words? A clear drawing can often assist or
drawing.
replace words in a scientific explanation.
1. Use unlined paper and a sharp pencil with
In science, drawings are especially important
an eraser.
when you are trying to explain difficult
2. Give yourself plenty of space on the paper.
concepts or describe something that contains a
You need to make sure that your drawing will
lot of detail. It is important to make scientific
be large enough to show all necessary details.
drawings clear, neat, and accurate.
You also need to allow space for labels. Labels
Examine the drawing shown below. It is
identify parts of the object you are drawing.
taken from a Grade 8 student’s lab report on
Place all of your labels to the right of your
an experiment to test the expansion of air in a
drawing, unless there are so many labels
balloon. The student’s verbal description of
that your drawing looks cluttered.
results included an explanation of how the
3. Carefully study the object that you will be
particle model can explain what happens to the
drawing. Make sure you know what you
balloon when the bottle is placed in hot water
need to include.
and in cold water. As you can see, the clear
4. Draw only what you see, and keep your
diagrams of the results can support or even
drawing simple. Do not try to indicate parts
replace many words of explanation. While your
of the object that are not visible from the
drawing itself is important, it is also important
angle you observed. If you think it is
to label it clearly. If you are comparing and
important to show another part of the object,
contrasting two objects, label each object and
do a second drawing, and indicate the angle
use labels to indicate the point of comparisons
from which each drawing is viewed.
between them.

5. Shading or colouring is not usually used in

scientific drawings. If you want to indicate
a darker area, you can use stippling (a series
of dots). You can use double lines to
indicate thick parts of the object.

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6. If you do use colour, try to be as accurate
as you can and choose colours that are as
close as possible to the colours in the
object you are observing.
7. Label your drawing carefully and
completely, using lower-case (small) letters.
Pretend you know nothing about the
object you have just observed, and think
about what you would need to know if you
were looking at it for the first time.
Remember to place all your labels to the
right of the drawing, if possible. Use a
ruler to draw a horizontal line from the
label to the part you are identifying. Make
sure that none of your label lines cross.
8. Give your drawing a title. Note: The
drawing of a human skin cell shown here is
from a Grade 8 student’s notebook. This
student used stippling to show darker
areas, horizontal label lines for the cell
parts viewed, and a title—all elements of an
excellent final drawing.
The stippling on this drawing of a human skin cell shows
that some areas are darker than others.
Drawing to Scale
In Unit 1, you will be making drawings of
objects that have been magnified using a
microscope. When you draw objects seen
through a microscope, the size of your
drawing is important. Your drawing should be
in proportion to the size of the object as the
object appears when viewed through the
microscope. This type of drawing is called a
scale drawing. A scale drawing allows you to
compare the sizes of different objects and to
estimate the actual size of the object being
viewed. Here are some steps to follow when
making scale drawings.
1. Use a mathematical compass to draw an
accurate circle in your notebook. The size
of the circle does not matter. The circle
represents the microscope’s field of view.
2. Imagine the circle is divided into four
equal sections (see the diagram below).
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw these
sections in your circle, as shown here.
3. Using low or medium power, locate an
object under the microscope. Imagine that
the field of view is also divided into four
equal sections.
4. Observe how much of the field of view is
taken up by the object. Also note the
location of the object in the field of view.
5. Draw the object in the circle. Position the
object in about the same part of the circle
as it appears in the field of view. Also, draw
the object so that it takes up about the
same amount of space within the circle as it
takes up in the field of view, as shown in
the diagram.
drawing made to scale (100x)
=
field of view under
the microscope (100x)
divided into four equal sections
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Science Skill 7

Estimating and Measuring

Estimating
Instant Practice—Estimating
How long will it take you to read this page?
1. A blue whale has a mass of about
How heavy is this textbook? What is the height
140 000 kg. Students in your class have an
of your desk? You could probably answer all of
average mass of about 60 kg. Estimate the
these questions fairly quickly by estimating —
number of students it would take to equal
making an informed judgement about a
the whale in mass. Calculate the exact
measurement. You recognize that the estimate
number to see how close your estimate was.
gives you an idea of the measure but an
2. The arctic tern is a bird that nests in the
estimate is not totally accurate.
Canadian Arctic and migrates 17 500 km
Scientists often make estimates, as well,
to the Antarctic to spend the winter. It
when exact numbers are not essential. You will
makes the trip in about 16 weeks.
find it useful to be able to estimate as
Estimate how far the tern flies in one
accurately as possible, too. For example,
week. Calculate the exact distance to see
suppose you wanted to know how many ants
how close your estimate was.
live in a local park. Counting every ant would
3. A 1 L (1000 mL) jar is filled with
be very time-consuming—and the ants would
popcorn kernels. How can you make a
be most unlikely to stay in one spot for your
good estimate of the number of
convenience! What you can do is count the
popcorn kernels in the jar?
number of ants in a typical square-metre area.
(a) Decide how you can use a 100 mL
Multiply the number of ants by the number of
container and a small number of
square metres in the total area you are
popcorn kernels to estimate the
investigating. This will give you an estimate of
number in the 1 L jar.
the total population of ants in that area.
(b) Carry out your plan.
(c) Compare your results with those of
two or three classmates.
(d) About how many popcorn kernels
will a 1 L jar hold?

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Measuring Length and Area
You can use a metre stick or a ruler to measure
short distances. These are usually marked off in
centimetres and/or millimetres. Use a ruler to
measure the length in millimetres between
points A and F, C and E, F and B, and A and
D. Convert your measurements to centimetres
and then to metres.
A B
D classroom.
C E
F
To calculate an area, you can use length
measurements. For example, for a square or a
rectangle, you can find the area by multiplying
the length by the width.
4 cm
4 cm
Area of square is 4 cm  4 cm = 16 cm2.
12 mm
18 mm
Area of rectangle is 18 mm  12 mm  216 mm2.
Make sure you always use the same units—
if you mix up centimetres and millimetres,
your calculations will be wrong. Remember to
ask yourself if your answer is reasonable (you
could make an estimate to consider this).
Instant Practice—Measuring Length
and Area
Imagine you are in charge of tiling the
floor of your classroom. How many
10 cm  10 cm tiles would you need to
cover it?
(a) First, decide what unit would be most
practical for the floor area—mm2, cm2,
or m2.
(b) Measure the length and width of your
(c) Calculate the floor area in the unit you
have selected.
(d) Calculate how many tiles you would
need to fill one unit of area.
(e) Multiply that number by the number of
these units in the floor area.
Measuring Volume
The volume of an object is the amount of space
that the object occupies. There are several ways
of measuring volume, depending on the kind
of object you want to measure. A cubic metre
is the space occupied by a 1 m  1 m  1 m
cube. This unit of volume is used to measure
large quantities, such as the volume of
concrete in a building. In this course, you are
more likely to use cubic centimetres (cm3) or
cubic millimetres (mm3) to record the volume
of an object. You can calculate the volume of a
cube by multiplying its sides. For example,
volume  1 cm  1 cm  1 cm  1 cm3.
You can calculate the volume of a rectangular
solid if you know its length, width, and height.
volume  length  width  height
If all the sides are measured in millimetres
(mm), the volume will be in cubic millimetres
(mm3). If all the sides are measured in
centimetres (cm), the volume will be in cubic
centimetres (cm3). The units for measuring the
volume of a solid are called cubic units.
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The units used to measure the volume of Similarly, the volume of a liquid can be
liquids are called capacity units. The basic measured directly, as shown in Diagram B.
unit of volume for liquids is the litre (L). In Make sure you measure to the bottom of the
this course, you also measure volume using meniscus, the slight curve where the liquid
millilitres (mL). Recall that 1 L  1000 mL. touches the sides of the container. To measure
You have probably seen capacity in litres and accurately, make sure your eye is at the same
millilitres printed on juice, milk, and soft drink level as the bottom of the meniscus.
containers.
Cubic units and capacity units are graduated
B 100
interchangeable, for example: cylinder
1 cm3  1 mL too 90
line where
1 dm3  1 L hig
h liquid
80
1 m3  1 kL touches
As you can see in Diagram A, the volume read here 70 glass
of a regularly shaped solid object can be
60
measured directly. meniscus
low 50
A too
4 cm × 4 cm × 4 cm = 64 cm3 5 cm × 6 cm × 3 cm = 90 cm3 40

4 cm 5 cm 30
liquid

3 cm Measuring the volume of a liquid

4 cm
The volume of an irregularly shaped solid
4 cm 6 cm object, however, must be measured indirectly.
This is done by determining the volume of a
Measuring the volume of a regularly shaped solid liquid it will displace, as shown below.

1 Record the volume of the

liquid.
2 Carefully lower the object into
the cylinder containing the
liquid. Record the volume again.
3 The volume of the object is
equal to the difference between
the two volumes. The equation
below the photograph shows
you how to calculate this.

1 2 3

Measuring the volume of an irregularly shaped solid

volume of object  volume of water with object  original volume of water
 85 mL  60 mL
 25 mL

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Instant Practice—Measuring Volume
1. Imagine you are cooking potatoes for
dinner. You decide to measure the
volume of a potato so that you can
figure out how much water to use.
What You Need
water
500 mL beaker
large potato
wax pencil
graduated cylinder
(a) Add water to the beaker (your
“saucepan”). How much do you
think you can add and still leave
room for the potatoes?
(b) Carefully add the potato. What is its
volume? (If your beaker does not
have millilitre markings, use a wax
pencil to mark the water levels
before and after the potato is added.
Pour out the water and use a
graduated cylinder to measure and
record the number of millilitres
between the two wax pencil marks.)
(c) Could you add a second potato of
the same size without spilling water,
or would you need to pour off some
of the water?
2. Now that you know the volume of a
potato in millilitres, what is its volume
in cubic centimetres?
Measuring Mass
Is your backpack heavier than your friend’s
backpack? It can be difficult to check by
holding a backpack in each hand. At such
times, you need a way to measure mass
accurately. The mass of an object is the
measure of the amount of material that
makes up the object. Mass is measured in
a very small car
milligrams, grams, kilograms, and tonnes.
1000 kg
You need a balance for measuring mass. A
triple beam balance is one commonly used type.
Following are the steps involved in
measuring the mass of a solid object.
1. Set the balance to zero. Do this by sliding all
three riders back to their zero points. Using
the adjusting screw, make sure the pointer
swings an equal amount above and below
the zero point at the far end of the balance.
2. Place the object on the pan. Observe what
happens to the pointer.
3. Slide the largest rider along until the
pointer is just below zero. Then move it
back one notch.
4. Repeat with the middle rider and then with
the smallest rider. Adjust the last rider until
the pointer swings equally above and below
zero again.
5. Add the readings on the three scales to find
the mass.
a medium-
sized dog
10 kg
a slice
of toast
a postage
25 g
stamp
20 mg
a grape 600 mg
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How can you find the mass of a certain
quantity of a substance, such as table salt, that
you have added to a beaker? First, find the
mass of the beaker. Next, pour the salt into the
beaker and find the mass of the beaker and salt
together. To find the mass of the salt, simply
subtract the beaker’s mass from the combined
mass of the beaker and salt.
The mass of the beaker is 160 g.
The mass of the table salt and beaker together is 230 g.
Therefore, the mass of the salt is 70 g.
496 MHR • Science Skill 7
Instant Practice—Measuring Mass
1. Which takes more “muscle” to carry:
your favourite paperback book or your
favourite portable electronic game? Find
out by using a balance to compare their
masses.
2. Write the steps you would take to find
the mass of the contents of a container
of juice.
Measuring Angles
In Unit 2, Optics, you need to be able to
measure angles using a protractor. Protractors
usually have an inner scale and an outer scale.
The scale you use depends on how you place
the protractor on an angle (symbol ⬔). Look
at the following examples to learn how to use
a protractor.
Example 1
What is the measure of ⬔XYZ?
Z
Y X
Solution
Place the centre of the protractor on point Y.
YX crosses 0° on the outer scale. YZ crosses 70°
on the outer scale. So ⬔XYZ is equal to 70°.
Example 2
Draw ⬔ABC  155°.
Solution
First, draw a straight line, AB. Place the centre
of the protractor on B and line up AB with 0°
on the inner scale. Mark C at 155° on the
inner scale. Join BC. The angle you have
drawn, ⬔ABC, is equal to 155°.
BCS_G8_BM 5/5/06 2:43 PM Page 497

is also known as absolute zero. It is equivalent

Instant Practice—Measuring Angles to 273°C, which is 273 degrees below the
1. State the measure of each of the following freezing point of water. Notice that degree
angles using the following diagram. symbols are not used with the Kelvin scale.
(a) ⬔DAE (d) ⬔HAG (g) ⬔EAH Most laboratory thermometers are marked
(b) ⬔DAG (e) ⬔GAE (h) ⬔EAF only with the Celsius scale. Because the
(c) ⬔IAH (f) ⬔DAH (i) ⬔FAI divisions on the two scales are the same size,
G
the Kelvin temperature can be found by
F
adding 273 to the Celsius reading. Thus, on
80 100 1
60
70
100
90 80
10
70
12
0
the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273 K and
0 110 60 13
50 12 0
boils at 373 K.
0 50
E 13

14
40

0
0

40
14

15
30
0

0
30
15

160
H
20
60

20

100
180 170 1

170 180
10

10 0

D I
0

2. Use a protractor to draw angles with the

following measures. Label each angle.
(a) ABC 60° (c) XYZ 10° (e) HAL 45°
(b) QRS 90° (d) JKL 32°

0
Measuring Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the thermal
energy of the particles of a substance. In the
very simplest terms, you can think of
temperature as a measure of how hot or how
cold something is. The temperature of a Tips for Using a Thermometer
material is measured with a thermometer.
When using a thermometer to measure the
For most scientific work, temperature is
temperature of a substance, here are three
measured on the Celsius scale. On this scale,
important tips to remember:
the freezing point of water is zero degrees
• Handle the thermometer extremely
(0°C), and the boiling point of water is
carefully. It is made of glass and can break
100 degrees (100°C). Between these points,
easily.
the scale is divided into 100 equal divisions.
• Do not use the thermometer as a stirring
Each division represents one degree Celsius.
rod.
On the Celsius scale, average human body
• Do not let the bulb of the thermometer
temperature is 37°C, and a typical room
touch the walls of the container.
temperature may be between 20°C and 25°C.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin
(K). Zero on the Kelvin scale (0 K) is the
coldest possible temperature. This temperature

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Science Skill 8

Using Models in Science

When you think of a model, you probably
think of a toy such as a model airplane. Is a
model airplane similar to a scientific model? If
building a model airplane helps you learn
about flight, then you can also say it is a
scientific model.
In science, a model is anything that helps
you better understand a scientific concept. A
model can be a picture, a mental image, a
structure, or even a mathematical formula.
Sometimes, you need a model because the
objects you are studying are too small to see You can learn about day and night by using a globe and a
with the unaided eye. You may have learned flashlight to model Earth and the Sun.
about the particle theory of matter, for
example, which is a model that suggests that
all matter is made of tiny, invisible particles.
On the other hand, sometimes a model is
useful because some objects are extremely
large—the planets in our solar system, for
example. In other cases, the object may be
hidden from view, like the interior of Earth or
the inside of a living organism. A mathematical The particles shown here are models representing the
model shows you how to perform a calculation. atoms and molecules of a gas.
Scientists often use models to communicate
their ideas to other scientists or to students.
They also use models to test an idea and to
find out if an hypothesis is supported. Models
assist scientists in planning new experiments in
order to learn more about the subject they are
studying. Sometimes, scientists discover so
much new information that they have to
modify their models. Examine the models in
the illustrations on this page. How can they
help you learn about science?

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Science Skill 9

Using a Microscope
The light microscope is an optical instrument
that greatly increases our powers of
observation by magnifying objects that are
usually too small to be seen with the unaided
eye. The microscope you will use is called a
compound light microscope because it uses a
series of lenses (rather than only one as in a
magnifying glass) and it uses light to view the
object.
A microscope is a delicate instrument, so
proper procedure and care must be practised.
This Science Skill reviews the skills that you
will need to use a microscope effectively.
Before you use your microscope, you need to
know the parts of a microscope and their
functions.

A. Eyepiece (or ocular lens)

You look through this part. It has a lens
that magnifies the object, usually by
10 times (10). The magnifying power
B. Tube F. Coarse focus knob
is engraved on the side of the eyepiece.
Holds the eyepiece and the Moves the tube up and down
objective lenses at the proper to bring the object into focus.
working distance from each A Use it only with the low-
other. power objective lens.

C. Revolving nosepiece G. Fine focus knob

Rotating disk holds two or
more objective lenses. Turn it
to change lenses. Each lens
clicks into place.
D. Objective lenses
Magnify the object. Each lens
has a different power of
magnification, such as 4,
10, 40. (Your microscope
may instead have 10, 40,
and 100 objective lenses.)
For convenience, the
objective lenses are referred
to as low, medium, and high
power. The magnifying power
is engraved on the side of
K. Light source
each objective lens. Be sure
you can identify each lens.
E. Arm
Connects the base and the
tube. Use the arm for
carrying the microscope.
Use with medium- and high-
B
F power magnification to bring
the object into sharper focus.
G
C H. Stage
E Supports the microscope
D slide. Stage clips hold the
slide in position. An opening
H
in the centre of the stage
J allows light from the light
source to pass through the
I slide.
K
I. Condenser lens
Directs light to the object
being viewed.
Shining a light through the object being
viewed makes it easier to see the details. J. Diaphragm
Your microscope might have a mirror Controls the amount of
instead of a light. If it does, it must be light reaching the object
adjusted to direct the light source through being viewed.
the lenses. CAUTION: Use an electric light,
not sunlight, as the light source for
focussing your mirror.

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Troubleshooting
You may encounter difficulties when using
your microscope. The following list details the
more common problems and how you can deal
with them.
• You cannot see anything. Make sure the
microscope is plugged in and the light is on.
If the microscope has no light, adjust your
mirror.
• Are you having trouble finding anything on
the slide? Be patient. Follow all of the steps
outlined in this procedure from the
beginning and make sure the object being
viewed is in the middle of the stage
opening. While watching from the side,
lower the low-power objective as far as it
will go. Then look through the ocular lens
and slowly raise the objective lens using the
coarse-adjustment knob.
• Are you having trouble focussing, or is the
image very faint? Try closing the diaphragm
slightly. Some objects that you will examine
are almost transparent. If there is too much
light, a specimen may be difficult to see or
will appear “washed out.”
• Do you see lines and specks floating across the
slide? These are probably structures in the
fluid of your eyeball that you see when you
move your eyes. Do not worry; this is
normal.
• Do you see a double image? Check that the
objective lens is properly clicked into place.
• Do you close one eye while you look through the
microscope with the other eye? You might try
keeping both eyes open. This will help
prevent eye fatigue. It also lets you sketch
an object while you are looking at it.
• Always place the part of the slide you are
interested in at the centre of the field of
view before changing to a higher-power
objective lens. When you turn to medium
and high power, you otherwise may not see
the object you were viewing under low
power.
500 MHR • Science Skill 9
Instant Practice—Drawing
A scale drawing is a drawing in which you
keep constant the proportions of what you
see through the microscope. This is
important because it allows you to compare
the sizes of different objects and helps you
form an idea of the actual size of an object.
Also, a scale drawing makes it easier to
explain what you see to someone else. Do
the following to make a scale drawing.
1. Draw a circle (the size does not matter)
in your notebook. The circle represents
the microscope’s field of view.
2. Imagine that the circle is divided into four
equal sections (see the diagram below).
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw these
sections in your circle, as shown below.
drawing made to scale
=
microscope's
field of view
3. Using low or medium power, locate a
sample from the prepared slide that
interests you. Imagine that the field of view
is also divided into four equal sections.
4. Note in what part of the field of view
the object lies and how much of the
field of view the object occupies.
5. Draw the object in the circle. Position it
so that it is in the same part of the circle
as it appears in the field of view. Draw the
object to scale. This means that it should
take up the same proportion of space on
the circle as it does in the field of view.
6. Label your drawing.
7. Estimate the size of the object in your
drawing.
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Science Skill 10
Using Your Textbook as a Study Tool
How can you use your textbook effectively to
understand science concepts better? This
Science Skill will give you strategies to help
you better understand what you read. It will
also explain how to use textbook visuals and
describe different types of graphic organizers
that can help you organize your information.
Using Your Textbook to Read for
Information
Reading a textbook is different from reading a
novel or magazine. A textbook contains many
different terms and concepts that you must
understand and apply throughout each section.
Here are several strategies to help you record
the information.
1. Before reading a section, scan the pages.
While you are scanning, look at the
pictures and try to predict what you think
the section will be about. Try to figure out
the definitions for bolded words with the
help of the Glossary or from the sentence
the bolded word is in.
2. A light brown shaded box at the beginning
of each section summarizes the key ideas
covered in the section. Read this summary.
You may not completely understand
everything in the summary at first. When
you finish working through the section,
reread this summary. If you still do not
understand something in the summary, ask
your teacher for help.
3. Rewrite the section headings and
subheadings as questions. Then look for
the answer to each question as your read.
4. When you finish reading the text under a
heading or subheading, think about what
you have just read. Then write brief notes
that explain the key ideas discussed there.
Try to do this without looking at the text.
After you make your notes, go back to the
text you have just read. Add or change
anything you have just written to help you
understand the text better.
5. As you read each section, you will
encounter Reading Checks. You should be
able to answer these questions. If you
cannot answer them correctly, go back and
review the material you just read.
Using Your Textbook Visuals
As you read each page, look at any
photographs, illustrations, or graphs that
appear on the page. Read the captions and
labels that accompany the photographs, as well
as the titles of graphs. Think about the
information each visual provides, and note
how it helps you to understand the ideas
presented in the text. For example, look closely
at the illustration on this page. What
information does it convey to you?
Water on Earth moves in an endless water cycle.
Using the Glossary
Look, as well, at any terms that are in bold
(dark, heavy) type. These terms will provide
important definitions that you will need in
order to understand and write about the
information in each topic. Make sure that you
understand these terms and how they are used.
Each boldfaced term appears in the Glossary at
the back of this book.
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Using the Review Questions
At the end of every section, you will find
review questions under the heading Check
Your Understanding. At the end of every
chapter, there are questions in the Chapter
Review. If you are unable to answer the
questions at the end of the sections and
chapters, reread the material to find the
answers. Ask your teacher to explain anything
you still do not understand.
Instant Practice — Reading for
Information
1. Go to the unit your teacher tells you
that your class will be studying next.
Scan the unit to predict the key ideas
you will be studying.
2. In the first section of the unit, use
strategies 1 and 2 on the previous page
before you read the section.
3. Read the first section of the unit using
strategies 3 and 4 to make notes.
Using Graphic Organizers
A good way to organize information you are
learning is to use a graphic organizer. One
kind of graphic organizer you will find useful is
a concept map.
appearance appearance
copper
value
value
penny nickel
502 MHR • Science Skill 10
Concept Map
A concept map is a diagram that represents
visually how ideas are related. Because the
concept map shows the relationships among
concepts, it can clarify the meaning of the
ideas and terms and help you to understand
what you are studying.
Study the construction of the concept map
below. Notice how some words are enclosed
while others are written on connecting lines.
The enclosed words are ideas or terms called
concepts. The lines in the map show related
concepts, and the words written on them
describe relationships between the concepts.
As you learn more about a topic, your
concept map will grow and change. Concept
maps are just another tool for you to use.
There is no single “correct” concept map, only
the connections that make sense to you. Make
your map as neat and clear as possible and
make sure you have good reasons for
suggesting the connections between its parts.
When you have completed the concept map,
you may have dozens of interesting ideas. Your
map is a record of your thinking. Although it
may contain many of the same concepts as other
students’ maps, your ideas may be recorded and
linked differently. You can use your map for
study and review. You can refer to it to help you
recall concepts and relationships. At a later date,
you can use your map to see what you have
learned and how your ideas have changed.
CANADIAN COINS
appearance appearance
silver
silver gold
and gold
value value
value value
one-dollar two-dollar
dime quarter coin
coin
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Flowchart
A flowchart describes ideas in order. In science
a flowchart can be used to describe a sequence
of events, the steps in a procedure, or the
stages of a process. When making a flowchart,
you must first find the one event that starts the
sequence. This event is called the initiating
event. You then find the next event and
continue until you reach an outcome. Here is a
flowchart showing how an animal fossil may be
formed.
An animal dies.
Scavengers consume most of the body.
Bacteria cause soft parts to decay.
A solution of water and quartz flows through the bones.
The water dissolves the calcium in the bones.
The quartz takes the place of the calcium.
solid
Changes in
liquid the state liquid
of water
gas
Spider Map
A spider map is a concept map that you may
find useful for brainstorming. You may, for
example, have a central idea and a jumble of
associated concepts, but they may not
necessarily be related to each other. By placing
these associated ideas outside the main
concept, you can begin to group these ideas so
that their relationships become easier to
understand. Examine the following spider map
of the geological time scale to see how various
concepts related to this time scale may be
grouped to provide clearer understanding.

A hard, rocklike fossil is formed. 1st time span 2nd time span

trilobites,
bacteria

ic
Pre

brachiopods

o
oz
ca

A cycle chart is a special type of flowchart.

le
mb

Pa
Appalachian
ri

In a cycle chart, the series of events do not few rocks

an

Mountains
produce a final outcome. This type of chart has GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
no beginning and no end.
Rocky
To construct a cycle chart, you first decide ice ages
ic

Mountains
zo

Me
no

on a starting point and then list each

so
Ce

zo

age of mammals age of dinosaurs

important event in order. Since there is no
ic

outcome and the last event relates back to the 4th time span 3rd time span
first event, the cycle repeats itself. Look at the
cycle chart in the next column, which shows
changes in the state of water.

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Venn Diagram
Comparing and contrasting is another way to
help solidify your learning. When you
compare, you look for similarities between two
concepts or objects. When you contrast, you
look for differences. You can do this by listing
ways in which two things are similar and ways
in which they are different. You can also use a
graphic organizer called a Venn diagram to do
this, using two circles.
Differences Similarities Differences
Example
Instant Practice—Using Graphic
Organizers
1. Use the following words to produce a
concept map: music for listening, music
for dancing, rap, classical, rhythm and
blues, favourite CDs, rock, folk.
2. Make a Venn diagram to compare and
contrast chocolate chip cookies with
oatmeal cookies.
3. Produce a a flowchart that starts with
the buzzing of your clock radio and
ends with your sitting at your desk as
school begins.
4. Design a spider map to represent
different means of transportation.

Plants Animals
• make their • living • must find food
own food • made • move from
• remain in of cells place to place
one place

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Science Skill 11

Units of Measurement
Throughout history, people have developed Commonly Used Metric Prefixes
systems of numbering and measurement. In Prefixes Symbol Relationship to the base unit
time, when different groups of people began giga- G 109 = 1 000 000 000
to communicate with each other, they mega- M 106 = 1 000 000
discovered that their systems and units of kilo- k 103 = 1 000
measurement were different. Groups within hecto- h 102 = 100
societies created their own unique systems of deca- da 101 = 10
– – 100 = 1
measurement.
deci- d 10–1 = 0.1
Today, scientists around the world use the
centi- c 10–2 = 0.01
metric system of numbers and units. The
milli- m 10–3 = 0.001
metric system is the official system of ␮
micro- 10–6 = 0.000 001
measurement in Canada. nano- n 10–9 = 0.000 000 001

The Metric System

Example 1
The metric system is based on multiples of
The distance from Halifax to Winnipeg is
10. For example, the basic unit of length is the
3538 km Express this distance in metres.
metre. All larger units of length are expressed
in units based on metres multiplied by 10,
100, 1000, or more. Smaller units of length Solution
are expressed in units based on metres divided 3538 km ⫽ ? m
by 10, 100, 1000, or more. 1 km ⫽ 1000 m
Each multiple of 10 has its own prefix (a 3538 km ⫽ 3538 ⫻ 1000 m
word joined to the beginning of another ⫽ 3 538 000 m
word). For example, kilo- means multiplied by
1000. Thus, one kilometre is 1000 metres.
Example 2
1 km ⫽ 1000 m There are 250 g of cereal in a package. Express
this mass in kilograms.
The prefix milli- means divided by 1000.
Thus, one millimetre is one one-thousandth of Solution
a metre. 1000 g ⫽ 1 kg
1 250 g ⫻ 4 ⫽ 1000 g
1 mm ⫽ 1000 m
1000
4
g ⫽ 250 g
In the metric system, the same prefixes are 1 kg ⫽ 0.25 kg
used for nearly all types of measure, such as 4
mass, weight, area, and energy. A table of the
The next table lists most of the frequently used
most common metric prefixes is given at the
metric quantities you will encounter in your
top of the next column.
science classes.

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Frequently Used Scientific Quantities, Units, and Symbols SI Units

Quantity Unit Symbol In science classes, you will often be instructed
length nanometre nm to report your measurements and answers in SI
micrometre m
millimetre mm units. The term SI is taken from the French
centimetre cm name Le Système international d’unités. In SI,
metre m
the unit of mass is the kilogram, the unit of
kilometre km
mass gram g
length is the metre, the unit of time is the
kilogram kg second, the unit of temperature is the Kelvin,
tonne t and the unit of electric current is the ampere.
area square centimetre cm2 Nearly all other units are defined as
square metre m2
hectare ha combinations of these units.
volume cubic centimetre cm3
Example 1
cubic metre m3
millilitre mL Convert 527 cm to SI units.
litre L
time second s Solution
temperature degree Celsius ˚C The SI unit of length is the metre.
force newton N 1 m  100 cm
energy joule J
527 cm × 1 m = 5.27 m
kilojoule kJ
100 cm
pressure pascal Pa
kilopascal kPa Example 2
electric current ampere A
Convert 3.2 h to SI units.
quantity of coulomb C
electric charge Solution
frequency hertz Hz
The SI unit of time is the second.
power watt W
1 min  60 s; 1 h  60 min
3.2 h × 60 min × 60 s = 11 520 s
Instant Practice—Using Metric h 1 min
Measurements
1. A box is 35 cm wide. Express the width
in metres. Instant Practice – Converting to
2. You ride your bicycle 1.4 km to school. SI Units
Express the distance in metres. Convert the following quantities to SI units.
3. A teaspoon of water has a mass of 5.0 g. 1. 52 km 5. 537 891 cm
Express the mass in milligrams. 2. 43 min 6. 1.75 h
4. There are 600 mL of soft drink in a 3. 8.63 g 7. 16 Mg (megagrams)
bottle. Express the volume in litres. 4. 45 973 mm 8. 100 km/h
5. A glass of water contains 32 µg of sulfur.
Express the mass in grams.
6. A student added 0.0055 L of cleaning
solution to some water. Express the
volume in mL.

506 MHR • Science Skill 11